Grace in Christianity
43 languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the prayer before meals, see Grace (prayer).
A series of articles on
Grace in Christianity
====
Part of a series on the
Attributes of God
in Christianity
In Western Christian theology, grace is created by God who gives it as help to one because God desires one to have it, not necessarily because of anything one has done to earn it.[1]
It is understood by Western Christians to be a spontaneous gift from God to people – "generous, free and totally unexpected and undeserved"[2] – that takes the form of divine favor, love, clemency, and a share in the divine life of God.[3] In the Eastern Orthodox Church, grace is the uncreated Energies of God. Among Eastern Christians generally, grace is considered to be the partaking of the Divine Nature described in 2 Peter 1:4[4] and grace is the working of God himself, not a created substance of any kind that can be treated like a commodity.[5][6]
As an attribute of God it manifests most in the salvation of sinners and Western Christianity holds that the initiative in the relationship of grace between God and an individual is always on the side of God.
The question of the means of grace has been called "the watershed that divides Catholicism from Protestantism, Calvinism from Arminianism, modern theological liberalism from theological conservatism."[7]
As an attribute of God it manifests most in the salvation of sinners and Western Christianity holds that the initiative in the relationship of grace between God and an individual is always on the side of God.
The question of the means of grace has been called "the watershed that divides Catholicism from Protestantism, Calvinism from Arminianism, modern theological liberalism from theological conservatism."[7]
The Catholic Church holds that it is because of the action of Christ and the Holy Spirit in transforming into the divine life what is subjected to God's power that "the sacraments confer the grace they signify": "the power of Christ and his Spirit acts in and through [each sacrament], independently of the personal holiness of the minister. Nevertheless, the fruits of the sacraments also depend on the disposition of the one who receives them."[8][9] The Sacred Mysteries (sacraments) are seen as a means of partaking of divine grace because God works through his Church.
Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Protestants agree that faith is a gift from God, as in Ephesians 2:8: "For by grace you have been saved through faith, and that not of yourselves; it is the gift of God." Lutherans hold that the means of grace are "the gospel in Word and sacraments."[10][11] That the sacraments are means of grace is also the teaching of John Wesley,[12] who described the Eucharist as "the grand channel whereby the grace of his Spirit was conveyed to the souls of all the children of God".[13]
Calvinists emphasize "the utter helplessness of people apart from grace." But God reaches out with "first grace" or "prevenient grace". The Calvinist doctrine known as irresistible grace states that, since all persons are by nature spiritually dead, no one desires to accept this grace until God spiritually enlivens them by means of regeneration. God regenerates only individuals whom he has predestined to salvation. Arminians understand the grace of God as cooperating with one's free will in order to bring an individual to salvation. According to Evangelical theologian Charles C. Ryrie, modern liberal theology "gives an exaggerated place to the abilities of people to decide their own fate and to effect their own salvation entirely apart from God's grace."[7]
Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Protestants agree that faith is a gift from God, as in Ephesians 2:8: "For by grace you have been saved through faith, and that not of yourselves; it is the gift of God." Lutherans hold that the means of grace are "the gospel in Word and sacraments."[10][11] That the sacraments are means of grace is also the teaching of John Wesley,[12] who described the Eucharist as "the grand channel whereby the grace of his Spirit was conveyed to the souls of all the children of God".[13]
Calvinists emphasize "the utter helplessness of people apart from grace." But God reaches out with "first grace" or "prevenient grace". The Calvinist doctrine known as irresistible grace states that, since all persons are by nature spiritually dead, no one desires to accept this grace until God spiritually enlivens them by means of regeneration. God regenerates only individuals whom he has predestined to salvation. Arminians understand the grace of God as cooperating with one's free will in order to bring an individual to salvation. According to Evangelical theologian Charles C. Ryrie, modern liberal theology "gives an exaggerated place to the abilities of people to decide their own fate and to effect their own salvation entirely apart from God's grace."[7]
Old and New Testaments of the Christian Bible[edit]
Grace is the English translation of the Greek χάρις (charis) meaning "that which brings delight, joy, happiness, or good fortune."[14]
Old Testament[edit]
The Septuagint translates as χάρις the Hebrew word חֵ֖ן (ẖen) as found in Genesis 6:8[15] to describe why God saved Noah from the flood.[14] The Old Testament use of the word includes the concept that those showing favor do gracious deeds, or acts of grace, such as being kind to the poor and showing generosity.[14] Descriptions of God's graciousness abound in the Torah/Pentateuch, for example in Deuteronomy 7:8[16] and Numbers 6:24–27.[17] In the Psalms, examples of God's grace include teaching the Law (Psalm 119:29)[18] and answering prayers (Psalm 27:7).[19][14] Another example of God's grace appears in Psalm 85, a prayer for restoration, forgiveness, and the grace and mercy of God to bring about new life following the Exile.
Roman Catholicism[edit]
In the definition of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, "grace is favour, the free and undeserved help that God gives us to respond to his call to become children of God, adoptive sons, partakers of the divine nature and of eternal life".[20] Grace is a participation in the life of God, which is poured unearned into human beings, whom it heals of sin and sanctifies.[20]
The means by which God grants grace are many.[21] They include the entirety of revealed truth, the sacraments and the hierarchical ministry.[21][22] Among the principal means of grace are the sacraments (especially the Eucharist), prayers and good works.[23][24] The sacramentals also are means of grace.[25] The sacraments themselves, not the persons who administer or those who receive them, are "the means of grace",[26] although lack of the required dispositions on the part of the recipient will block the effectiveness of the sacrament.[27]
The Catholic Church holds that "by grace alone, in faith in Christ's saving work and not because of any merit on our part, we are accepted by God and receive the Holy Spirit, who renews our hearts while equipping and calling us to good works."[28][29] Both the Council of Orange (529) and the Council of Trent affirmed that we are "justified gratuitously, because none of the things that precede justification, whether faith or works, merit the grace of justification".[30]
The Council of Trent declared that the free will of man, moved and excited by God, can by its consent co-operate with God, who excites and invites its action; and that it can thereby dispose and prepare itself to obtain the grace of justification. The will can resist grace if it chooses. It is not like a lifeless thing, which remains purely passive. Weakened and diminished by Adam's fall, free will is yet not destroyed in the race (Sess. VI, cap. i and v).[31]
The joint declaration between Catholics and Lutherans on the doctrine of justification affirms:
We confess together that all persons depend completely on the saving grace of God for their salvation. Justification takes place solely by God's grace. When Catholics say that persons "cooperate" in preparing for and accepting justification by consenting to God's justifying action, they see such personal consent as itself an effect of grace, not as an action arising from innate human abilities.[32]
— Pontifical Councils, The Vatican, Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification
Sanctifying and actual grace[edit]
According to a commonly accepted categorization, made by St. Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologiae, grace can be given either to make the person receiving it pleasing to God (gratia gratum faciens) – so that the person is sanctified and justified – or else to help the receiver lead someone else to God (gratia gratis data).[33][a] The former type of grace, gratia gratum faciens, in turn, can be described as sanctifying (or habitual) grace – when it refers to the divine life which, according to the Church, infuses a person's soul once they are justified; or else as actual grace – when it refers to those punctual (not habitual) helps that are directed to the production of sanctifying grace where it does not already exist, or its maintenance and increase it where it is already present. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church:
Sanctifying grace is an habitual gift, a stable and supernatural disposition that perfects the soul itself to enable it to live with God, to act by his love. Habitual grace, the permanent disposition to live and act in keeping with God's call, is distinguished from actual graces which refer to God's interventions, whether at the beginning of conversion or in the course of the work of sanctification.[34]
— Catechism of the Catholic Church
The infusion of sanctifying grace, says the Church, transforms a sinner into a holy child of God, and in this way a person participates in the Divine Sonship of Jesus Christ and receives the indwelling of the Holy Spirit.[35] Sanctifying grace remains permanently in the soul as long as one does not reject one's adopted sonship by committing a mortal sin, which severs one's friendship with God. Less serious sins, venial sin, although they "allow charity to subsist, they offend and wound it."[36] However, God is infinitely merciful, and sanctifying grace can always be restored to the penitent heart, normatively in the Sacrament of Reconciliation (or Sacrament of Penance).[37]
Augustine versus Pelagius[edit]
See also: Pelagius § Evaluation
In the early 5th century, Pelagius, an ascetic who is said to have come from Britain,[38] was concerned about the moral laxity of society that he witnessed in Rome. He blamed this laxity on the theology of divine grace preached by Augustine of Hippo, among others.[39] He strongly affirmed that humans had free will and were able to choose good as well as evil. Augustine, drawing on the exaggerated statements of the followers of Pelagius rather than on Pelagius' own writings,[40] began a debate that was to have long-reaching effects on subsequent developments of the doctrine in Western Christianity. Pelagianism was repudiated by the Council of Carthage in 418, largely at Augustine's insistence. However, what Pelagius taught was likely what has come to be called semi-pelagianism.[41]
In semi-Pelagian thought, both God and the human person always participate in the salvation process. Humans make free will choices, which are aided by God through creation, natural grace, "supernatural" grace, and God's restrictions on demonic influences. God continually brings the human person to real choices, which God also aids, in the process of spiritual growth and salvation. Semi-Pelagianism is similar to synergism, which is the traditional patristic doctrine. John Cassian, in continuity with patristic doctrine, taught that though grace is required for persons to save themselves at the beginning, there is no such thing as total depravity, but there remains a moral or noetic ability within humans that is unaffected by original sin, and that persons must work together (synergism) with divine grace to be saved.[42] This position is held by the Eastern Orthodox Church and by many Reformed Protestants,[43][44] and in the Catholic Church has been especially associated with the Society of Jesus.[45][46]
Catholic versus Protestant[edit]
In 1547, the Council of Trent, which sought to address and condemn Protestant objections, aimed to purge the Roman Catholic Church of controversial movements and establish an orthodox Roman Catholic teaching on grace and justification, as distinguished from the Protestant teachings on those concepts. It taught that justification and sanctification are elements of the same process.[47] The grace of justification is bestowed through the merit of Christ's passion,[48] without any merits on the part of the person justified, who is enabled to cooperate only through the grace of God.[48] The grace of justification may be lost through mortal sin, but can also be restored by the sacrament of Penance.[48] The sacraments are, together with revealed truth, the principal means of the grace, a treasury of grace, that Christ has merited by his life and death and has given to the Church.[22] This does not mean that other groups of Christians have no treasury of grace at their disposal,[49] for, as the Second Vatican Council declared, "many elements of sanctification and of truth are found outside of (the Catholic Church's) visible structure".[50]
Jansenists versus Jesuits[edit]
At about the same time that Calvinists and Arminians were debating the meaning of grace in Protestantism, in Catholicism a similar debate was taking place between the Jansenists and the Jesuits. Cornelius Jansen's 1640 work Augustinus sought to refocus Catholic theology on the themes of original sin, human depravity, the necessity of divine grace, and predestination, as he found them in the works of Augustine. The Jansenists, like the Puritans, believed themselves to be members of a gathered church called out of worldly society, and banded together in institutions like the Port-Royal convents seeking to lead lives of greater spiritual intensity. Blaise Pascal attacked what he called moral laxity in the casuistry of the Jesuits. Jansenist theology remained a minority party within Catholicism, and during the second half of the 17th and 18th centuries it was condemned as a heresy for its similarities to Calvinism, though its style remained influential in ascetic circles.
Grace and merit[edit]
Citing the Council of Trent, the Catechism of the Catholic Church states:
With regard to God, there is no strict right to any merit on the part of man. Between God and us there is an immeasurable inequality, for we have received everything from him, our Creator. The merit of man before God in the Christian life arises from the fact that God has freely chosen to associate man with the work of his grace. The fatherly action of God is first on his own initiative, and then follows man's free acting through his collaboration, so that the merit of good works is to be attributed in the first place to the grace of God, then to the faithful. Man's merit, moreover, itself is due to God, for his good actions proceed in Christ, from the predispositions and assistance given by the Holy Spirit. [...] The charity of Christ is the source in us of all our merits before God. Grace, by uniting us to Christ in active love, ensures the supernatural quality of our acts and consequently their merit before God and before men. The saints have always had a lively awareness that their merits were pure grace.[51]
— Catechism of the Catholic Church
Eastern Christianity[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2022)
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, grace is identified with the uncreated Energies of God. Among Eastern Christians generally, grace is considered to be the partaking of the Divine Nature described in 2 Peter 1:4.[4] The Holy Mysteries (Latin, "sacraments") are seen as a means of partaking of divine grace because God works through his Church, not just because specific legalistic rules are followed; and grace is the working of God himself, not a created substance of any kind that can be treated like a commodity.[5][6]
Orthodox theologians reject Augustine's formulation of original sin and actively oppose the content and implications of John Calvin's conceptions of total depravity and irresistible grace, characteristic of Reformed Protestantism, as well as the Thomistic and scholastic theology which would become official Roman Catholic pedagogy until the Second Vatican Council. Eastern Christians typically view scholasticism and similarly discursive, systematic theologies as rationalistic corruptions of the theology of the Cappadocian and early Desert Fathers that led the Western Church astray into heresy.[52] Orthodoxy teaches that it is possible and necessary for the human will to cooperate with divine grace for the individual to be saved, or healed from the disease of sin. This cooperation is called synergism (see also semipelagianism and monergism), so that humans may become deified in conformity to the divine likeness – a process called theosis – by merging with the uncreated Energies of God (revealed to the senses as the Tabor Light of transfiguration), notably through a method of prayer called hesychasm.[5][53]
Protestant Reformation[edit]
The Protestant Reformation reacted against the concepts of grace and merit as they were understood in late medieval Catholic theology.
Luther and Lutheran theology[edit]
Martin Luther's posting of his ninety-five theses to the church door in Wittenberg in 1517 was a direct consequence of the perfunctory sacramentalism and treasury doctrines of the medieval church. The act was precipitated by the arrival of Johann Tetzel, authorized by the Vatican to sell indulgences.
The effectiveness of these indulgences was predicated on the doctrine of the treasury of grace proclaimed by Pope Clement VI. The theory was that merit earned by acts of piety could augment the believer's store of sanctifying grace. Gifts to the Church were acts of piety. The Church, moreover, had a treasury full of grace above and beyond what was needed to get its faithful into heaven. The Church was willing to part with some of its surplus in exchange for earthly gold. Martin Luther's anger against this practice, which seemed to him to involve the purchase of salvation, began a swing of the pendulum back towards the Pauline vision of grace, as opposed to James's.
Luther taught that men were helpless and without a plea before God's justice, and their acts of piety were utterly inadequate before his infinite holiness. Were God only just, and not merciful, everyone would go to hell, because everyone, even the best of mankind, deserves to go to hell. Mankind's inability to achieve salvation by its own effort suggests that even the best intentions are somehow tainted by mankind's sinful nature. This doctrine is sometimes called total depravity, a term derived from Calvinism and its relatives.
It is by faith alone (sola fide) and by grace alone (sola gratia) that men are saved. Good works are something the believers should undertake out of gratitude towards their Savior; but they are not sufficient for salvation and cannot earn anyone salvation; there is no room for the notion of "merit" in Luther's doctrine of redemption. (There may, however, be degrees of reward for the redeemed in heaven.) Only the unearned, unmerited grace of God can save anyone. No one can have a claim of entitlement to God's grace, and it is only by his generosity that salvation is even possible.
As opposed to the treasury of grace from which believers can make withdrawals, in Lutheranism salvation becomes a declaration of spiritual bankruptcy, in which penitents acknowledge the inadequacy of their own resources and trust only in God to save them. Accepting Augustine's concern for legal justification as the base metaphor for salvation, the believers are not so much made righteous in Lutheranism as they are considered covered by Christ's righteousness. Acknowledging that they have no power to make themselves righteous, the penalty for their sins is discharged because Jesus has already paid for it with his blood. His righteousness is credited to those who believe in and thus belong to him.
Calvin and Reformed theology[edit]
Calvin and Luther believed free will does not co-operate with God's grace which, according to them, cannot be rejected (see monergism). The Lutheran Augsburg Confession says of baptism, "Lutherans teach that it is necessary to salvation and that by baptism the grace of God is offered and that children are to be baptized, who by baptism, being offered to God, are received into God's favor."[54] The French reformer John Calvin expanded and further developed these Augustinian themes in his systematic Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536.
The logical structure of Calvinism is often expressed as the acronym, TULIP. These five categories do not comprise Calvinism in its entirety; they simply encapsulate its central, definitive doctrines.[55]Total depravity (also known as total inability, which is inexorably tied to a strong doctrine of original sin as having completely enslaved the human will)
Unconditional election
Limited Atonement (also known as definite atonement or particular redemption)
Irresistible Grace
Perseverance of the Saints (colloquially known as "once saved, always saved" or, as interpreted a distinct way among Reformed or Strict Baptists as well as non-Calvinist General Baptists, eternal security)
The notion that God has foreordained who will be saved is generally called predestination. The concept of predestination peculiar to Calvinism, "double-predestination", (in conjunction with limited atonement) is the most controversial expression of the doctrine. According to Reformed theology, the "good news" of the gospel of Christ is that God has freely granted the gift of salvation to those the Holy Spirit causes to believe; what he freely grants to some (the "elect" individuals), he withholds from others (the "reprobate" individuals).
Calvin sought to provide assurance to the faithful that God would actually save them. His teaching implied what came to be known as the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints, the notion that God would actually save those who were his Elect. The actual status and ultimate state of any man's soul were unknown except to God. When assurance of election was rigorously pressed as an experience to be sought, especially by the Puritans, this led to a legalism as rigid as the one Protestantism sought to reject, as men were eager to demonstrate that they were among the chosen by the conspicuous works-righteousness of their lives.
The relatively radical positions of Reformed theology provoked a strong reaction from both Roman Catholics and Lutherans.
Classical and Wesleyan Arminian theology[edit]
In the beginning of the 17th century, the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius formulated Arminianism and departed from Calvin's theology in particular on election and predestination.[56] Arminianism affirms the compatibility between human free will and divine foreknowledge, and its incompatibility with theological determinism.[57] Predestination in Arminianism is based on divine foreknowledge, unlike in Calvinism.[58] Thus, the offer of salvation through grace does not act irresistibly in a purely cause-effect, deterministic method but rather in an influence-and-response fashion that can be both freely accepted and freely denied.[59] In Arminianism, God takes initiative in the salvation process and his grace comes to all people. This is done through prevenient grace which acts on all people to convince them of the Gospel, draw them strongly towards salvation, and enable the possibility of sincere faith.[60] As Roger Olson put it: "[Arminius]' evangelical synergism reserves all the power, ability and efficacy in salvation to grace, but allows humans the God-granted ability to resist or not resist it. The only "contribution" humans make is nonresistance to grace."[61]
Later, John Wesley also rejected the Calvinist doctrine of predestination, and had the same Arminian understanding as expressed in Wesleyan theology. It remains the standard teaching of Methodist churches.[62] Wesley also appealed to prevenient grace, stating that God makes the initial move in salvation, but human beings are free to respond or reject God's graceful initiative.[63] The doctrine of prevenient grace remains one of Methodism's most important doctrines.[62]
John Wesley distinguished three kinds of divine grace in the process of salvation: 1. "Prevenient grace" which is an enabling grace preceding regeneration ("prevenient" means preceding). 2. "Justifying grace" which can bring regeneration but which is resistible. 3. "Sustaining grace" which helps a person to remain into regeneration, and to reach sanctification and final salvation.[63] In particular Wesley taught that Christian believers are to participate in the means of grace and to continue to grow in the Christian life, assisted by God's sustaining grace.[64]
The Protestant Reformation and ecclesiology[edit]
Protestantism in all three major schools of theology – Lutheran, Calvinist, and Arminian – emphasize God's initiative in the work of salvation, which is achieved by grace alone through faith alone, in either stream of thinking – although these terms are understood differently, according to the differences in systems.
Classical Calvinism teaches that the sacraments are "signs and seals of the covenant of grace" and "effectual means of salvation", and Lutheranism teaches that new life, faith, and union with Christ are granted by the Holy Spirit working through the sacraments. However, for a large portion of the Protestant world, the sacraments largely lost the importance that Luther (and to a slightly lesser degree, Calvin) attributed to them. This happened under the influence of ideas of the Anabaptists which were ideas also seen in the Donatists in North Africa in 311 AD,[65] and these ideas then spread to Calvinists through the Congregationalist and Baptist movements, and to Lutherans through Pietism (although much of Lutheranism recoiled against the Pietist movement after the mid-19th century).
Where the sacraments are de-emphasized, they become "ordinances", acts of worship which are required by Scripture, but whose effect is limited to the voluntary effect they have on the worshipper's soul. This belief finds expression in the Baptist and Anabaptist practice of believer's baptism, given not to infants as a mark of membership in a Christian community, but to adult believers after they have achieved the age of reason and have professed their faith. These ordinances are never considered works-righteousness. The ritual as interpreted in light of such ideas does not at all bring about salvation, nor does its performance bring about the forgiveness of sins; the forgiveness which the believer has received by faith is merely pictured, not effectively applied, by baptism; salvation and participation in Christ is memorialized ("this do in remembrance of me" in the Lord's Supper and baptism picturing a Christian's rebirth as death to sin and alive in Christ), not imparted, by the Eucharist. The Church to the Baptists becomes an assembly of true believers in Christ Jesus who gather together for worship and fellowship and remembering what Christ did for them.
Churches of Christ[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Churches of Christ believe that the grace of God that saves is the plan of salvation, rather than salvation itself. This plan includes two parts, 1) the perfect life, death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus the Christ, 2) the gospel/New Testament/the faith.
Concerning Ephesians 2:8 which states: "For by grace are ye saved through faith; and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God", it is noted that the word "it" is a pronoun and refers back to a noun. As the word "saved" is a verb, "it" does not refer to "saved" but to grace, giving the definition of grace as "the gift of God". Furthermore, as the Book of James distinguishes between a dead faith (a faith without works) and a living faith (a faith accompanied by works of obedience), it is believed that God's gift operates through an individual's living faith resulting in that individual being saved.Grace is contrasted with the Law of Moses (Romans 6:14; Hebrews 10:4; John 1:17) and the church of Christ believes that Paul's contrast between work and faith is as described under the Efforts to resolve the tension section, a contrast between works of the Old Covenant and obedient faith under the New Covenant.
Grace saves (Ephesians 2:5); justifies (Romans 3:24; Titus 3:7).
Grace can not be added to (Galatians 5:4).
Grace teaches (Titus 2:11); can be preached (Ephesians 3:8).
Grace calls mankind (2 Timothy 1:9; Galatians 1:15).
Grace is brought by revelation (1 Peter 1:13).
Grace and truth came by Jesus Christ (John 1:17)
Grace is sufficient for mankind (2 Corinthians 12:9)
The Galatians were removed from the calling of the gospel (Galatians 1:6,7; 2 Thessalonians 2:14) unto another gospel (another message) which verse 7 says is not a gospel at all but a perversion.
The Church of Christ believes that grace provides the following plan, which, if followed, results in salvation:One must hear the gospel/word (Romans 10:17).
Believe the gospel (Mark 16:15–16).
Repent of their past sins (Acts 2:38).
Confess their faith in Christ before men (Matthew 10:32; Romans 10:9–10).
Be immersed in water into Christ for the remission of those sins (1 Peter 3:21; Romans 6:3–18; John 3:3,5; 1 John 5:6,8; Acts 2:38; Mark 16:16; etc.)
Live faithfully even to the point of death (Revelation 2:10; Romans 11:17–22; James 5:19–20).[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Christianity portalPrevenient graceSalvation (Christianity)
Sacrament
Charism
Merit
Notes[edit]
^ For example, in when a man is ordained a priest, the Church teaches that he receives the power to confect the Eucharist (to celebrate Mass) and to forgive sins in the Sacrament of Reconciliation. This power does not sanctify the priest per se, but rather the people who benefit from these Sacraments.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
^ "Grace is favor, the free and undeserved help that God gives us to respond to his call to become children of God, adoptive sons, partakers of the divine nature and of eternal life." "Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1996". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2019-04-06.
^ Quessnell, Q. (1990). "'Grace'". In Komonchak, Joseph A.; Collins, Mary; Lane, Dermot A. (eds.). The New Dictionary of Theology. Liturgical Press. pp. 437–450. ISBN 978-0-8146-5609-9.
^ Diderot, Denis (1757). Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. pp. Vol. 7, pp. 800–803.
^ Jump up to:a b Fr. Tadros Malaty, The Divine Grace PDF Archived 2021-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
^ Jump up to:a b c Pomazansky, Protopresbyter Michael. Orthodox Dogmatic Theology. Platina CA: St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, 1984. LCCN 84-051294, pp. 257–261
^ Jump up to:a b Gregory (Grabbe), Archbishop. The Sacramental Life: An Orthodox Christian Perspective. Liberty TN: St. John of Kronstadt Press, 1986
^ Jump up to:a b Ryrie, Charles C. The Grace of God. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1963), pp. 10–11.
^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ "Sacraments". www.catholiceducation.org. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ "What We Believe". WELS. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ "The Means of Grace". clclutheran.org. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ What is a sacrament?
^ John Wesley, "Sermon on the Mount—Discourse Six", III.11, quoted in "This Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion" Archived 2020-08-01 at the Wayback Machine
^ Jump up to:a b c d Roetzel, Calvin J., PhD. The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary, Paul J. Achtemeier, General Editor. HarperCollins, 1996. Pp. 386–387
^ Genesis 6:8
^ Deuteronomy 7:8
^ Numbers 6:24–27
^ Psalm 119:29
^ Psalm 27:7
^ Jump up to:a b "Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ Jump up to:a b Catholic Bishops' Conferences of England & Wales, Ireland and Scotland, One Bread One Body Archived 2013-06-12 at the Wayback Machine, p. 7
^ Jump up to:a b "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: The Church". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
^ Matthew Bunson, 2009 Catholic Almanac (Our Sunday Visitor 2008, ISBN 978-1-59276-441-9), p. 143
^ Rolfus, H. (Hermann); Brändle, F. J. (Florian J. ); Brennan, Richard (1894). The means of grace : a complete exposition of the seven sacraments, their institution, meaning, requirements, ceremonies, and efficacy : of the sacramentals of the Church, holy water, oils, exorcisms, blessings, consecrations, etc. : and of prayer, with a comprehensive explanation of the Our Father and the Hail Mary. The Library of Congress. New York : Benziger Brothers. p. 25.
^ Brennan (1894), p. 337
^ Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster Inc. 1999. p. 386. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2023-05-11.
^ "Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ Deal W. Hudson, "Grace Alone"
^ "Sola Gratia, Solo Christo: The Roman Catholic Doctrine of Justification by Richard A. White". www.philvaz.com. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ (reg), CO Now LLC, Chicago, IL. ~The Council of Trent - Session 6~. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
^ Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
^ Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologiae. I-Iae, a. 111, q. 1. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church. No. 2000.
^ Council of Trent. Decree on Justification. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church. No. 1855.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church. No. 1856.
^ Bonner, Gerald (2004). "Pelagius (fl. c. 390–418), theologian". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/21784. Retrieved 28 October 2012. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
^ "St. Augustine and Pelagianism | Stephen N. Filippo | Ignatius Insight". www.ignatiusinsight.com. Archived from the original on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2020-04-14.
^ "Pelagius". 2011-10-06. Archived from the original on 2011-10-06. Retrieved 2020-04-14.
^ Beck, John H. (2007). "The Pelagian Controversy: An Economic Analysis". American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 66 (4): 694. doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.2007.00535.x. S2CID 144950796.
^ Cassian, Inst. 12, Conf. 3, Conf. 13
^ Pomazansky, Protopresbyter Michael. Orthodox Dogmatic Theology. Platina CA: St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, 1984. LCCN 84-051294, pp. 257–261.
^ Kallistos (Timothy Ware). The Orthodox Church. London: Penguin Books, 1963. pp. 226ff. ISBN 0-14-020592-6.
^ Maryks, Robert A. (2008). Saint Cicero and the Jesuits: The Influence of the Liberal Arts on the Adoption of Moral Probabalism. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-7546-6293-8.
^ Espín, Orlando O.; Nickoloff, James B. (2007). An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. Liturgical Press. p. 664. ISBN 978-0-8146-5856-7.
^ "Controversies on Grace"; "Sanctifying Grace". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909.
^ Jump up to:a b c "CT06". history.hanover.edu. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ VanderWilt, Jeffrey T. (Jeffrey Thomas) (2003). Communion with non-Catholic Christians: risks, challenges, and opportunities. Internet Archive. Collegeville, Minnesota, United States: Liturgical Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8146-2895-9.
^ "Lumen gentium". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 2020-08-24.
^ Timothy Ware. The Orthodox Church, Revised Edition Penguin Books, 1992. pp.239ff.
^ Kallistos (Timothy Ware). The Orthodox Church. London: Penguin Books, 1963. pp.226ff. ISBN 0-14-020592-6
^ John MacArthur, Jr. The Salvation of Babies Who Die—Part 1. 1986. Accessed September 7, 2009.
^ Matthew J. Slick. "The Five Points of Calvinism." September 7, 2009
^ Stanglin & McCall 2012, p. 190.
^ Wiley 1940, Chap. 14.
^ Wiley 1940, Chap. 26.
^ Forlines 2001, pp. 313–321.
^ Picirilli 2002, pp. 154-.
^ Olson 2009, p. 165.
^ Jump up to:a b Cracknell & White 2005, p. 100.
^ Jump up to:a b Shelton 2015.
^ UMC 2018.
^ Jack Hoad, The Baptist, London, Grace Publications, 1986, page 32.
Sources[edit]Cracknell, Kenneth; White, Susan J. (2005). An introduction to world Methodism. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Forlines, F. Leroy (2001). The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions. Randall House Publications.
Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press.
Picirilli, Robert (2002). Grace, Faith, Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation. Nashville: Randall House.
Shelton, Brian (2015). "Prevenient Grace: Two Helpful Distinctions". Seedbed. Retrieved 2022-05-01.
Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: OUP USA.
UMC (2018). "The Wesleyan Means of Grace". The United Methodist Church. Retrieved February 18, 2021.
Wiley, H. Orton (1940). Christian theology (3 volumes). Kansas City, MO: Beacon Hill Press.
Further reading[edit]
Orthodox[edit]Bishop Kallistos (Ware), The Inner Kingdom: The Collected Works (St. Vladimir's Seminary, 2000) ISBN 0-88141-209-0
The Way of a Pilgrim and A Pilgrim Continues on His Way, Olga Savin, trans. (Shambhala, 2001) ISBN 1-57062-807-6
Roman Catholic[edit]Deharbe, Joseph (1912). "Chap. I. Grace in General" . A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion. Translated by Rev. John Fander. Schwartz, Kirwin & Fauss.
Catholic Teaching on Sin & Grace (Center for Learning, 1997), ISBN 1-56077-521-1
George Hayward Joyce, The Catholic Doctrine of Grace (Newman, 1950), ASIN B0007E488Y
Pohle, Joseph (1909). "Grace" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Stephen J. Duffy, The Graced Horizon: Nature and Grace in Modern Catholic Thought (HPAC, 1992), ISBN 0-8146-5705-2
Protestant[edit]Dietrich Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship, Fuller and Booth, trans. (Touchstone, 1995).
John Calvin, "Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book 2 Chapter 4"
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Grace" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 309–310.
Randy Maddox, Responsible Grace (Kingswood, 1994) ISBN 0-687-00334-2
Alister McGrath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification (Cambridge, 1998) ISBN 0-521-62481-9
Glen Pettigrove, "Forgiveness and Grace", in Forgiveness and Love (Oxford University Press, 2012) 124–150.
R. C. Sproul, Grace Unknown: The Heart of Reformed Theology (Baker Book House, 1999) ISBN 0-8010-1121-3
Ulasien, Paul, The Power of a Grace Perspective Archived 2013-12-15 at the Wayback Machine (Infinity, 2011) ISBN 0-7414-6729-1, ASIN B00719WMBS
Philip Yancey, What's So Amazing About Grace? (Zondervan, 1997) ISBN 0-310-24565-6
Paul F. M. Zahl, Grace in Practice: A Theology of Everyday Life (Eerdmans, 2007) ISBN 978-0-8028-2897-2
show
v
t
e
Christian salvation
show
v
t
e
Christian theology
Categories: Grace in Christianity
Attributes of God in Christian theology
Christian soteriology
Christian terminology
This page was last edited on 29 September 2023, at 14:43 (UTC).
===
은총
은혜는 여기로 연결됩니다. 다른 뜻에 대해서는 은혜 (동음이의) 문서를 참고하십시오.| 관련 문서 둘러보기 |
| 기독교의 신의 신성(神性) |
|---|
 |
은총 또는 은혜는 헬라어로 카리스(χάρις) 히브리어로 헨(חֵ֖ן)(恩寵)이다.
가톨릭에서는 성총(聖寵)이라고도 하며, 개신교에서는 구원을 주시는 하나님의 선물 그리고 일반은총의 영역에서 자연, 인간, 문화, 역사 등에 주어지는 하나님의 선물을 뜻하는데, 엄밀히 말하면, 성자 예수 그리스도를 통해서 수여되는 하나님의 특별한 선물(카리스)을 가리킨다. 또한 본래는 죄가 많아서 은혜를 입을 가치가 없는 인간이, 그러함에도 불구하고 신으로부터 받는 사랑의 돌봄을 말한다.
바울은 그리스도의 십자가 속죄와 관련시켜 은혜를 해석하고 있는데, 아우구스티누스는 펠라기우스와의 논쟁에서 하나님의 호의로 인간에게 '무상(無償)의 은총'이 주어졌다고 주장하고, 루터는 우리는 전적으로 하나님에 의한 수동적으로 은총을 받고 있을 뿐이라는 점을 강조했다. 즉 오직 은혜(솔라 그라티아)를 주장하였다.
은혜는 하나님의 사역의 총체이기 때문에 그 의미 내용은 각양각색이다. 그러나 창조나 섭리와는 달리, 죄의 구제를 위해 행하여진 하나님의 능력이 십자가의 대속에 나타나 있어, 이를 은혜라고 인정하고 믿는 것이 기독교의 근본이다.
번역[편집]
은총(恩寵)과 성총(聖寵) 모두 동아시아 유교 문화권에서 “임금의 은혜”를 가리키는 말이었음을 기억해 둘 필요가 있다. 헬라어로 카리스는 하나님이 주시는 선물이다.
같이 보기[편집]
이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 "은혜" 항목을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다.===
===
恩寵（おんちょう、ギリシア語: χάρις, ラテン語: Gratia, 英語: the divine grace
온寵 (기독교)
이 항목에서는 기독교 의 은총 (온초, 그리스어 : χάρις , 라틴어 : Gratia , 영어 : the divine grace , 러시아어 : Благодать ), 즉 하나님의 인간에 대한 역사 [1] , 하나님의 인류에 대한 자애를 의미 한다 [2] 개념에 대하여 취급한다. 혜택 , 성관 , 신의 은혜 , 은혜 라고도 표기된다.
기독교의 전통에 있어서는, 생의 변혁도 의미하게 되었다 [2] .
구약 성서의 설명 [ 편집 ]
은혜( 히브리어로 헤인 ) 의 어휘는 유대교 와 기독교 가 정전으로 하는 구약성경 에 있다. 설명 예로서
- 주님, 주님, 자비롭고 은혜가 넘치는 하나님, 참을성 있고 자비와 참으로 충만하며 수세대에 이르는 자비를 지키며 죄와 허물과 잘못을 용서한다. ( 출애굽기 34장 6~7절, 새로운 공동 번역 성경 에서)
등이 있다.
각 언어의 표기 및 개념 [ 편집 ]
'은총'과 '미움'은 연관되어 논의되는 일도 있지만, 일본어뿐만 아니라 일본어 이외의 언어에서도 다른 어휘로 나타나는 엄밀하게는 다른 개념을 가진 말이다.
[2] 구약성경 의 히브리어에 있어서의 「헤인(hen)」은, 칠십인역 성경 에서는 「 χάρις (charis)」라고 번역되고, 일본 성서 협회역 성서에서는 「은혜」 「신의 은혜」등으로 번역 된다. 대조적으로, 히브리어의 ‘ 헤세드 (hesed)’에는 칠십인역 성경 에서는 ‘엘레오스( ἔλεος , eleos)’가 적용되며, 일본 성서 협회 번역 성경에서는 ‘자비’ 등으로 번역된다.
| 히브리어 | 그리스어 ( 칠십인역 성경 ) | 영어 | 일본어 |
| 헤인(hen) | χαρις (charis) 해리스 (카리스) [3] | grace | 은총 ·신의 은혜·성관·은혜 |
| 헤세드(hesed) | ἔλεος (eleos) 엘레오스 | mercy | 자비 |
히브리어의 여러 개념 [ 편집 ]
[1] [2] 「은총(신의 은혜)」의 개념의 조형은 히브리어 판 구약성서 및 그리스어 번역 구약성서(칠십인역 성경 )에 존재한다. 히브리어판 구약성서에서 '은혜'와 이와 관련된 '자비'는 다른 어휘로 표현되어 있다.
- 헤인 ("은혜" "은총") - 혜택 의미. 하나님이 경건한 자, 고통받는 자를 호의로 빼앗는 것을 의미한다. 구약의 많은 경우에, 계약에서 밝혀진 것처럼, 선택될 만한 백성이 하나님에 의해 선택되었음을 말하고 있다.
- 헤세드 ("자비") - 계약에 근거한 친애의 관계. 하나님의 백성에 대한 하나님의 태도뿐만 아니라 사람들이 서로 도울 의무를 지면서 서로를 향한 감정 등에 대해 성실한 친절심이라는 심정을 표현하기 위해 사용된다.
- 라하밈 - 죄의 느슨함을 언급한다.
그리스어의 여러 개념 [ 편집 ]
![[icon]](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
[2] 「은총(신의 은혜)」 「자비」의 개념에 대해서는 기독교 에서 주로 그리스어를 사용하면서 발전한 해석이 이루어져 가게 되었다. 그리스어 번역 구약 성서( 칠십인역 성경 )에서 히브리어의 '헤인' '헤세드'에 그리스어 ' χάρις ', ' ἔλεος '가 대응하여 번역되었다.
기독교에서 개념의 발전에 따라 인간의 삶의 변혁을 의미하게 된다.
은총, 성관, 신의 은혜 등의 일본어 표기 [ 편집 ]
기독교가 일본에 전해졌을 때, " 그리스어 : χάρις "( 영어 : Grace )에 대해 다양한 번역이 이루어져 갔다.
「신의 은혜」는 일본 성서 협회 의 구어 역 성경 · 신공동역 성경 , 그 밖에도 신 개역 성경 등에서 일반적인 표기이지만 [4] 정교회 에서는 은총이 일반적 표기 이다 [5] . 가톨릭 교회 에서는 예전에는 성총 으로 번역되었고, 예를 들어 전통적인 기도문 ‘ 아베 마리아 ’의 문어 번역(천사 축사)에서는 ‘메디다시 성총…’이라고 불렀다. 지금은 「은총」이라고 표기되는 예도 드물지만 [6] , 가톨릭 교회의 카테키즘 이나 공식 문서 등에서는 「은혜」 「하나님의 은혜」 「은혜」라고 표기되고 있다 [7] . 또한 개신교도 " 은총 "의 어휘를 사용하는 것이있다 [8] . 옛날에는 ' 은전 '( 중국어 로도 '은전') 등이라고도 했다.
기독교 [ 편집 ]
은총(신의 은혜)에 대해서는 기독교 (게다가 서방교회 )에서 다양한 논의가 이루어져 왔다. 은총에 대해서는 예수 그리스도의 생애, 특히 죽음과 부활을 통해 보여 주신 하느님의 사랑을 말하는 표현이라는 견해에 대해서는 교파를 넘은 일치가 보이지만, 그 은총을 둘러싼 개념·신학에 대해서는 여러가지 견해·논의가 일어났다.
신약 성서의 설명 [ 편집 ]
- 신약성경에 기술이 있는 곳(그 밖에도 많은 용례가 있다)
- 로마 신도들에게 보내는 편지 3:24
- 에베소 신도들에게 보내는 편지 2:8
개념에 대한 다양한 견해 [ 편집 ]
서방교회 [ 편집 ]
아우구스티누스 는 은혜(신의 은혜, 혜택)를 강조했기 때문에 '혜택의 박사'(doctor gratiae)라고 불린다. 페라기우스 가 주창한 페라기우스주의가 '공적에 의한 구제'인데 비해 아우구스티누스는 '혜택에 의한 구제'를 가르쳤다. 아우구스티누스는 인간이 전적으로 타락하고 구원받기 위해서는 은총에 의하여야 하지만, 하나님은 모든 사람을 구원받는 것이 아니라 구원받을 사람들을 하나님이 미리 선택하셨다는 예정설 를 확장했다. 서방교회에서의 논쟁에서 아우구스티누스의 입장이 정통이며 페라기우스는 이단이라고 인정되었지만, 카르타고 교회 회의(418년)와 제2 오랑주 교회 회의(529년)에서 아우구스티누스 의 예정 에 관한 견해는 완화된 형태로 승인되었다 [9] [10] . 다만, 아우구스티누스를 성인 으로 인정하는 가톨릭교회 · 정교회 · 비카르케돈파 정교회 에서는 아우구스티누스의 견해를 예정설로 간주하지 않는다.
벤자민 워필드 는 종교 개혁이 아우구스티누스의 교회론 에 대한 그의 혜택의 승리라고 말했다. 마르틴 루터 는 아우구스티누스의 혜택을 믿음의 인 에 의해 표현되는 '교회가 서거나 쓰러질 것인가의 조항'으로 간주했다. [11]
개혁파의 사고방식에서는 은총은 일반 은총 과 특별 은총 으로 나뉜다. 일반 계시는 자연, 인간의 양심, 역사에 계시되어 일반 사람들에게 알려져 있지만, 일반 은총은 타락의 결과를 제어하는 것으로, 사람을 구원으로 이끄는 것은 아니다. 특별은은 하나님의 특별계시인 성경에 계시되어 있으며, 사람을 구원으로 인도하는 하나님의 특별한 은혜이다. [12] [13]
정교회 [ 편집 ]
기도 · 노래 · 사람 이름 등의 용례 [ 편집 ]
기도문 ' 아베 마리아 '에서는 라틴어 시작 부분에 'Ave Maria, gratia plena'와 '은총'을 의미하는 'gratia'가 들어 있으며, 과거 일본의 가톨릭 교회에서 주창된 문어 번역의 '천사 「축사」에서는 「성총」이라고 번역되어 있었다. 또 현재의 공식 구어역에서는 「은혜」라고 번역되어 있다 [14] . 또 ' 어메이징 그레이스 '는 저명한 찬송가 로 가사 중인 'grace'는 '은총' '신의 은혜'의 의미이다. 정교회 성가에서 '은총'이 제목에 포함되어 있는 것으로는 '은총을 가득 채우는 자 '가 생신녀 를 향한 성가로 대표적이다.
영어로는 그레이스("은혜", grace)의 동의어로서 마시("자비", mercy )가 있다. 스페인어로는 그라시아("은혜", gracia)의 유언어로 메르세데스("자비", mercedes )가 있다. 영어 그레이스 머시 , 스페인어 및 기타 메르세데스 등 은 서구 국가에서 선호하고 여성 이름으로 사용되고있다. 또 일본에서도 그리스도인 사람들이 아이에게 '혜'(남자는 메구무, 여자는 메구미), '혜자'(여자) 등의 명명을 하는 예도 있다.
유럽의 군주의 칭호에 있어서는 종종 ' 신의 은총에 의한 '을 관람하는 예가 보인다. 이것은 왕권의 원천을 하나님께 구하는 왕권신 수설에 의한 것이다.
각주 [ 편집 ]
- ↑ a b 출처・인용원：『기독교대사전』
- ^ a b c d e 출처·인용원A. 리처드슨 편, J. 보덴편, 후루야 야스오 감수, 사야나기 분남역 『기독교 신학사전 』
- ↑ 현대 그리스어: 해리스, 고전 그리스어: 카리스
- ↑ 문어역 성경 에서는 “
신 의혜택 ”(로마서 3:24 등) - ↑ 천사와 악마 - 일본 해리스토스 정교회 공식 사이트
- ↑ 가톨릭 오카야 교회
- ↑ 『가톨릭 교회의 카테키즘』 1996-2005 , (일본어판) 590-592 페이지 ISBN
- ↑ 일본 그리스도 개혁파 도쿄 은총 교회
- ↑ 앨리스터 맥그래스 “종교 개혁의 사상” 교문관 p.103-106
- ↑ 맥그래스 “기독교 신학 입문” 교문관 p.608-610
- ↑ 맥글라스 『종교개혁의 사상』 p.185
- ↑ 마틴 로이드 존스『그리스도인의 싸움』 생명의 말씀사
- ↑ 오산령인『성경의 교리』 양군사
- ↑ “아베 마리아의 기도” 가톨릭 중앙 협의회
관련 항목 [ 편집 ]
===
===
===
