2026/02/05

바하이 신앙 - 위키백과 Baháʼí Faith

바하이 신앙 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전


바하이 신앙

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
바하이 신앙
세계정의원 건물, 이스라엘 하이파
총 신자수
약 5백만명
창시자
바하올라
종교
아브라함 계통의 종교
경전
케타베악다스

바하이 신앙 또는 바하이교(Baháʼí)는 19세기 페르시아에서 바하올라가 창시한 종교이다.

바하올라는 바하이 신앙 포교로 인해 페르시아에서 오스만 제국으로 추방당했고, 사망할 때까지도 수감 상태였다. 바하올라가 사망하고 나서 그의 아들인 압돌바하의 지도 아래 바하이 신앙은 페르시아와 오스만 지역까지 확장되었고, 미국과 유럽에 확고한 기반을 마련하였으며, 이란에서 공고화되었는데, 이 곳에서는 아직까지 바하이 신앙이 심한 박해를 당하고 있었다. 압돌바하의 사망 이후, 바하이 공동체는 새로운 국면에 접어들었으며, 바하올라가 계획한 이 시대를 위한 새로운 행정질서인 선출 기구와 임명 기구의 인도를 받게 되었다. 전 세계적으로 200여개국에 약 5백만명의 바하이가 있다. 1979년 이후 이란에서는 바하이 신앙의 활동이 금지되어 있으며 적발 시 처벌 대상이 된다. 이 때문에 수 많은 바하이들이 종교적 박해를 피해 미국으로 탈출하였고 현재 바하이는 미국에서 가장 큰 교단을 꾸리고 있다.

바하이 신앙은 종교사를 신의 말씀을 전하는 자들이 시대마다 온 것으로 보고 있으며 그 사람들은 각각 그 시대의 필요와 사람들의 역량에 맞추어 종교를 확립하였다. 신이 그 분의 말씀의 전달자로 보낸 자들로는 아브라함 계열의 모세, 예수, 무함마드와 인도 계열인 크리슈나, 부처 등이 있다고 주장한다. 바하이들에게는 가장 최근의 사자로서 바압과 바하올라가 있다. 바하이 신앙에 따르면 각 현시자들이 다음 인물들을 예언하였고, 바하올라의 생애와 가르침은 이전 경전들의 최종 약속을 충족하였다. 인류는 집단 진화의 과정 속에 있으며, 이 시대의 필요는 전 세계적인 평화와 정의 그리고 융합을 점진적으로 확립하는 것이다.

어원

'바하이'(Baháʼí, 페르시아어: بهائی)라는 단어는 바하이 신앙을 가리키는 형용사로 쓰이거나 바하올라를 따르는 사람들을 지칭하는 용어로 쓰인다. 바하이라는 용어는 바하이 신앙 전체를 가리키는 명사는 아니며 바하이는 “영광” 또는 “광휘”를 의미하는 아랍어인 바하에서 나온 말이다.

믿음

바하이 가르침과 교리의 세 가지 핵심 원리는 하느님의 단일성, 종교의 단일성, 인류의 단일성이다. 이 원리에서 하느님께서 주기적으로 하느님의 말씀의 전달자를 보내시어 그 분의 뜻을 드러내시며, 이 분들은 인류의 성품을 변형시키고, 하느님의 부르심에 응답한 이들이 도덕적 정신적 품성을 계발하게 하신다는 믿음이 생겨난다. 이에 따라 종교는 순차적이며 같은 근원으로부터 나오며 시대 시대마다 점진적으로 펼쳐지는 것으로 여겨진다.

하느님

바하이 경전에서는 하느님은 한 분이시고 정확히 알 수 없으며 전지하시고 만유에 편만하시며 불멸하시는 전능하신 분으로 우주 만물을 창조하신 분이라고 한다. 하느님과 우주의 존재는 시작도 끝도 없이 영원하다고 생각한다. 직접적으로 접근할 수는 없지만 하느님께서는 모든 창조물을 인식하시며, 그분의 뜻과 목적은 하느님의 현시자라고 불리는 하느님의 사자를 통해서 밝혀진다.

바하이 가르침에 따르면, 하느님은 인간이 완전히 이해할 수 없을 만큼 무한히 위대하시고 인간의 힘만으로 완전하고 정확한 심상을 상상할 수 없는 지극히 높으신 분이다. 그래서 그 분의 현시자들의 계시를 통해서 인간은 하느님을 이해하게 된다. 바하이 신앙에서는 하느님은 종종 가장 강력하신 분, 혹은 만유를 사랑하시는 분과 같이 속성과 명칭으로 지칭되며, 하느님은 한 분이라는 점이 강조 된다. 삼위일체설과 같은 교리는 하느님은 한 분이시며 대등한 자가 없다는 바하이 관점에서는 타협안으로 여겨진다. 바하이 가르침에 따르면, 하느님께 적용되는 속성은 하느님의 신성을 인간의 언어로 표현하고 개인의 정신적인 여정에서 잠재력을 개발하기 위해 하느님을 경배할 때 그들 자신의 속성에 집중하도록 하려 함이다. 바하이 가르침에 따르면, 인간 존재의 목적은 기도와 성찰 그리고 타인에 대한 봉사와 같은 방법을 통하여 하느님을 알고 사랑하는 방법을 배우는 것이다.

종교

바하이는 종교가 점진적으로 계시되었다고 믿기에 세상의 주요 종교들의 가르침이 옳다고 여기며, 각 종교의 창시자들을 하느님의 현시자로 보고 있다. 종교사는 일련의 종제로 해석되며, 각 현시자께서 보다 폭넓고 진보된 계시를 가지고 오시며, 이러한 계시는 경전으로 만들어지고 시간이 흐름에 따라 다소 신뢰성을 가지고 후대에 전해진다. 경전의 정신은 진실로서 그 가르침은 현시자께서 오셨던 시대와 장소에 맞추어져 있다. 예배방향, 음식 규제와 같은 구체적인 종교적 사회적 가르침은 다음에 오신 현시자께서 폐지하시기도 하는데, 이는 새로운 시대와 장소의 요구사항에 보다 적절히 맞추기 위함이다. 

이와는 다르게, 이웃사랑과 자선활동과 같은 일반적인 가르침들은 시대의 변화에 관계없이 보편적이며 일관되게 강조된다. 바하이 신앙에서 이러한 점진적 계시의 과정은 끝이 없으며 주기적이라고 믿고 있다. 바하이는 바하올라 계시의 주기인 1,000년 이내에 하느님의 새로운 현시자는 출현하지 않을 것이라고 생각한다.

바하이 신앙을 이전 종교의 종합적 형태로 간주하는 시각이 있지만, 바하이는 고유의 경전과 가르침, 율법과 역사를 가진 뚜렷이 구분되는 종교이다. 초기에는 바하이를 이슬람교의 한 종파로 간주했으나, 현재 거의 대부분의 종교 전문가들은 바하이를 독립적인 종교로 보고 있다. 바하이의 기독교가 유대교에 그 뿌리를 두고 있는 것과 사실상 마찬가지로 쉬아 이슬람에 그 종교적 배경을 두고 있다. 수니파와 쉬아파의 이슬람 기구와 종교 지도자들은 바하이를 변절자나 배교자로 간주하여 많은 바하이들이 박해를 받고 있다. 바하이들은 자신의 신앙이 독립적인 세계종교라고 생각하며, 상대적 시기의 관점과 현대적 맥락에 바하올라의 가르침의 적절성의 관점에서 타 종교와 구분 된다. 바하올라께서 이전 종교의 예언적 약속을 실현하셨다고 믿고 있다.

인간

바하이 경전에 따르면 인간은 ‘이성적인 영혼’을 가지고 있으며 따라서 하느님의 지위를 알아보고 자신의 창조주와 인간의 관계를 인식할 수 있는 독특한 역량을 받은 존재라고 한다. 모든 인간은 하느님의 사자를 통해서 하느님을 알아보고 그 분들의 가르침을 따를 의무가 있다. 바하이 경전에 따르면, 하느님을 알아보고 그 분의 명령에 순종하며, 인류에 봉사하고 정기적으로 기도하며 정신적인 습관을 가진다면 인간의 영혼이 하느님께 가까워지게 되며, 이러한 지위가 바하이 신앙에서 보는 정신적인 이상의 모습이다. 인간이 죽으면 다음 세상으로 가게 되며, 이 물질세계에서의 정신적인 성장이 정신적인 세계에서 심판과 발전의 토대가 된다. 천국과 지옥은 현세와 내세에서 하느님께 가깝거나 멀어지는 정신적인 상태를 의미하는 것이지, 사후에 보상과 처벌이라는 물리적인 장소를 의미하는 것은 아니라고 가르친다.

바하이 경전은 인간의 기본적 평등과 모든 종류의 편견을 제거할 것을 강조한다. 인류는 매우 다양하지만 본질적으로 하나라고 생각한다. 인종과 문화의 다양성은 감사와 인정의 대상으로 간주된다. 인종차별, 국수주의, 카스트제도, 사회계급 및 성차별적 위계질서의 논리는 융합의 인위적 걸림돌로 여겨진다. 바하이 가르침에 따르면, 인류의 화합이 현 세계의 종교적 정치적 상황에서 다른 무엇보다도 중요한 문제라고 한다.

가르침

요약

1921년에서 1957년까지 바하이 신앙의 수호자로 임명되신 쇼기에펜디는 바하올라의 가르침의 주 원칙이라고 여겨지는 것을 다음과 같이 요약하셨는데, 케타베악다스(지성서)의 율법과 계율과 함께 바하이 신앙의 기본 원리를 구성한다고 한다

  • 미신이나 전통에 얽매이지 않고 진리를 독자적으로 탐구하기
  • 바하이 신앙의 중추적 원리이자 기본 이념인 인류의 단일성
  • 모든 종교의 일체성
  • 종교적, 인종적, 계급적, 국가적인 모든 종류의 편견의 제거
  • 종교와 과학의 조화
  • 남녀 평등; 남녀는 새의 양 날개와 같아서 두 존재가 있어야 인류라는 새가 비상할 수 있음
  • 의무교육의 도입
  • 세계보조어의 채택
  • 극단적인 빈부의 철폐
  • 국제분쟁 판결을 위한 세계 사법부의 설치
  • 봉사의 정신으로 일을 하면 하느님께 드리는 예배로 높이 여김
  • 정의는 인간사회의 기본 원리이며, 종교는 세상 사람과 국민들을 보호하는 성채로 여김
  • 지속적이고 보편적인 평화를 모든 인류의 최상의 목표로 확립시킴

이상은 바하올라께서 선포하신 바하이 신앙의 기본 원리이다.

사회적 원칙

다음은 바하이 가르침의 핵심 요약으로 자주 인용되는 원칙들이다. 이 원칙들은 1912년 유럽과 북미를 방문하신 압돌바하의 연설에서 언급된 원칙들이다.

  • 하느님의 단일성
  • 종교의 일체성
  • 인류의 단일성
  • 다양성 속에 융합
  • 남녀 평등
  • 모든 종류의 편견제거
  • 세계 평화와 새로운 세계질서
  • 종교와 과학의 조화
  • 진리의 독자적인 탐구
  • 지속적인 문명의 진보
  • 범세계적인 의무교육
  • 세계 보조어
  • 정부에 순종, 정당정치에 참여하지 않을 것

(신앙을 포기하도록 정부가 강요하는 경우는 제외)

  • 극단적인 빈부의 철폐

바하올라께서는 세계 평화를 달성하고 그것을 지속시키기 위해서는 세계 안보기구를 설립할 것을 권고한다.

신비적 가르침

바하이 가르침이 사회적, 도덕적 문제를 매우 강력하게 강조하고 있지만, 신비주의적인 특징을 가지고 있는 여러 주요 경전들도 있다. 일곱골짜기는 바하올라의 저서 중 가장 신비로운 저서로 꼽히고 있다. 이 경전은 페르시아 이슬람교 시인인 Attar의 스타일로 수피즘 신도를 위해 쓰신 것으로 하느님을 향한 영혼의 여정을 7단계로 나누어 설명하고 있다. 1906년에 영어로 처음 번역되어 서양에서 구입 가능한 바하올라의 저서 중 하나가 되었다. 숨겨진 말씀은 같은 시기에 쓰신 바하올라의 저서로서 153편의 짧은 성구로 구성되어 있으며, 바하올라의 말씀에 따르면 정신적인 진리의 본질을 꺼내어 간결의 옷을 입힌 경전이라고 한다.

성약

바하이 가르침은 보편적이고 영구적인 대성약과 각 종교가 현시된 시기에 고유한 소성약이 있다고 가르친다. 소성약은 하느님의 사자와 그 분의 추종자들 사이에 약속을 의미하며 사회적인 가르침과 종교의 권위의 승계를 의미한다. 바하이들은 바하올라의 계시는 그 분의 추종자들에게는 소성약에 충실한 것을 의미하며, 바하이 경전에서는 성약에 충실한 것이 모든 신자들이 갖추기 위해 노력해야 할 미덕중의 하나로 언급 된다. 대성약은 하느님과 인류 사이에 변치 않는 약속으로서 하느님의 현시자께서 매 천년 주기로 혼란과 불확실의 시대에 오신다는 것이다. 융합이 가장 근본적인 가르침인 바하이 신앙에서 신자들은 행정 기구가 신성하게 임명되었다고 믿으며 따라서 분파를 만들려는 시도는 바하올라의 가르침에 어긋나는 것이라고 본다. 권위가 계승됨에 따라 분파를 만들려는 시도가 있었으나 그 어떤 분파도 성공하지 못하였으며 그에 따르는 무리가 적었다. 그러한 분파의 추종자들은 성약파괴자로 간주되고 제명되었다.

현재 바하이는 바하올라의 계시를 바하이들의 소성약으로 여긴다. 바하이 경전에서 성약에 굳건한 것이 지향해야할 미덕으로 여겨진다. 대성약은 하느님고 인간 사이의 지속적인 약속으로 여겨지며, 대성약에 따라 하느님의 현시자가 약 천년마다 격변과 불확실성의 시대에 출현한다고 한다. 융합이 바하이의 필수적인 가르침이기 때문에, 믿음에 따라 바하이는 하느님께서 정하신 행정기구를 따르며 분열과 분단을 야기하려는 시도를 바하올라의 가르침에 어긋나는 것으로 본다. 종교지도자의 승계와 관련하여 분열이 발생해왔지만, 바하이에서 분열은 거의 일어나지 않았다. 분열을 조장하는 자는 성약파괴자로 간주되어 접촉이 금지되고 제명된다.

경전 및 서적

기본 바하이 서적으로는 바압과 바하올라, 압돌바하 및 쇼기 에펜디와 세계정의원 및 압돌바하의 공인된 강연이 수록된 저서와 경전이 있다. 바압과 바하올라의 경전은 하느님의 계시로 여겨지며, 압돌바하의 저서와 강연과 쇼기에펜디의 저서는 공인된 해석으로 간주되며, 세계정의원의 저서는 권위를 갖춘 입법 및 해석으로 여긴다. 바하이 서적은 하느님의 인도를 받은 것이다. 바하올라의 주요 경전에는 바하이 율법서인 지성서와, 바하이 신앙의 근간을 다룬 확신의 서 및 바하이 가르침의 토대를 설명한 하느님의 신비의 보석, 그리고 신비주의적 저술인 일곱골짜기와 네골짜기 등이 있다.

주요 사건

  • 1844년 바압이 이란 쉬라즈에서 사명을 선포함.
  • 1850년 바압이 이란 타브리즈에서 공개적으로 처형당함.
  • 1852년 수천 명의 바비가 처형당함. 바하올라는 감금당하고 강제 추방당함.
  • 1863년 하느님의 계시를 바하올라가 처음으로 선언함. 바그다드를 떠나서 콘스탄티노플 및 아드리아노플로 강제 추방당함.
  • 1868년 바하올라는 악카에 강제 수감당함.
  • 1892년 바하올라 승천(악카 근처) 유언으로 압돌바하를 승계자로 임명함.
  • 1908년 압돌바하의 출소
  • 1921년 압돌바하의 별세. 유언으로 쇼기에펜디를 수호자로 임명함.
  • 1957년 쇼기에펜디의 사망(영국)
  • 1963년 세계정의원 최초 선거

바하이 역사는 이란 쉬라즈에서 1844년 6월 22일 저녁에 바압의 선언을 시작으로 궁극적으로 바하이 신앙의 중심인물이 설립한 행정체제로 이어지는 일련의 순차적 지도자를 따른다. 1892년 바하올라의 승천이후 까지도 바하이 공동체는 대부분 페르시아 제국과 오트만 제국에 국한되어 있었는데, 1892년에 아시아와 아프리카의 13개국에 바하이가 있었다. 장남인 압돌바하의 지도력으로 말미암아 바하이 신앙은 유럽과 미국에 뿌리를 내리기 시작했고, 이란에서는 공고화가 이루어졌으며, 이란에서는 아직도 바하이에 대한 박해가 심하다. 1921년에 압돌바하의 별세 후 바하이 공동체의 지도력은 새로운 국면을 맞이하게 되며, 일인 체제에서 발전하여 선출된 기구와 임명된 의원으로 구성된 행정체제로 진보하였다.

주요 인물

바압

1844년 5월 22일 저녁에 이란 쉬라즈의 세이예드 알리 모함마드는 자신이 바압(문)임을 선포하여 쉬아 이슬람의 12번째 이맘인 마흐디라고 했다. 바압의 신자는 바비로 알려져 있다. 바압의 가르침이 확산되자, 이슬람 성직자들은 바하이 신앙을 위협적 존재로 인식하고 바비들은 극심한 박해와 고문을 당했다. 이러한 갈등으로 인해 몇 곳이 왕실의 군대에 의해 포위되었다. 바압 자신도 감금되어 1850년에 처형당했다. 바하이는 바압을 바하이 신앙의 선구자로 본다. 왜냐하면 바압의 경전은 “하느님께서 현시하실 분”이라는 개념으로 전 세계 주요 종교의 경전에서 출현이 약속된 메시아적 인물이자 바하이 신앙의 창시자인 바하올라의 출현이 1863년에 있을 것이라고 선언했다. 하이파에 위치한 바압의 성묘(聖墓)는 바하이들의 중요한 순례지이다. 바압의 유해는 이란에서 성지로 비밀리에 옮겨졌으며, 바하올라께서 구체적으로 지정한 곳에 유해 안치를 위해 세운 성묘에 매장되었다. 바압의 주요 경전은 약 135권으로서 그 중 일부를 발췌하여 바압 경전 선집이라는 형태로 출간되고 있다.

바하올라

미르자 호세인 알리 누리는 바압의 초기 신자로서 나중에 바하올라라는 명칭으로 알려졌다. 바하올라는 1852년 바비 활동에 참여했다는 이유로 체포되어 수감되었다. 바하올라에 따르면, 1853년에 테헤란의 시아찰 지하감옥에 감금되어 있는 동안에 자신이 바압이 예언한 바로 그 약속된 이임을 알게 된다. 곧이어 바하올라는 테헤란에서 오토만 제국의 바그다드로, 그 후에 콘스탄티노플(이스탄불)로 이어 아드리아노플(에디르네)로 추방당했다. 1863년 바그다드에서 콘스탄티노플로 추방당한 해에, 바하올라는 자신의 가족과 신자들에게 자신의 사명을 선언했다. 바하올라와, 바하올라를 인정하지 않았던 바비의 임명된 지도자인 수브헤아잘 사이에 긴장이 증대되었다. 여생동안 바하올라는 대부분의 바비들의 충성을 얻게되며, 이들은 바하이로 알려지게 되었다. 1866년에 시작하여 바하올라는 하느님의 현시자로서의 자신의 사명을 교황 비오 9세와 나폴레옹 3세 및 빅토리아 여왕과 같은 세계 지도자와 통치자들에게 선언하기 시작했다.

1868년에 바하올라는 압둘라지즈 왕에 의해 마지막으로 악카라고 하는 오토만 유형지로 추방되었다. 생애 마지막 즈음에, 잔혹한 감금이 점차적으로 풀렸으며, 악카 근처의 집에서 살도록 허용되었지만, 여전히 악카의 죄수 신분이었다. 1892년에 바하올라는 승천했다. 바하이들은 바지에 있는 그의 영묘를 지성소(께블레)라고 여기며 매일 기도할 때 그곳을 향한다. 바하올라는 바하이 신앙에서 경전으로 여겨지는 수많은 저서를 남겼지만, 그 중 극히 드문 것만 영어로 번역되었다. 15000권의 저서가 있으며, 그 중 가장 중요한 것은 지성서와 확신의 서 그리고 숨겨진 말씀 및 일곱 골짜기이다. 또한 저서들을 묶어서 편집한 시리즈가 있는데 그 중에서 가장 중요한 것은 바하올라의 선집이다.

압돌바하

아바스 에펜디는 바하올라의 장남으로서 압돌바하(하느님의 종)라는 명칭으로 알려져있다. 부친은 유언에서 압돌바하를 바하이 공동체의 지도자로 지명했고, “성약의 중심,” “신앙의 장(長) 및 바하올라의 저서의 유일한 권위적 해설가로 임명했다. 압돌바하는 바하올라와 함께 긴 추방과 감금을 당했으며, 이러한 박해는 1908년에 터키청년당 혁명의 결과로 석방되실 때까지 계속되었다. 석방되신 후에 압돌바하는 여행과 강연과 교도의 삶을 살았고, 신자들과 서신왕래를 하며 바하이 신앙의 원리를 해설했다. 압돌바하께서는 2만 7천편의 저술을 서신 형태로 썼는데, 일부만 영어로 번역되었다. 그중에 잘 알려진 것으로는 “신성한 문명의 비밀,” “Auguste-Henri Forel에게 보내는 서한, 질의응답록 등이 있다. 강연에서 발췌한 저술도 있는데 서방을 여행하는 동안 파리 강연이 책으로 출판되었다.

바하이 행정체계

바하올라의 지성서와 압돌바하의 유훈록은 바하이 행정질서의 기본원칙에 대한 문서로서 바하올라는 선출되는 세계정의원을 설립했으며, 압돌바하는 임명하는 수호자직을 설립했으며, 두 기구의 관계를 명시했다. 압돌바하는 유훈록에서 장손인 쇼기에펜디를 바하이 신앙의 첫 번째 수호자로 임명했으며, 수호자는 별세할 때까지 36년간 바하이 신앙의 지도자의 역할을 했다.

쇼기에펜디는 평생동안 바하이 서적을 번역하고, 전 세계 바하이 공동체 성장 계획을 개발하고, 바하이 세계 본부를 설립하고, 전 세계 바하이 공동체와 개인 바하이들과 엄청난 양의 통신을 하며, 바하이 신앙의 행정구조를 세우고, 세계정의원 선출을 위한 공동체를 설립했다. 쇼기에펜디는 후계자를 임명하지 않고 별세했다. 소지역과 대지역 및 국가 차원에서 바하이들은 9명으로 구성된 신성회의원을 선출하며, 신성회는 바하이 신앙의 업무를 운영한다. 지역적, 국제적으로 다양한 차원에서 일하는 선출된 의원도 있는데, 이 기구는 바하이 신앙의 가르침을 널리 보급하고 공동체를 보호하는 기능을 수행한다. 9명의 의원은 성직자가 아니며, 바하이 신앙에는 성직자가 존재하지 않는다. 세계정의원은 1963년 처음으로 선출되어, 매 5년마다 9명의 정의원이 모든 국성회에 의해 선출된다. 21세 이상의 성인 바하이라면 세계정의원으로 선출된 자격이 있으며, 기타 모든 지위가 바하이 남녀 모두에게 열려있다.

한국의 공동체

대한민국에는 바하이신앙이 1921년에 처음으로 알려졌고, 2005년 말에 본부 건물을 단장하였으며 바하이신앙 율법서인 케타베악다스를 출판했다. 바하이 신앙의 교육 기관인 루히 연수원을 수료한 이수자가 최근 들어 크게 늘었다.

외부 링크

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Baháʼí Faith

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Bahai" redirects here. For other uses, see Bahai (disambiguation).
Baháʼí Faith
A white building with several columns and a domed roof.
Seat of the Universal House of Justice, governing body of the Baháʼís, in Haifa.
ClassificationAbrahamic, Iranian
ScriptureKitáb-i-Aqdas, various other Baháʼí scriptures
TheologyMonotheistic
RegionWorldwide
HeadquartersBaháʼí World Centre[1]
FounderBaháʼu'lláh
Origin19th century
Qajar Iran
Separated fromBábism
Members7 million
Official websitebahai.org
This article contains Persian text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

The Baháʼí Faith is a religion[a] established by Baháʼu'lláh in the 19th century that teaches the essential worth of all religions and the unity of all people.[b] It initially developed in Iran and parts of the Middle East, where it has faced ongoing persecution since its inception.[14] The religion has 7–8 million adherents known as Baháʼís who are spread throughout most of the world's countries and territories.[c]

The Baháʼí Faith has three central figures: the Báb (1819–1850), executed for heresy, who taught that a prophet similar to Jesus and Muhammad would soon appear; Baháʼu'lláh (1817–1892), who claimed in 1863 to be said prophet and who had to endure both exile and imprisonment; and his son, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (1844–1921), who made teaching trips to Europe and the United States after his release from confinement in 1908. After ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death in 1921, the leadership of the religion fell to his grandson Shoghi Effendi (1897–1957). Baháʼís annually elect local, regional, and national administrative bodies that govern the religion's affairs, and every five years an election is held for the Universal House of Justice, the nine-member governing institution of the worldwide Baháʼí community that is located in Haifa, Israel, near the Shrine of the Báb.

According to Baháʼí teachings, religion is revealed in an orderly and progressive way by a single God through Manifestations of God, who are the founders of major world religions throughout human history; the Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad are cited as the most recent of these Manifestations of God before the Báb and Baháʼu'lláh. Baháʼís regard the world's major religions as fundamentally unified in their purpose, but divergent in their social practices and interpretations. The Baháʼí Faith stresses the unity of all people as its core teaching; as a result, it explicitly rejects notions of racism, sexism, and nationalism. At the heart of Baháʼí teachings is the vision of a unified world order that ensures the prosperity of all nations, races, creeds, and classes.[15][16]

Letters and epistles by Baháʼu'lláh, along with writings and talks by his son ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, have been collected and assembled into a canon of Baháʼí scriptures. This collection also includes works by the Báb, who is regarded as Baháʼu'lláh's forerunner. Prominent among the works of Baháʼí literature are the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the Kitáb-i-Íqán, Some Answered Questions, God Passes By, and The Dawn-Breakers.

Etymology

Main article: Baháʼí orthography

The word "Baháʼí" (/bɑːhɑːˈi/, /bəhaɪ/;[17] بهائی) is used either as an adjective to refer to the Baháʼí Faith or as a term for a follower of Baháʼu'lláh. The proper name of the religion is the "Baháʼí Faith", not Baháʼí or Baháʼism (the latter, once common among academics, is regarded as derogatory by the Baháʼís).[18][19] It is derived from the Arabic "Baháʼ" (بهاء), a name Baháʼu'lláh chose for himself, referring to the 'glory' or 'splendor' of God. In English, the word is commonly pronounced bə-HYE (/bəˈhaɪ/), but the more accurate rendering of the Arabic is bə-HAH-ee (/bəˈhɑː.iː/).[20]

The accent marks above the letters, representing long vowels, derive from a system of transliterating Arabic and Persian script that was adopted by Baháʼís in 1923, and which has been used in almost all Baháʼí publications since.[18] Baháʼís prefer the orthographies Baháʼí, the Báb, Baháʼu'lláh, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. When accent marks are unavailable, Bahaʼi or Bahaʼuʼllah are often used.[21]

History

Main article: History of the Baháʼí Faith
A domed building
Shrine of the Báb in Haifa, Israel
Baháʼí timeline
1817Baháʼu'lláh is born in Tehran, Iran
1819The Báb is born in Shiraz, Iran
1844The Báb declares his mission in Shiraz, Iran
1850The Báb is publicly executed in Tabriz, Iran
1852Thousands of Bábís are executed following an attempted assassination of Shah Naser al-Din Shah Qajar.
Baháʼu'lláh is imprisoned and forced into exile
1863Baháʼu'lláh first announces his claim to divine revelation in Baghdad, Iraq.
Baháʼu'lláh is forced to leave Baghdad for Constantinople, then Adrianople
1868Baháʼu'lláh is forced into harsher confinement in ʻAkká
1892Baháʼu'lláh dies near ʻAkká
Baháʼu'lláh's will appoints his eldest son ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as successor
1908ʻAbdu'l-Bahá is released from prison
1921ʻAbdu'l-Bahá dies in Haifa, marking the end of the Heroic Age (or Apostolic or Primitive Age) of the Baháʼí Faith, which spans from 1844–1921.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will appoints his grandson Shoghi Effendi as Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith
1957Shoghi Effendi dies in England
1963The Universal House of Justice is first elected

The Baháʼí Faith traces its beginnings to the religion of the Báb and the Shaykhi movement that immediately preceded it. The Báb was a merchant who began preaching in 1844 that he was the bearer of a new revelation from God, but was rejected by the generality of Islamic clergy in Iran, ending in his public execution in 1850 for the crime of heresy.[22] The Báb taught that God would soon send a new messenger, and Baháʼís consider Baháʼu'lláh to be that person.[23] Although recognized as a messenger in his own right, the Báb is so interwoven into Baháʼí theology and history that Baháʼís celebrate his birth, death, and declaration as holy days, and consider him one of their three central figures (along with Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá). A historical account of the Bábí movement (The Dawn-Breakers) is considered one of three books that every Baháʼí should "master" and read "over and over again".[24]

The Baháʼí community was mostly confined to the Iranian and Ottoman empires until after the death of Baháʼu'lláh in 1892; at that time, he had followers in 13 countries of Asia and Africa.[25] Under the leadership of his son, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the religion gained a footing in Europe and America, and was consolidated in Iran, where it still suffers intense persecution.[14] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death in 1921 marks the end of what Baháʼís call the "heroic age" of the religion.[26]

Báb

Main article: Báb

On the evening of 22 May 1844, Siyyid ʻAlí-Muhammad of Shiraz gained his first convert and took on the title of "the Báb" (الباب "Gate"), referring to his later claim to the status of Mahdi of Shiʻa Islam.[14] His followers were known as Bábís. As the Báb's teachings spread, which the Islamic clergy saw as blasphemous, his followers came under increased persecution and torture.[27] The conflicts escalated in several places to military sieges by the Shah's army. The Báb himself was imprisoned and eventually executed in 1850.[28]

Baháʼís see the Báb as the forerunner of the Baháʼí Faith, because the Báb's writings introduced the concept of "He whom God shall make manifest", a messianic figure whose coming, according to Baháʼís, was announced in the scriptures of all of the world's great religions, and whom Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, claimed to be.[27] The Báb's tomb, located on Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel, is an important place of pilgrimage for Baháʼís. The remains of the Báb were brought secretly from Iran to the Holy Land and eventually interred in the tomb built for them in a spot specifically designated by Baháʼu'lláh.[29] The writings of the Báb are considered inspired scripture by Baháʼís, though having been superseded by the laws and teachings of Baháʼu'lláh.[30] Extracts of the main written works of the Báb translated into English are compiled in Selections from the Writings of the Báb (1976) out of the estimated 135 works.[31][32]

Baháʼu'lláh

Main article: Baháʼu'lláh
Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith

Mírzá Husayn ʻAlí Núrí was one of the early followers of the Báb,[33] and later took the title of Baháʼu'lláh.[34] In August 1852, a few Bábís made a failed attempt to assassinate the Shah, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar.[35][36] The Shah responded by ordering the killing and in some cases torturing of about fifty Bábís in Tehran.[36] Further bloodshed spread throughout the country and hundreds were reported killed in newspapers of the period by October, and tens of thousands were killed by the end of December.[37] Baháʼu'lláh himself was not involved in the assassination attempt, but was nonetheless imprisoned in the Síyáh-Chál dungeon of Tehran until his release was obtained four months later through the intervention of the Russian ambassador.[38] After his expulsion from Iran, Baháʼu'lláh traveled to Baghdad, then part of the Ottoman Empire, where he joined other Bábís in exile.[39]

In Baghdad, his leadership revived the persecuted followers of the Báb back in Iran, so Iranian authorities requested his removal, instigating a summons to Constantinople (now Istanbul) from the Ottoman Sultan. In 1863, at the time of his removal from Baghdad, Baháʼu'lláh first announced his claim of prophethood to his family and followers, which he said had come to him years earlier while in the Síyáh-Chál dungeon of Tehran.[39] From the time of the initial exile from Iran, tensions grew between him and Subh-i-Azal, the appointed leader of the Bábís, who did not recognize Baháʼu'lláh's claim. Throughout the rest of his life Baháʼu'lláh gained the allegiance of almost all of the Bábís, who came to be known as Baháʼís, while a remnant of Bábís became known as Azalis, and are regarded by modern-day Bahá'ís as apostates.[40]

He spent less than four months in Constantinople. The Ottoman authorities turned against him as a result of a campaign of defamation by the Persian ambassador, and the sultan's government decreed a further exile to Adrianople (now Edirne), to which Bahá'u'lláh responded with a letter voicing severe chastisement. There in Adrianople he was placed under house arrest, and he remained there for four years, until a royal decree of 1868 banished all Bábís to either Cyprus or ʻAkká.

It was in or near the Ottoman penal colony of ʻAkká, (now Acre in Israel), that Baháʼu'lláh spent the remainder of his life. After initially strict and harsh confinement, he was allowed to live in a home near ʻAkká, while still officially a prisoner of that city.[41] He died there in 1892. Baháʼís regard his resting place at Bahjí as the Qiblih to which they turn in prayer each day.[42]

He produced over 18,000 works in his lifetime, in both Arabic and Persian, of which only 8% have been translated into English.[43] During the period in Adrianople, he began declaring his mission as a Messenger of God in letters to the world's religious and secular rulers, including Pope Pius IX, Napoleon III, and Queen Victoria.[44]

ʻAbdu'l-Bahá

Main article: ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh

ʻAbbás Effendi was Baháʼu'lláh's eldest son, who chose for himself the title of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("Servant of Bahá"). His father left a will that appointed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as the leader of the Baháʼí community.[45] ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had shared his father's long exile and imprisonment, which continued until ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's own release as a result of the Young Turk Revolution in 1908. Following his release, he led a life of travelling, speaking, teaching, and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding the principles of the Baháʼí Faith.[39] Bahá'ís consider ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to be a perfect exemplar of the Baháʼí teachings.[46]

As of 2020, there are over 38,000 extant documents containing the words of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, which are of widely varying lengths.[47] Only a fraction of these documents have been translated into English.[needs update][32] Among the more well known are The Secret of Divine Civilization, Some Answered Questions, the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel, the Tablets of the Divine Plan, and the Tablet to The Hague.[47] Additionally notes taken of a number of his talks were published in various volumes like Paris Talks during his journeys to the West.

Shoghi Effendi

Main article: Shoghi Effendi

Baháʼu'lláh's Kitáb-i-Aqdas and The Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá are foundational documents of the Baháʼí administrative order. Baháʼu'lláh established the elected Universal House of Justice, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá established the appointed hereditary Guardianship and clarified the relationship between the two institutions.[48] In his Will, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá appointed Shoghi Effendi, his eldest grandson, as the first Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith. Shoghi Effendi served for 36 years as the head of the religion until his death in 1957.[49]

Throughout his lifetime, Shoghi Effendi translated Baháʼí texts; developed global plans for the expansion of the Baháʼí community; developed the Baháʼí World Centre; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world; and built the administrative structure of the religion, preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice.[39]

In 1937, Shoghi Effendi launched a seven-year plan for the Baháʼís of North America, followed by another in 1946. In 1953, he launched the first international plan, the Ten Year World Crusade. This plan included extremely ambitious goals for the expansion of Baháʼí communities and institutions, the translation of Baháʼí texts into several new languages, and the sending of Baháʼí pioneers into previously unreached nations.[50] He announced in letters during the Ten Year Crusade that it would be followed by other plans under the direction of the Universal House of Justice, which was elected in 1963 at the culmination of the Ten Year Crusade.[51]

Shoghi Effendi died unexpectedly after a brief illness on 4 November 1957 in London, England, under conditions that did not allow for a successor to be appointed.[52][53] He is buried in New Southgate Cemetery in Barnet, London.

Universal House of Justice

Main article: Universal House of Justice
Seat of the Universal House of Justice

Since 1963, the Universal House of Justice has been the elected head of the Baháʼí Faith. The general functions of this body are defined through the writings of Baháʼu'lláh and clarified in the writings of Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi. These functions include teaching and education, implementing Baháʼí laws, addressing social issues, and caring for the weak and the poor.[54]

Starting with the Nine Year Plan that began in 1964, the Universal House of Justice has directed the work of the Baháʼí community through a series of multi-year international plans.[55][56] The Baháʼí leadership sought to continue the expansion of the religion but also to "consolidate" new members, meaning increase their knowledge of the Baháʼí teachings.[57] In this vein, in the 1970s, the Ruhi Institute was founded by Baháʼís in Colombia to offer short courses on Baháʼí beliefs, ranging in length from a weekend to nine days.[57] The associated Ruhi Foundation, whose purpose was to systematically "consolidate" new Baháʼís, was registered in 1992, and since the late 1990s the courses of the Ruhi Institute have been the dominant way of deepening in the Baháʼí Faith around the world.[57] By 2013 there were over 300 Baháʼí training institutes around the world and 100,000 people participating in courses.[58] The courses of the Ruhi Institute train communities to self-organize classes for the spiritual education of children and youth, among other activities.[58] Additional lines of action the Universal House of Justice has encouraged for the contemporary Baháʼí community include social action and participation in the prevalent discourses of society.[59]

Annually, on 21 April, the Universal House of Justice sends a 'Ridván' message to the worldwide Baháʼí community,[60] that updates Baháʼís on current developments and provides further guidance for the year to come.[d]

At local, regional, and national levels, Baháʼís elect members to nine-person Spiritual Assemblies, which run the affairs of the religion. There are also appointed individuals working at various levels, including locally and internationally, which perform the function of propagating the teachings and protecting the community. The latter do not serve as clergy, which the Baháʼí Faith does not have.[27][61] The Universal House of Justice remains the supreme governing body of the Baháʼí Faith, and its 9 members are elected every five years by the members of all National Spiritual Assemblies.[62] Any male Baháʼí, 21 years or older, is eligible to be elected to the Universal House of Justice; all other positions are open to male and female Baháʼís.[63]

Beliefs

Main article: Baháʼí teachings
A white domed building
Baháʼí House of Worship in Ingleside, Sydney, Australia

The teachings of Baháʼu'lláh form the foundation of Baháʼí beliefs. Three principles are central to these teachings: the unity of God, the unity of religion, and the unity of humanity.[39] Bahá'ís believe that God periodically reveals his will through divine messengers, whose purpose is to transform the character of humankind and to develop, within those who respond, moral and spiritual qualities. Religion is thus seen as orderly, unified, and progressive from age to age.[64]

God

Main article: God in the Baháʼí Faith
The Greatest Name is a calligraphic rendering of the Arabic text: يا بهاء الأبهى, translated as "O Thou Glory of Glories".

Baháʼí writings describe a single, personal, inaccessible, omniscient, omnipresent, imperishable, and almighty God who is the creator of all things in the universe.[65] The existence of God and the universe are thought to be eternal, with no beginning or end.[27] Even though God is not directly accessible, he is seen as being conscious of creation, with a will and a purpose which is expressed through messengers who are called Manifestations of God.[66] The Baháʼí conception of God is of an "unknowable essence" who is the source of all existence and is known through the perception of divine qualities in creation and in the Manifestations of God.[citation needed] In another sense, Baháʼí teachings on God are also panentheistic, seeing signs of God in all things, but the reality of God being exalted and above the physical world.[67]

Baháʼí teachings state that God is too great for humans to comprehend fully, and humans cannot create a complete and accurate image of God by themselves. Therefore, human understanding of God is achieved through the recognition of the person of the Manifestation and through the understanding of his revelations via his Manifestations.[68][69][better source needed] In the Baháʼí Faith, God is often referred to by titles and attributes (for example, the All-Powerful, or the All-Loving), and there is a substantial emphasis on monotheism. Baháʼí teachings state that these attributes do not apply to God directly but are used to translate Godliness into human terms and to help people focus on their own attributes in worshipping God, thereby developing their potential on their spiritual path.[68][69][better source needed] According to the Baháʼí teachings the human purpose is to learn to know and love God through such methods as prayer, reflection, and being of service to others.[68][better source needed]

Religion

Main article: Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion
See also: Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)
A white column with ornate designs carved into it, including a Star of David
Symbols of many religions on a pillar of the Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois, U.S.

Baháʼí notions of progressive religious revelation result in their accepting the validity of the well known religions of the world, whose founders and central figures are seen as Manifestations of God.[70] Religious history is interpreted as a series of dispensations, where each manifestation brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation that is rendered as a text of scripture and passed on through history with greater or lesser reliability but at least true in substance,[71] suited for the time and place in which it was expressed.[27] Specific religious social teachings (for example, the direction of prayer, or dietary restrictions) may be revoked by a subsequent manifestation so that a more appropriate requirement for the time and place may be established. Conversely, certain general principles (for example, neighbourliness or charity) are seen to be universal and consistent. In Baháʼí belief, this process of progressive revelation will not end; it is, however, believed to be cyclical. Baháʼís do not expect a new manifestation of God to appear within 1000 years of Baháʼu'lláh's revelation.[72]

Baháʼís assert that their religion is a distinct tradition with its own scriptures and laws, and not a sect of another religion.[73] Most religious specialists now see it as an independent religion, with its religious background in Shiʻa Islam analogous to the Jewish context in which Christianity was established.[74] Baháʼís describe their faith as an independent world religion, differing from the other traditions in its relative age and modern context.[75][better source needed]

The Baháʼí Faith has been described as belonging to the family of Abrahamic religions, as it is monotheistic and recognizes its own descent from the prophet Abraham.[76]

Human beings

See also: Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity and Baháʼí Faith on life after death
A stylized Arabic figure which has intersecting lines that lock around rings and five-pointed stars to either side
The ringstone symbol, representing humanity's connection to God

The Baháʼí writings state that human beings have a "rational soul," which provides the species with a unique capacity to recognize God's transcendence and humanity's relationship with its creator. Every human is seen to have a duty to recognize God through his Messengers, and to conform to their teachings.[77] Through recognition and obedience, service to humanity and regular prayer and spiritual practice, the Baháʼí writings state that the soul becomes closer to God, the spiritual ideal in Baháʼí belief. According to Baháʼí belief, when a human dies, the soul is permanently separated from the body and carries on in the next world, where it is judged based on the person's actions in the physical world. Heaven and Hell are taught to be spiritual states of nearness or distance from God that describe relationships in this world and the next, and not physical places of reward and punishment achieved after death.[78]

The Baháʼí writings emphasize the essential equality of human beings and the abolition of prejudice. Humanity is seen as essentially one, though highly varied; its diversity of race and culture is appreciated and accepted. Doctrines of racism, nationalism, caste, social class, and gender-based hierarchy are seen as artificial impediments to unity.[39] The Baháʼí teachings state that the unification of humanity is the paramount issue in the religious and political conditions of the present world.[27]

Social principles

The Baháʼí gardens in Haifa, Israel

When ʻAbdu'l-Bahá first traveled to Europe and America in 1911–1912, he gave public talks that articulated the basic principles of the Baháʼí Faith.[79] These included preaching on the equality of men and women, race unity, the need for world peace, and other ideas considered progressive in the early 20th century. Published summaries of the Baháʼí teachings often include a list of these principles, and lists vary in wording and what is included.[80]

The concept of the unity of humankind, seen by Baháʼís as an ancient truth, is the starting point for many of the ideas. The equality of races and the elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty, for example, are implications of that unity.[81] Another outgrowth of the concept is the need for a united world federation, and some practical recommendations to encourage its realization involve the establishment of a universal language, a standard economy and system of measurement, universal compulsory education, and an international court of arbitration to settle disputes between nations.[82] Nationalism, according to this viewpoint, should be abandoned in favor of allegiance to the whole of humankind. In pursuit of world peace, Baháʼu'lláh prescribed a world-embracing collective security arrangement.[83]

Other Baháʼí social principles revolve around spiritual unity. Religion is viewed as progressive from age to age, but to recognize a newer revelation, one has to abandon tradition and investigate independently. Baháʼís are taught to view religion as a source of unity and religious prejudice as destructive. Science is also viewed in harmony with true religion.[80] Though Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá called for a united world that is free of war, they also anticipate that over the long term, the establishment of a lasting peace (The Most Great Peace) and the purging of the "overwhelming Corruptions" requires that the people of the world unite under a universal faith with spiritual virtues and ethics to complement material civilization.[83]

Shoghi Effendi, the head of the religion from 1921 to 1957, wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of Baháʼu'lláh's teachings, which, he said, together with the laws and ordinances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas constitute the bedrock of the Baháʼí Faith:

The independent search after truth, unfettered by superstition or tradition; the oneness of the entire human race, the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine of the Faith; the basic unity of all religions; the condemnation of all forms of prejudice, whether religious, racial, class or national; the harmony which must exist between religion and science; the equality of men and women, the two wings on which the bird of human kind is able to soar; the introduction of compulsory education; the adoption of a universal auxiliary language; the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty; the institution of a world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes between nations; the exaltation of work, performed in the spirit of service, to the rank of worship; the glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society, and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations; and the establishment of a permanent and universal peace as the supreme goal of all mankind—these stand out as the essential elements [which Baháʼu'lláh proclaimed].[84][85]

Covenant

Main article: Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh

Baháʼís highly value unity, and Baháʼu'lláh clearly established rules for holding the community together and resolving disagreements. Within this framework, no individual follower may propose 'inspired' or 'authoritative' interpretations of scripture, and individuals agree to support the line of authority established in Baháʼí scriptures.[86] This practice has left the Baháʼí community unified and free of any serious fracturing.[87] The Universal House of Justice is the final authority to resolve any disagreements among Baháʼís, and the few attempts at schism[88] have all either become extinct or remained extremely small, numbering a few hundred adherents collectively.[89][90] The followers of such divisions are regarded as Covenant-breakers and shunned.[91]

Sacred texts

Main article: Baháʼí literature

The canonical texts of the Baháʼí Faith are the writings of the Báb, Baháʼu'lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice, and the authenticated talks of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The writings of the Báb and Baháʼu'lláh are considered as divine revelation, the writings and talks of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and the writings of Shoghi Effendi as authoritative interpretation, and those of the Universal House of Justice as authoritative legislation and elucidation. Some measure of divine guidance is assumed for all of these texts.[92]

Some of Baháʼu'lláh's most important writings include the Kitáb-i-Aqdas ("Most Holy Book"), which defines many laws and practices for individuals and society,[93] the Kitáb-i-Íqán ("Book of Certitude"), which became the foundation of much of Baháʼí belief,[94] and Gems of Divine Mysteries, which includes further doctrinal foundations. Although the Baháʼí teachings have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, a number of foundational texts have been described as mystical.[27] These include the Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys.[95] The Seven Valleys was written to a follower of Sufism, in the style of ʻAttar, the Persian Muslim poet,[96] and sets forth the stages of the soul's journey towards God. It was first translated into English in 1906, becoming one of the earliest available books of Baháʼu'lláh to the West. The Hidden Words is another book written by Baháʼu'lláh during the same period, containing 153 short passages in which Baháʼu'lláh claims to have taken the basic essence of certain spiritual truths and written them in brief form.[97]

Demographics

Further information: Baháʼí Faith by country and Growth of religion
A large temple in the shape of an open lotus flower
The Lotus Temple, the first Baháʼí House of Worship of India, built in 1986. It attracts an estimated 4.5 million visitors a year.

As of 2020, there were about 8 million Bahá'ís in the world.[98][99] In 2013, two scholars of demography wrote that, "The Baha'i Faith is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the general population; Bahaʼi [sic] was thus the fastest-growing religion between 1910 and 2010, growing at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region."[100]

The Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois, US is the oldest surviving Baháʼí House of Worship in the world.[101]

The largest proportions of the total worldwide Bahá'í population were found in sub-Saharan Africa (29.9%) and South Asia (26.8%), followed by Southeast Asia (12.7%) and Latin America (12.2%).[102] Lesser numbers are found in North America (7.6%) and the Middle East/North Africa (6.2%), with the smallest being in Europe (2.0%), Australasia (1.6%), and Northeast Asia (0.9%). In 2015, the Bahá'í Faith was the second largest religion in Iran,[103] Panama,[104] Belize,[105] Bolivia,[106] Zambia,[107] and Papua New Guinea,[108] and the third largest in Chad[109] and Kenya.[110]

From the Bahá'í Faith's origins in the 19th century until the 1950s, the vast majority of Baháʼís were found in Iran; converts from outside Iran were mostly found in India and the Western world.[111] From having roughly 200,000 Baháʼís in 1950,[112] the religion grew to have over 4 million by the late 1980s, with a wide international distribution.[111][113] As of 2008, there were about 110,000 followers in Iran.[114] Most of the growth in the late 20th century was seeded out of North America by means of the planned migration of individuals.[115] Yet, rather than being a cultural spread from either Iran or North America, in 2001, sociologist David B. Barrett wrote that the Baháʼí Faith is, "A world religion with no racial or national focus".[116] However, the growth has not been even. From the late 1920s to the late 1980s, the religion was banned and its adherents were harassed in the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc,[117][118][119] and then again from the 1970s into the 1990s across some countries in sub-Saharan Africa.[55][120] The most intense opposition has been in Iran and neighboring Shia-majority countries,[121] considered an attempted genocide by some scholars, watchdog agencies and human rights organizations.[14][122][123][124] Meanwhile, in other times and places, the religion has experienced surges in growth. Before it was banned in certain countries, the religion "hugely increased" in sub-Saharan Africa.[125] In 1989 the Universal House of Justice named Bolivia, Bangladesh, Haiti, India, Liberia, Peru, the Philippines, and Taiwan as countries where the growth of the religion had been notable in the previous decades.[126] Bahá'í sources claimed "more than five million" Bahá'ís in 1991–92.[127] However, since around 2001 the Universal House of Justice has prioritized statistics of the community by their levels of activity rather than simply their population of avowed adherents or numbers of local assemblies.[128][129][130]

Because Bahá'ís do not represent the majority of the population in any country,[131] and most often represent only a tiny fraction of countries' total populations,[132] there are problems of under-reporting.[133] In addition, there are examples where the adherents have their highest density among minorities in societies who face their own challenges.[134][135]

Malietoa Tanumafili II of Samoa, who became Baháʼí in 1968 and died in 2007, was the first serving head of state to embrace the Baháʼí Faith.[136] Baháʼís consider Queen Marie of Romania to be the first crowned head to accept and promote the teachings of Baháʼu'lláh.[137]

Social practices

See also: Baháʼí laws

Exhortations

The following are a few examples from Baháʼu'lláh's teachings on personal conduct that are required or encouraged of his followers:

  • Baháʼís over the age of 15 should individually recite an obligatory prayer each day, using fixed words and form.[138]
  • In addition to the daily obligatory prayer, Baháʼís should offer daily devotional prayer and should meditate and study sacred scripture.[139]
  • Adult Baháʼís should observe a Nineteen-Day Fast each year during daylight hours in March, with certain exemptions.[140]
  • There are specific requirements for Baháʼí burial that include a specified prayer to be read at the interment. Embalming or cremating the body is strongly discouraged.[141]
  • Baháʼís should make a 19% voluntary payment on any wealth in excess of what is necessary to live comfortably, after the remittance of any outstanding debt. The payments go to the Universal House of Justice.[140]

Prohibitions

Elaborate gardens with several gates and a walkway leading to a domed building in the distance
The Baháʼí gardens in Haifa, Israel

The following are a few acts of personal conduct that are prohibited or discouraged by Baháʼu'lláh's teachings:

The observance of personal laws, such as prayer or fasting, is the sole responsibility of the individual.[147] There are, however, occasions when a Baháʼí might be administratively expelled from the community for a public disregard of the laws, or gross immorality. Such expulsions are administered by the National Spiritual Assembly and do not involve shunning.[148]

While some of the laws in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas are applicable at the present time, other laws are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Baháʼí society, such as the punishments for arson and murder.[149] The laws, when not in direct conflict with the civil laws of the country of residence, are binding on every Baháʼí.[150][151]

Marriage

Main article: Baháʼí marriage

The purpose of marriage in the Baháʼí Faith is mainly to foster spiritual harmony, fellowship and unity between a man and a woman and to provide a stable and loving environment for the rearing of children.[152] The Baháʼí teachings on marriage call it a fortress for well-being and salvation and place marriage and the family as the foundation of the structure of human society.[153] Baháʼu'lláh highly praised marriage, discouraged divorce, and required chastity outside of marriage; Baháʼu'lláh taught that a husband and wife should strive to improve the spiritual life of each other.[154] Interracial marriage is also highly praised throughout Baháʼí scripture.[153]

Baháʼís intending to marry are asked to obtain a thorough understanding of the other's character before deciding to marry.[153] Although parents should not choose partners for their children, once two individuals decide to marry, they must receive the consent of all living biological parents, whether they are Baháʼí or not. The Baháʼí marriage ceremony is simple; the only compulsory part of the wedding is the reading of the wedding vows prescribed by Baháʼu'lláh which both the groom and the bride read, in the presence of two witnesses.[153] The vows are "We will all, verily, abide by the Will of God."[153]

Transgender people can gain recognition of their gender in the Baháʼí Faith if they have medically transitioned and undergone sex reassignment surgery (SRS). After SRS, they are considered transitioned and may have a Baháʼí marriage.[155][156]

Work

Baháʼu'lláh prohibited a mendicant and ascetic lifestyle.[146] Monasticism is forbidden, and Baháʼís are taught to practice spirituality while engaging in useful work.[27] The importance of self-exertion and service to humanity in one's spiritual life is emphasised further in Baháʼu'lláh's writings, where he states that work done in the spirit of service to humanity enjoys a rank equal to that of prayer and worship in the sight of God.[27]

Places of worship

Main article: Baháʼí House of Worship
A white domed building with palm trees in front of it
Baháʼí House of Worship, Langenhain, Germany

Bahá'í devotional meetings in most communities currently take place in people's homes or Bahá'í centres, but in some communities Bahá'í Houses of Worship (also known as Bahá'í temples) have been built.[157] Bahá'í Houses of Worship are places where both Baháʼís and non-Baháʼís can express devotion to God.[158] They are also known by the name Mashriqu'l-Adhkár (Arabic for "Dawning-place of the remembrance of God").[159] Only the holy scriptures of the Bahá'í Faith and other religions can be read or chanted inside, and while readings and prayers that have been set to music may be sung by choirs, no musical instruments may be played inside.[160] Furthermore, no sermons may be delivered, and no ritualistic ceremonies practiced.[160] All Bahá'í Houses of Worship have a nine-sided shape (nonagon) as well as nine pathways leading outward and nine gardens surrounding them.[161] There are currently eight "continental" Bahá'í Houses of Worship and some national and local Bahá'í Houses of Worship completed or under construction.[53] The Bahá'í writings also envision Bahá'í Houses of Worship being surrounded by institutions for humanitarian, scientific, and educational pursuits,[159] though none has yet been built up to such an extent.[162]

Calendar

Main article: Baháʼí calendar

The Baháʼí calendar is based upon the calendar established by the Báb. The year consists of 19 months, each having 19 days, with four or five intercalary days, to make a full solar year.[39] The Baháʼí New Year, called Naw Rúz, occurs on the vernal equinox, near 21 March (as does the traditional Iranian New Year) and at the end of the month of fasting. Once every Baháʼí month there is a gathering of the Baháʼí community called a Nineteen Day Feast with three parts: first, a devotional part for prayer and reading from Baháʼí scripture; second, an administrative part for consultation and community matters; and third, a social part for the community to interact freely.[157]

Each of the 19 months is given a name which is an attribute of God; some examples include Baháʼ (Splendour), ʻIlm (Knowledge), and Jamál (Beauty).[163] The Baháʼí week, like that in the Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions, consists of seven days, with each day of the week also named after an attribute of God. Baháʼís observe 11 Holy Days throughout the year, with work suspended on 9 of these. These days commemorate important anniversaries in the history of the religion.[164]

Symbols

Main article: Baháʼí symbols
Arabic script inscribed on a metal plate
The calligraphy of the Greatest Name on a metal plate at the top of the interior of the Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois

The symbols of the religion are derived from the Arabic word Baháʼ (بهاء "splendor" or "glory"), with a numerical value of nine. This numerical connection to the name of Baháʼu'lláh, as well as nine being the highest single-digit, symbolizing completeness, are why the most common symbol of the religion is a nine-pointed star, and Baháʼí temples are nine-sided.[165][70] The nine-pointed star is commonly set on Baháʼí gravestones.[166]

The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered. The ringstone symbol consists of two five-pointed stars interspersed with a stylized Baháʼ whose shape is meant to recall God, the Manifestation of God, and the world of man;[166] the Greatest Name is a calligraphic rendering of the phrase Yá Baháʼu'l-Abhá (يا بهاء الأبهى "O Glory of the Most Glorious!") and is commonly found in Baháʼí temples and homes.[166]

Socio-economic development

Main article: Socioeconomic development and the Baháʼí Faith
A black-and-white photograph of several dozen girls seated in front of a school building
Students of School for Girls, Tehran, 13 August 1933. This photograph may be of the students of Tarbiyat School for Girls which was established by the Baháʼí Community of Tehran in 1911; the school was closed by government decree in 1934.[167]

Since its inception the Baháʼí Faith has had involvement in socio-economic development beginning by giving greater freedom to women,[168][better source needed] promulgating the promotion of female education as a priority concern,[169][better source needed] and that involvement was given practical expression by creating schools, agricultural co-ops, and clinics.[168][better source needed]

The religion entered a new phase of activity when a message from the Universal House of Justice dated 20 October 1983 was released. Baháʼís were urged to seek out ways, compatible with the Baháʼí teachings, in which they could become involved in the social and economic development of the communities in which they lived. Worldwide in 1979 129 Baháʼí-inspired socio-economic development projects were identified. By 1987, the number of development projects had increased to 1,482.[55]

Current initiatives of social action include activities in areas like health, sanitation, education, gender equality, arts and media, agriculture, and the environment.[170][better source needed] Educational projects range from village tutorial schools to large secondary schools, and some universities.[171] By 2017, the Baháʼí Office of Social and Economic Development estimated that there were 40,000 small-scale projects, 1,400 projects with long-term sustained activity, and 135 Baháʼí-inspired organizations.[170]

United Nations

Baháʼu'lláh wrote of the need for world government in this age of humanity's collective life. Because of this emphasis the international Baháʼí community has chosen to support efforts of improving international relations through organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations, with some reservations about the present structure and constitution of the UN.[171] The Baháʼí International Community is an agency under the direction of the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, and has consultative status with the following organizations:[172][173]

The Baháʼí International Community has offices at the United Nations in New York and Geneva and representations to United Nations regional commissions and other offices in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Santiago, and Vienna.[173] In recent years, an Office of the Environment and an Office for the Advancement of Women were established as part of its United Nations Office. The Baháʼí Faith has also undertaken joint development programs with various other United Nations agencies. In the 2000 Millennium Forum of the United Nations a Baháʼí was invited as one of the few non-governmental speakers during the summit.[174][better source needed]

Persecution

Main article: Persecution of Baháʼís
Broken cinder blocks and felled palm trees
The Baháʼí cemetery in Yazd after its desecration by the Iranian government

Baháʼís continue to be persecuted in some majority-Islamic countries, whose leaders do not recognize the Baháʼí Faith as an independent religion, but rather as apostasy from Islam. The most severe persecutions have occurred in Iran, where more than 200 Baháʼís were executed between 1978 and 1998.[175] The rights of Baháʼís have been restricted to greater or lesser extents in numerous other countries, including Egypt, Afghanistan,[176][better source needed] Indonesia,[177] Iraq,[178] Morocco,[179] Yemen,[180] and several countries in sub-Saharan Africa.[55]

Iran

The most enduring persecution of Baháʼís has been in Iran, the birthplace of the religion.[181] When the Báb started attracting a large following, the clergy hoped to stop the movement from spreading by stating that its followers were enemies of God. These clerical directives led to mob attacks and public executions.[14] Starting in the twentieth century, in addition to repression aimed at individual Baháʼís, centrally directed campaigns that targeted the entire Baháʼí community and its institutions were initiated.[182] In one case in Yazd in 1903 more than 100 Baháʼís were killed.[183] Baháʼí schools, such as the Tarbiyat boys' and girls' schools in Tehran, were closed in the 1930s and 1940s, Baháʼí marriages were not recognized and Baháʼí texts were censored.[182][184]

During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to divert attention from economic difficulties in Iran and from a growing nationalist movement, a campaign of persecution against the Baháʼís was instituted.[e] An approved and coordinated anti-Baháʼí campaign (to incite public passion against the Baháʼís) started in 1955 and it included the spreading of anti-Baháʼí propaganda on national radio stations and in official newspapers.[182] During that campaign, initiated by Mulla Muhammad Taghi Falsafi, the Bahá'í center in Tehran was demolished at the orders of Tehran military governor, General Teymur Bakhtiar.[186] In the late 1970s the Shah's regime consistently lost legitimacy due to criticism that it was pro-Western. As the anti-Shah movement gained ground and support, revolutionary propaganda was spread which alleged that some of the Shah's advisors were Baháʼís.[187] Baháʼís were portrayed as economic threats, and as supporters of Israel and the West, and societal hostility against the Baháʼís increased.[182][188]

Since the Islamic Revolution of 1979, Iranian Baháʼís have regularly had their homes ransacked or have been banned from attending university or from holding government jobs, and several hundred have received prison sentences for their religious beliefs, most recently for participating in study circles.[175] Baháʼí cemeteries have been desecrated and property has been seized and occasionally demolished, including the House of Mírzá Buzurg, Baháʼu'lláh's father.[14] The House of the Báb in Shiraz, one of three sites to which Baháʼís perform pilgrimage, has been destroyed twice.[14][189] In May 2018, the Iranian authorities expelled a young woman student from university of Isfahan because she was Baháʼí.[190] In March 2018, two more Baháʼí students were expelled from universities in the cities of Zanjan and Gilan because of their religion.

According to a US panel, attacks on Baháʼís in Iran increased under Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's presidency.[191][192] The United Nations Commission on Human Rights revealed an October 2005 confidential letter from Command Headquarters of the Armed Forces of Iran ordering its members to identify Baháʼís and to monitor their activities. Due to these actions, the Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights stated on 20 March 2006, that she "also expresses concern that the information gained as a result of such monitoring will be used as a basis for the increased persecution of, and discrimination against, members of the Baháʼí faith, in violation of international standards. The Special Rapporteur is concerned that this latest development indicates that the situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating."[193]

On 14 May 2008, members of an informal body known as the "Friends" that oversaw the needs of the Baháʼí community in Iran were arrested and taken to Evin prison.[191][194] The Friends court case has been postponed several times, but was finally underway on 12 January 2010.[195] Other observers were not allowed in the court. Even the defense lawyers, who for two years have had minimal access to the defendants, had difficulty entering the courtroom. The chairman of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom said that it seems that the government has already predetermined the outcome of the case and is violating international human rights law.[195] Further sessions were held on 7 February 2010,[196] 12 April 2010[197] and 12 June 2010.[198] On 11 August 2010 it became known that the court sentence was 20 years imprisonment for each of the seven prisoners[199] which was later reduced to ten years.[200] After the sentence, they were transferred to Gohardasht prison.[201] In March 2011 the sentences were reinstated to the original 20 years.[202] On 3 January 2010, Iranian authorities detained ten more members of the Baha'i minority, reportedly including Leva Khanjani, granddaughter of Jamaloddin Khanjani, one of seven Baha'i leaders jailed since 2008 and in February, they arrested his son, Niki Khanjani.[203]

The Iranian government claims that the Baháʼí Faith is not a religion, but is instead a political organization, and hence refuses to recognize it as a minority religion.[204] However, the government has never produced convincing evidence supporting its characterization of the Baháʼí community.[205] The Iranian government also accuses the Baháʼí Faith of being associated with Zionism.[f] These accusations against the Baháʼís appear to lack basis in historical fact,[g][188][207] with some arguing they were invented by the Iranian government in order to use the Baháʼís as scapegoats.[208]

In 2019, the Iranian government made it impossible for the Baháʼís to legally register with the Iranian state. National identity card applications in Iran no longer include the "other religions" option, effectively making access to official government services unavailable to Bahá'ís.[209]

Egypt

During the 1920s, Egypt's religious Tribunal recognized the Baha'i Faith as a new religion, independent from Islam, due to the nature of the 'laws, principles and beliefs' of the Baha'is.[citation needed]

Baháʼí institutions and community activities have been illegal under Egyptian law since 1960. All Baháʼí community properties, including Baháʼí centers, libraries, and cemeteries, have been confiscated by the government and fatwas have been issued charging Baháʼís with apostasy.[210]

The Egyptian identification card controversy began in the 1990s when the government modernized the electronic processing of identity documents, which introduced a de facto requirement that documents must list the person's religion as Muslim, Christian, or Jewish (the only three religions officially recognized by the government). Consequently, Baháʼís were unable to obtain government identification documents (such as national identification cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, or passports) necessary to exercise their rights in their country unless they lied about their religion, which conflicts with Baháʼí religious principle. Without documents, they could not be employed, educated, treated in hospitals, travel outside of the country, or vote, among other hardships.[211][better source needed] Following a protracted legal process culminating in a court ruling favorable to the Baháʼís, the interior minister of Egypt released a decree on 14 April 2009, amending the law to allow Egyptians who are not Muslim, Christian, or Jewish to obtain identification documents that list a dash in place of one of the three recognized religions.[212][better source needed] The first identification cards were issued to two Baháʼís under the new decree on 8 August 2009.[213][better source needed]

Ottoman Empire

The Bahá'ís arrived in Acre, Palestine, in the 19th century, fleeing persecution. Ottoman authorities viewed Bahá'u'lláh as politically dangerous, which led to his exile to various locations within the Ottoman Empire, including Constantinople (Istanbul) and Adrianople (Edirne). After several exiles, Bahá'u'lláh finally arrived in Acre, where he lived under house arrest until his passing in 1892. His followers later established the Bahá'í Gardens and shrines in Haifa and Acre, both of which are now UNESCO World Heritage sites.[214]

See also

Notes

  1.  The Baháʼí Faith is variously described as a 'religion', 'sect',[2] 'relatively new religion',[3] 'world religion',[4] 'major world religion',[5] 'megareligion',[6] 'independent world religion',[7] 'new religious movement',[8] 'alternative religion',[9] and other attempts to convey that it is new (relative to well-established faiths), not mainstream, and with no racial or national focus.
  2.  Sources summarize the Baháʼí Faith as teaching, "the essential worth of all religions, the unity of all peoples, and the equality of the sexes",[10] "the essential unity of all religions and the unity of humanity",[11] "the spiritual unity of mankind and advocates peace and universal education",[12] "the unity of all peoples under God",[5] or "religious unity... the Oneness of Humanity... the equality of all human beings regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, or social class".[13]
  3.  See Baháʼí Faith by country for various estimates.
  4.  All Ridván messages can be found at Bahai.org.
  5.  In line with this is the thinking that the government encouraged the campaign to distract attention from more serious problems, including acute economic difficulties. Beyond this lay the difficulty that the regime faced in harnessing the nationalist movement that had supported Musaddiq.[185]
  6.  A spokesman for the Iranian Embassy in Argentina explained that the exclusion was prompted by the fact that the Bahá’ís were a "misguided group… whose affiliation and association with world Zionism is a clear fact" and who could not be "in the same category as minorities like the Christian, Jews and Zoroastrians."[206]
  7.  The Iranian leader Naser al-Din Shah Qajar banished Baháʼu'lláh from Iran to the Ottoman Empire, from where he was later exiled by the Ottoman Sultan, at the behest of the Iranian Shah to territories further from Iran and finally to Akka, which only a century later was incorporated into the state of Israel.

Citations

  1.  Smith 2000, pp. 71–72: "Baháʼí World Centre"
  2.  World Christian Encyclopedia 1982, p. 817.
  3.  Barrett 2001, p. 244.
  4.  Iranica-Bahaism 1988.
  5.  Barrett 2001, p. 248.
  6.  World Christian Encyclopedia 2001, p. 2:4.
  7.  Hartz 2009, p. 8.
  8.  Clarke 2006.
  9.  Barrett 2001, p. 24.
  10.  Dictionary.com 2017.
  11.  "Bahāʾī Faith". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
  12.  World Christian Encyclopedia 2001, p. 2:653.
  13.  Garlington 2008, pp. xxii–xxiii.
  14.  Affolter 2005.
  15.  Hatcher & Martin 1998.
  16.  Momen 2011.
  17.  "Baha'i". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins.
  18.  Stockman 2013, p. 1.
  19.  Hatcher & Martin 1998, p. xiii.
  20.  "Bahaʾi". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  21.  BWNS nd.
  22.  Hartz 2009, p. 11.
  23.  A.V. 2017.
  24.  From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual believer dated 9 June 1932[citation needed]
  25.  Taherzadeh 1987, p. 125.
  26.  Smith 2008, p. 56.
  27.  Daume & Watson 1992.
  28.  MacEoin 2009, p. 414.
  29.  Hartz 2009, pp. 75–76.
  30.  Smith 2008, p. 101.
  31.  Smith 2008, p. 102.
  32.  Universal House of Justice 2002.
  33.  MacEoin 2009, p. 498.
  34.  Warburg 2006, p. 145.
  35.  Momen, Moojan (August 2008). "Millennialism and Violence: The Attempted Assassination of Nasir al-Din Shah of Iran by the Babis in 1852". Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions. 12 (1): 57–82. doi:10.1525/nr.2008.12.1.57. JSTOR 10.1525/nr.2008.12.1.57. The actual attempt on the shah's life was made by three individuals who appear to have been very ill-prepared for their task, having only pistols loaded with grape-shot unlikely to kill anyone.
  36.  Warburg 2006, p. 146.
  37.   • "Persia – The Journal de Constantinople". The Guardian. London, UK. 3 November 1852. p. 2. Retrieved 6 September 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
     • "Persia". The Sun. Baltimore, MD. 17 November 1852. p. 1. Retrieved 6 September 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
     • "Turkey". London Standard. London, UK. 20 December 1852. p. 3. Retrieved 6 September 2022 – via BritishNewspaperArchive.co.uk.(subscription required)
  38.  Warburg 2006, pp. 146–147.
  39.  Hutter 2005, pp. 737–740.
  40.  Hartz 2009, pp. 48, 51.
  41.  Iranica-Baha'-Allah 1988.
  42.  Smith 2008, pp. 20–21, 28.
  43.  Stockman 2013, p. 2.
  44.  Berry 2004.
  45.  Hartz 2009, pp. 73–76.
  46.  Stockman, Robert H. (26 November 2021). The World of the Bahá'í Faith (1 ed.). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429027772. ISBN 978-0-429-02777-2.
  47.  Yazdani 2022.
  48.  Smith 2008, pp. 55–57.
  49.  Smith 2008, p. 55.
  50.  Smith 2008, p. 64.
  51.  Stockman, Robert H. (26 November 2021). The World of the Bahá'í Faith (1 ed.). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429027772. ISBN 978-0-429-02777-2.
  52.  Smith 2008, pp. 58–69.
  53.  Smith 2022a.
  54.  Iranica-Bayt-al-'adl 1989.
  55.  Smith & Momen 1989.
  56.  Hartz 2009, p. 107.
  57.  Fozdar 2015.
  58.  Stockman 2013, pp. 193–194.
  59.  Stockman 2013, p. 203.
  60.  Smith 2000, p. 297: "Ridván"
  61.  Smith 2008, p. 160.
  62.  Warburg 2001, p. 20.
  63.  Smith 2008, p. 205.
  64.  Smith 2008, pp. 108–109.
  65.  Smith 2008, p. 106.
  66.  Smith 2008, pp. 106–107, 111–112.
  67.  Stockman 2013, p. 33.
  68.  Hatcher 2005.
  69.  Cole 1982.
  70.  Hartz 2009, p. 14.
  71.  Stockman 2013, pp. 40–42.
  72.  McMullen 2000, p. 7.
  73.  Hartz 2009, p. 24.
  74.  Van der Vyer 1996, p. 449.
  75.  Lundberg 2005.
  76.  Cappucci, John (2017). "Baha'i Faith". In Çakmak, Cenap (ed.). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes]. Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. Bloomsbury. ISBN 979-8-216-10532-9.
  77.  McMullen 2000, pp. 57–58.
  78.  Stockman 2013, p. 45.
  79.  Smith 2008, pp. 52–53.
  80.  Iranica-The Faith 1988.
  81.  Stockman 2013, p. 9.
  82.  Hartz 2009, p. 21.
  83.  Smith 2000, pp. 266–267.
  84.  Effendi 1944, pp. 281–282.
  85.  Adamson 2009, pp. 383–384.
  86.  Hartz 2009, p. 20.
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References

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