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2023/08/13

Common misconceptions about Daoist tradition

9781441168733_commonmisconceptions_daoisttradition.pdf

Common misconceptions concerning Daoism (Taoism)

Popular misconceptions concerning Daoism are numerous and increasingly influential in the modern world. All of these perspectives fail to understand the religious tradition which is Daoism, a religious tradition that is complex, multifaceted, and rooted in traditional Chinese culture. These misconceptions have their origins in traditional Confucian prejudices, European colonialism, and Christian missionary sensibilities, especially as expressed by late nineteenth-century Protestants. Most of these views are located in American designer hybrid (“New Age”) spirituality, Orientalism, Perennial Philosophy, and spiritual capitalism. They domesticate, sterilize, and misrepresent Daoism, and disempower actual Daoists and Daoist communities. In their most developed expressions, they may best be understood as part of a new religious movement (NRM) called “Popular Western Taoism” (PWT), with Taoism pronounced with a hard “t” sound. The current state of Daoism in America may thus be compared to that of Zen Buddhism in the 1950s and 1960s (cf. Dharma Bums and Alan Watts with the Mountains and Rivers Order), although some have suggested that it more closely resembles the Euro-American understanding of Buddhism in the 1890s. In terms of the Western encounter with Daoism, this was the time of the World’s Parliament of Religions (1893) and James Legge’s (1815–97) contributions to the Sacred Books of the East (Max Muller [ed]).

Popular Misconception	Informed View
Dao (Tao) is a trans-religious and universal name for the sacred, and there are “Dao-ists” (“Tao-ists”) who transcend the limitations of the Daoist religious tradition.	道, romanized as dao or tao, is a Chinese character utilized by Daoists to identify that which they believe is sacred. There are specific, foundational Daoist views concerning the Dao, which originate in the earliest Daoist communities of the Warring States period (480–222 bce).

Daoism consists of two forms, “philosophical Daoism” and “religious

Daoism.”^{^[1]}

The distinction between so-called

“philosophical Daoism” and so-called “religious Daoism” is a modern Western fiction, which reflects colonialist and missionary agendas and sensibilities. The use of such categories, even in scare quotation marks, should be taken, ipso facto, as indicative of ignorance concerning Daoism. From its beginnings in the Warring States period (480–222 bce), “Daoism” consisted of religious practitioners and communities. Considered as a whole, Daoism is a complex and diverse religious tradition. It consists of various adherents, communities, and movements, which cannot be reduced to a simplistic bifurcation. Its complexity may be mapped in terms of historical periodization as well as models of practice and attainment.

“Philosophical Daoism” is the original form of Daoism and is best understood as “philosophy” (disembodied thinking/ way of thought).

Outside of the modern world, there is no form of Daoism that is not “religious.” Although there are aspects of Daoism that are “philosophical,” the category “philosophical Daoism” fails to consider the centrality of embodied practice (way of being), community, and place in

Daoism, especially in “classical Daoism.” It is based on a systematic mischaracterization of the inner cultivation lineages of Warring States Daoism and a misreading of the earliest Daoist texts, namely, the Laozi (Lao-tzu; a.k.a. Daode jing) and

Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu), among others.

Daojia 道家 and daojiao 道教 correspond to the Western categories of “philosophical Daoism” and “religious Daoism,” respectively.

Daojia 道家, literally “Family of the Dao,” and daojiao 道教, literally “Teachings of the Dao,” are indigenous Chinese categories with no correspondence to the Western constructs of so-called “philosophical Daoism” and so-called “religious Daoism”. Each term has a complex history, with its meaning changing in different contexts. For example, in the fifth century, daojia referred to the Daoist religious community in general and the Daoist priesthood in particular.

Laozi 老子(Lao-tzu; Master Lao/Old

Master/Old Child) is the founder of Daoism.

Laozi, a.k.a. Lao Dan 老聃 and Li Er 李耳, is a pseudo-historical figure. His received “biography,” as contained in Sima Tan’s 司馬談 (ca. 165–110 _bce) and Sima Qian’s 司馬遷 (ca. 145–86 _bce) Shiji 史記 (Records of the Historian), combines information about a variety of people from various sources. If Laozi existed, we do not know anything about him. There is, in turn, no “founder” of Daoism; “Laozi,” translatable as “venerable masters,” is best understood as a place-holder for the early inner cultivation lineages. Daoism, in turn, has multiple source-points. A variety of figures, both human and divine, are identified as important with respect to the formation of the Daoist tradition.

Laozi wrote the Daode jing 道德經 (Tao-te ching; Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power).

The Daode jing, a.k.a. Laozi 老子 (Book of Venerable Masters), is a composite text. It is a multi-vocal anthology that contains material from different early Daoist lineages and historical periods. Some of these historical and textual layers may have come from the oral teachings of the shadowy figure Lao Dan (see Zhuangzi, Chapters 3, 5, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23, 25, 27, 33).

The Daode jing and Zhuangzi are the only Daoist texts that matter because they are the “essence” and “original teachings” of Daoism.

There is no principal Daoist scripture. Although the Daode jing is probably the most central and influential scripture in Daoist history, different Daoist adherents, communities and movements revere different scriptures. The primary textual collection in the Daoist tradition is called the Daozang 道藏 (Daoist Canon). It is an open textual collection, with new additions having been made throughout Daoist history. The first version was compiled in the fifth century ce. The received version was compiled in the fifteenth century, with a seventeenth century supplement. It consists of roughly 1,400 texts, texts that come from every major period and movement of Daoist history.

Daoism began with a revelation from

Laojun 老君 (Lord Lao) to Zhang Daoling 張道陵 in 142 CE. This was the beginning of the Tianshi 天師 (Celestial Masters) movement.

While the Tianshi movement was formative in the establishment of Daoism as an organized religious tradition and represents one of the most important movements in Daoist history, there were Daoist adherents and communities before the Celestial Masters. Moreover, not every subsequent Daoist movement recognized Zhang Daoling and the Celestial Masters as the source of their tradition.

Daoists, or Dao-ists, are those who love the Dao and go with the flow.

From a Daoist perspective, there are various types of religious adherence and affiliation. These involve different degrees of commitment and responsi-

bility. The Daoist tradition consists, first and foremost, of ordained priests and monastics and lay supporters. Lineage and ordination are primary dimensions of Daoist identity and religious affiliation. This requires training under Daoist teachers and community elders with formal affiliation with the Daoist religious community and tradition. A distinction may in turn be may between Daoist adherents and Daoist sympathizers. In the case of Daoism in the West, one also finds various forms of spiritual appropriation and spiritual capitalism.

Correlative cosmology, based on yin 陰-yang 陽, the Five Elements (wuxing 五行), and qi 氣 (ch’i), is Daoist.

These concepts are not Daoist. They are part of what is best understood as “traditional Chinese cosmology” and a “traditional Chinese worldview.” In pre-modern China, these concepts formed the foundation of a pan- Chinese worldview. Like other aspects of

Chinese culture, they formed part of the foundational Daoist worldview. Thus, correlative cosmology is not Daoist in origin or in essence.

Chinese medicine is Daoist and/or there is some form of Chinese medicine called “Daoist Medicine.”

Chinese medicine is not Daoist. This misidentification, and the construct of “Daoist medicine,” most often comes from a conflation of correlative cosmology (see above) with Daoism. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is, in fact, a modern form of Chinese medicine created by the Chinese communist government and influenced by Western biomedicine and a scientific paradigm. In terms of classical Chinese medicine, there is some overlap between the two traditions, but little research has been done on this topic. We do know, however, that Daoists such as Ge Hong, Sun Simiao, and Tao Hongjing made major contributions to Chinese medicine. They were Daoists and, in the case of Sun and Tao, Chinese medical practitioners.

Fengshui 風水(lit., “Wind and Water”), or Chinese geomancy, is Daoist.

Fengshui is not Daoist. Like correlative cosmology, it is part of what is best understood as “traditional Chinese culture.” While some Daoists have utilized Fengshui throughout Chinese history, it is not Daoist in origin or essence. Using Fengshui thus does not indicate Daoist religious affiliation or identity.

Qigong 氣功 (Ch’i-kung; Qi Exercises) is Daoist.	Qigong is not Daoist. Qigong refers to a modern Chinese health and longevity movement aimed at national upbuilding. It combines traditional Chinese health and longevity practices with modern Chinese concerns and a Western scientific paradigm. Some of these derive from earlier Daoist Yangsheng 養生 (Nourishing Life) practices. There are also many different types of Qigong, including Buddhist, Daoist, medical, and martial. Most Daoist Qigong incorporates internal alchemy (neidan 内丹) methods.
Sexual yoga, including the search for multiple orgasms and the practice of sexual vampirism, is Daoist.	The place of sexuality in Daoism is complex. Most of the practices identified as “Daoist sexual practices” originated in non-Daoist contexts, in imperial court circles in particular. While some Daoists have practiced “paired” or “partnered practice,” often referred to as “dual cultivation,” a different conception of sexual intercourse was involved. Moreover, such practices almost always occurred within a larger system of alchemical transformation in which the sublimation of sexual energy was a preliminary and foundational step.
Taiji quan 太極拳 (Tai-chi ch’uan; Yin-yang Boxing) is Daoist.	Taiji quan is not Daoist. It is a Chinese martial art. Like Bagua zhang 八卦掌 (Eight Trigram Palm) and Xingyi quan 形意拳 (Form-Intent Boxing), it originated in non-Daoist circles. It was a nativist response aimed at national upbuilding. While some Daoists practice Taiji quan, practicing Taiji quan does not make one a Daoist. It is, first and foremost, a martial art that is not Daoist in origin or essence.

	Taoist Yoga, aka Flow Yoga or Yin Yoga, is Daoist.		“Taoist Yoga” is a misnomer, a mistaken category with no correlation to indigenous Chinese categories. Yoga is a Sanskrit technical term related to indigenous Indian practices aimed at union (yuj) with the divine. Most so-called “Taoist Yoga” is either modified Hatha Yoga or derives from Chinese Wushu 武術 (martial arts) practices. Current research suggests that little if any so-called “Taoist Yoga” derives from Daoist Daoyin 導引(lit., “guided stretching”) or internal alchemy (neidan 内丹) practices, which are the indigenous Daoist categories.
	Mount Wudang 武當 is the birthplace of the soft or internal martial arts, such as Taiji quan. Zhang Sanfeng, the patron saint of Mount Wudang, is the creator of Taiji quan.		Chinese “internal style” (neijia 内家) martial arts are not Daoist and do not originate in a Daoist context. Current research indicates that Wudangstyle martial arts represent a modern synthesis of Bagua zhang, Taiji quan, and Xingyi quan. Zhang Sanfeng is pseudo-historical.
	The Yiing 易經 (I-ching; Book of Changes) is a Daoist text. As the trigrams and hexagrams derive from it, they also are Daoist symbols.		The Yiing 易經 (Book of Changes) is not a Daoist text. It predates distinct, indigenous cultural traditions like Rujia (“Confucianism”) and Daojia (“Daoism”). From a traditional Chinese perspective, it is one of the so-called “Five Classics” of classical Confucianism. Throughout Chinese history, some Daoists have studied the cosmology of the Yiing and utilized the trigrams and hexagrams as a symbol system, especially for external and internal alchemy. However, interest in the Yijing and hexagrams/trigrams does not make one a Daoist.
Translations of the Tao-te-ching by Stephen Mitchell, Ursula LeGuin, and other popularizers are accurate and provide direct access to the original teachings of Daoism		Such “translations” are not, in fact, translations. For example, Mitchell and LeGuin do not know classical Chinese. Moreover, such popular Western cultural productions are popular exactly because they expunge all of the culturally specific and religious dimensions of the text. Daoist scriptures (jing 經) are sacred texts written in classical Chinese. Moreover, there are various Daoist views about the origin, nature and meaning of such texts. Many jing are considered to be revealed or inspired.
Popular publications like The Tao of Pooh (Benjamin Hoff) as well as Change Your Thoughts and Living the Wisdom of the Tao (Wayne Dyer) provide accurate glimpses into Daoist beliefs and concerns.		Such works have no place in a serious inquiry into and an accurate understanding of the Daoism. They are part of popular Western culture, New Age spirituality, as well as self-help and pop psychology. They are part of “spiritual capitalism” and a new form of alternative spirituality best understood as “Popular Western Taoism” (PWT), with “Taoism” pronounced with a “t” sound. That movement has little to no connection with the religious tradition which is Daoism.

Approaching Daoism

Ÿ Spelled Taoism in the older Wade-Giles Romanization system, but still pronounced

“Daoism”

Ÿ Indigenous Chinese religion deeply rooted in traditional Chinese culture

Ÿ Dao 道, translatable as “the Way” and “a way,” as sacred and ultimate concern

Ÿ Begins as a religious community during the Warring States period (480-222 BCE)

Ÿ Western name approximates various indigenous Chinese designations, including daojia 道家 (Family of the Dao), daojiao 道教 (Teachings of the Dao), and xuanfeng 玄風 (Mysterious Movement)

Ÿ Daoists as adherents of Daoism. Those who are part of the “tradition of the

Dao” (daotong 道統) and who endeavor to “transmit the Dao” (chuandao 傳道)

Ÿ Now a global religious tradition characterized by cultural, ethnic, linguistic and national diversity. “Global Daoism” as rooted in “Chinese Daoism” as source-tradition

Ÿ Like Zen Buddhism before it, Daoism is the object of various Western fictions, fabrications, and fantasies.

Reliable Introductions to Daoism

Livia Kohn 2001/2004

James Miller 2003/2008

Russell Kirkland 2004

Livia Kohn Louis Komjathy Louis Komjathy

2008 2013 2014

Contents of The Daoist Tradition (Bloomsbury Academy, 2013)

Preface ix

Acknowledgments xi

Conventions xiii

Illustrations xv

Charts xvi

Website xvii

Map xviii

Brief timeline of Daoist history xix

PART ONE Historical overview ₁

1 Approaching Daoism 3 2 The Daoist tradition 17

PART TWO Identity and community ₃₇

3 Ways to affiliation 39

4 Community and social organization 61

PART THREE Worldview ₈₁

5 Informing views and foundational concerns 83

6 Cosmogony, cosmology and theology 101 7 Views of self 123

PART FOUR Practice ₁₄₃

8 Virtue, ethics and conduct guidelines 145

9 Dietetics 165

10 Health and longevity practice 187

11 Meditation 205

12 Scripture and scripture study 225

13 Ritual 243

PART FIVE Place, sacred space, and material culture ₂₆₃

14 Temples and sacred sites 265

15 Material culture 281

PART SIX Daoism in the modern world ₃₀₁

16 Daoism in the modern world 303

Basic glossary 317

Notes 325

Bibliography 331

Index 353

Contents of Daoism: A Guide for the Perplexed

(Bloomsbury Academy, 2014)

Conventions viii

List of Figures xi

Introduction: On guidance and perplexity 1

1 Tradition 15

2 Community 41

3 Identity 59

4 View 79

5 Personhood 105

6 Practice 131

7 Experience 161

8 Place 181

9 Modernity 201

Bibliography 227

Index 249

BASIC INFORMATION SHEET ON DAOISM (TAOISM)

Louis Komjathy , Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Chinese Religions and Comparative Religious Studies

Department of Theology and Religious Studies

University of San Diego

This is an essentialized and simplified information sheet on Daoism (Taoism). It is particularly intended for non-specialist educators who teach Daoism or who are interested in deepening their understanding.

PRELIMINARY POINTS

Daoism (spelled Taoism in the older Wade-Giles romanization system) is an indigenous Chinese religious tradition in which reverence for the Dao, translatable as “the Way” and “a way,” is a matter of ultimate concern. Daoism was a religious community from the beginning, here dated to the Warring States period (480-222 BCE). As a Western category, “Daoism” may be understood as shorthand for Daoist adherents, communities and their religious expressions. With over two thousand years of history, Daoism is a diverse and complex religious tradition; it includes varied forms of religiosity that may be perplexing to those who construct “religion” in terms of founders, authoritative scriptures and “orthodox beliefs.” Throughout Chinese history Daoists have consistently focused on the Dao 5 as sacred and ultimate concern. This is expressed in indigenous Chinese designations, including daojia 5 (Family of the Dao), daojiao 5 (Teachings of the Dao), daoshi 5 (adept of the Dao), and xuanfeng &< (Mysterious Movement). That is, Daoists have understood themselves as those who “transmit the Dao” (chuandao 5); they have seen themselves as part of the “tradition of the Dao” (daotong 5*). In the modern world, Daoism also has become a global religious tradition characterized by cultural diversity and multiethnicity. At the same time, like Zen Buddhism before it, Daoism is the object of various Western fantasies and fictions.

ON “DAOISM” AND “TAOISM” (ROMANIZATION)

Both “Daoism” and “Taoism” refer to the same Chinese religion; they are both pronounced with a “d” sound. “Taoism” derives from Wade-Giles romanization, an earlier way of approximating the sound of Chinese characters into alphabetic script. “Daoism” derives from the more recent Pinyin romanization system, which is the official system created by the People’s Republic of China and utilized throughout mainland China. Wade-Giles uses “Tao,” “Taoist,” and “Taoism.” If these terms were pronounced with a “t” sound, they would appear as “T’ao,” “T’aoist,” and “T’aoism.” That is, in Wade-Giles, a “t” without an apostrophe (’) is a “d” sound. Pinyin uses “Dao,” “Daoist,” and “Daoism.” The latter is the preferred form. The matter is complicated because some scholars now use Pinyin romanization, but continue to employ the Wade-Giles derived “Tao,” “Taoist,” “Taoism.” The rationales for this are varied, but none of them hold up to critical scrutiny.

Scholarly opinion differs on the origins and early history of Daoism. Nonetheless, there is consensus that the category of “philosophical Daoism” is inaccurate and outdated. It should be completely abandoned. Unfortunately, specialist research has yet to influence non-specialist discourse, both academic and popular. Every major “world religions” textbook utilizes the misleading distinction between so-called philosophical Daoism and so-called religious Daoism. The use of these categories should be taken, ipso facto, as a sign of ignorance and inaccuracy. The easiest solution to this problem is to replace “philosophical Daoism” with “classical Daoism,” and to emphasize the religious dimensions of classical Daoism, of the “early inner cultivation lineages” (Harold Roth, Brown University). These dimensions

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS CONCERNING DAOISM (TAOISM)

Louis Komjathy ᒋᗱ༛, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Chinese Religions and Comparative Religious Studies

Department of Theology and Religious Studies

University of San Diego

Popular misconceptions concerning Daoism are numerous and increasingly influential in the modern world. All of these perspectives fail to understand the religious tradition which is Daoism, a religious tradition that is complex, multifaceted, and rooted in Chinese culture. These misconceptions have their origins in traditional Confucian prejudices, European colonialism, and Christian missionary sensibilities, especially as expressed by late nineteenth-century Protestants. Most of these views are located in American designer hybrid (“New Age”) spirituality, Orientalism, Perennial Philosophy, and spiritual capitalism. They domesticate, sterilize and misrepresent Daoism. In their most developed expressions, they may best be understood as part of a new religious movement (NRM) called “Popular Western Taoism” (PWT), with Taoism pronounced with a hard “t” sound. The current state of Daoism in American may thus be compared to that of Zen Buddhism in the 1950s and 1960s (cf. Dharma Bums and Alan Watts with the Mountains and Rivers Order), although some have suggested that it more closely resembles the Euro-American understanding of Buddhism in the 1890s.

Popular Misconception

Informed View

Dao (Tao) is a trans-religious and universal name for the sacred, and there are “Dao-ists” (“Tao-ists”) who transcend the limitations of the Daoist religious tradition

䘧, romanized as dao or tao, is a Chinese character utilized by Daoists to identify that which they believe is sacred. There are specific, foundational Daoist views concerning the Dao, which originate in the earliest Daoist communities of the Warring States period (480-222 BCE).

Daoism consists of two forms, “philosophical Daoism” and “religious Daoism”

The distinction between so-called “~~philosophical Daoism~~” and “~~religious~~ ~~Daoism~~” is a modern Western fiction, which reflects colonialist and missionary agendas and sensibilities. From its beginnings in the Warring States period (480-222 BCE),

“Daoism” consisted of religious practitioners and communities. Considered as a whole, Daoism is a complex and diverse religious tradition. It consists of various adherents, communities and movements, which cannot be reduced to a simplistic bifurcation. Its complexity may be mapped in terms of historical periodization as well as models of practice and attainment

These characterizations require reflection on the category of “religion,” including the ways in which Daoists have constructed and understood their own tradition.

Remedying the Received View of Daoism

“Philosophical Daoism”

Ÿ Based on misinterpretation of classical Daoist texts

Ÿ Based on misunderstanding of defining characteristics

Ÿ Daojia 道家 (tao-chia) simply means “Family of the Dao”

Ÿ Early Han dynasty bibliographic and taxonomic category Ÿ Eventually used by Daoists to refer to their tradition, especially ordained Daoist priests and religious communities

Ÿ Earliest Daoist religious community

Ÿ Apophatic meditation and mystical union with Dao

Ÿ à ~~philosophical Daoism~~

“Religious Daoism”

Ÿ Based on assumed distinction with so-called “philosophical Daoism”

Ÿ Based on misunderstanding of earlier Daoist communities

Ÿ Daojiao 道教 (tao-chiao) simply means “Teachings of the Dao”

Ÿ Early medieval category used to distinguish Daoism from Buddhism

(fojiao 佛教)

Ÿ Includes so-called daojia

Ÿ Daoism was a religious tradition from the beginning

Ÿ No other form of Daoism

Ÿ à ~~religious Daoism~~

à The Daoist tradition

Ÿ Indigenous Chinese religion characterized by diversity and complexity

Seven Periods and Four Divisions of Daoist History

(The Daoist Tradition, Louis Komjathy, 2013)

Defining Characteristics of the Four Divisions

Classical Daoism

Ÿ Warring States (480-222 BCE) to Early Han (202 BCE-9 CE)

Ÿ Earliest Daoist religious community

Ÿ Key “movement”: Inner cultivation lineages (Harold Roth)

Ÿ Primary emphasis: Apophatic meditation aimed at mystical union with the Dao

Early Organized Daoism

Ÿ Later Han (25-220 CE) to Period of Disunion (220-589)

Ÿ Beginning of Daoism as organized religion

Ÿ Key movements: Taiping 太平(Great Peace), Tianshi 天師(Celestial Masters), Taiqing 太清

(Great Clarity), Shangqing 上清(Highest Clarity), and Lingbao 靈寶 (Numinous Treasure)

Ÿ Primary emphasis: Ethics, ritual, and theocratic society

Later Organized Daoism

Ÿ Tang (618-907) to Qing (1644-1911)

Ÿ Emergence of monasticism as major form of Daoist social organization

Ÿ Key movements: Quanzhen 全真(Complete Perfection), various internal alchemy lineages, as well as deity cults and ritual movements Ÿ Primary emphasis: Internal alchemy and ritual

Modern Daoism

Ÿ 1912-present

Ÿ Technically part of later organized Daoism

Ÿ Primarily Zhengyi 正一(Orthodox Unity)-Quanzhen 全真 (Complete Perfection) tradition Ÿ Emergence of “global Daoism” as multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic and multinational tradition from late 20^th century to present

Models of Daoist Practice and Attainment

(1) Alchemical: Transformation of self through ingestion of various substances (external) and/or through complex physiological practices (internal)

(2) Ascetic: Renunciation, perhaps even body-negation. May involve psychological purification (internal) or practices such as fasting, sleep deprivation, voluntary poverty, etc. (external)

(3) Cosmological: Emphasis on cosmological integration and seasonal attunement

(4) Dietetic: Attentiveness to consumption patterns and influences

(5) Ethical: Emphasis on morality and ethics, including precept study and application

(6) Hermeneutical: Emphasis on scripture study and interpretation, often resulting in the production of commentaries

(7) Meditative: Meditation as central, with the recognition of diverse types of meditation

(8) Quietistic: “Non-action” (wuwei 無為), involving non-interference, non-intervention, and effortless activity, as central

(9) Ritualistic: Ritual as central, with the recognition of diverse types of ritual expression and activity

Towards a Cross-cultural Definition of Religion

Ÿ Dimensions (Ninian Smart): Community, doctrine, ethics, experience, materiality, narrative, and practice.

Ÿ Hierophanies (Mircea Eliade): History of religions as series of manifestations of sacred realities. Possibility that “reality” is plural, rather than singular.

Ÿ Symbol System (Clifford Geertz): Integral relationship between worldview and “reality.”

Ÿ Ultimate Concern (Paul Tillich): Concern (“sacred”) that renders all other concerns preliminary and reveals the meaning of life.

Some Comparative Categories for Religious Studies

Cosmogony: Discourse on, study of, or theories about the origins of the universe.

Cosmology: Discourse on, study of, or theories about the underlying principles and structure of the universe.

Soteriology: Discourse on, study of, or theories about the ultimate purpose of human existence. Examples include actualization, liberation, perfection, realization, salvation, and so forth.

Theology: Discourse on, study of, or theories about the sacred. Traditionspecific terms and defining characteristics.

- Animistic: Gods/spirits in nature

- Atheistic: No gods

- Monistic: One impersonal reality (“Reality”)

- Monotheistic: One personal god (“God”)

- Panenhenic: Nature as sacred

- Pantheistic: Sacred in the world

- Panentheistic: Sacred in and beyond the world

- Polytheistic: Multiple gods

Comparative Categories Applied to Daoism

Cosmogony: Impersonal, spontaneous transformation. Emanation. From non-differentiation to differentiation. Manifestation without diminishment.

Cosmology: Transformative process based on yin 陰-yang 陽 interaction. Also Five Phases (wuxing 五行) and qi 氣 (ch’i; “energy”). Not specifically Daoist. Traditional Chinese culture. Amoral universe.

Soteriology: Attunement with the Dao 道. Many paths and models.

Theology: Dao 道 as sacred and ultimate concern of Daoists.

- Primary: Apophatic, monistic, panentheistic, panenhenic.

- Secondary: Animistic and polytheistic.

Daoist Locatedness

(The Daoist Tradition, Louis Komjathy, 2013)

VIEW

Character for “Dao”

(Tao)

道

Ancient Seal Script Modern Script

Etymology of Dao 道 (Tao)

辵首

Chuo: “To Walk” Shou: “Head”

Chapter 1 of the Daode jing 道德經

(Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power)

The dao that can be spoken is not the constant Dao.

The name that can be named is not the constant name.

Nameless—the beginning of the heavens and earth.

Named—the mother of the ten thousand beings.

Thus, constantly desireless, one may observe its subtlety.

Constantly desiring, one may observe its boundaries.

These two emerge from sameness, but differ in name.

This sameness is called “mysterious.”

Mysterious and again more mysterious— The gateway to all that is wondrous.

“Dao” as Daoist Cosmological and Theological Category: Four Characteristics

1. Source of everything (yuan 元/原)

2. Unnamable mystery (xuan 玄)

3. All-pervading sacred presence (qi 氣/炁)

4. Universe as transformative process (Nature) (hua 化)

Sanqing 三清

(Three Purities)

Classical and Foundational Daoist Cosmogony

(The Daoist Tradition, Louis Komjathy, 2013)

Classical and Foundational Daoist Cosmology

(“Traditional Chinese Cosmology”)

Three Primary Dimensions

Ÿ Yin 陰-yang 陽: Interrelated cosmological principles and forces

Ÿ Five Phases: Wood (minor yang), Fire (major yang), Earth (—), Metal (minor yin), and

Water (major yin)

Ÿ Qi 氣 (Ch’i): Physical respiration and subtle breath (“energy”)

Yin-Yang

Ÿ Etymologically the characters depict a hill covered with shadows and sunlight, respectively

Ÿ Every being and phenomenon as combination of yin-yang, in varying degrees

Ÿ Not polar opposites or antagonistic powers. Not “good” and “evil”

Ÿ Cosmological and alchemical views

Ÿ Various relative associations

- yin/feminine/earth/moon/dark/death/cold/moist/heavy/turbidity/ descent/rest/inward

- yang/masculine/heavens/sun/light/life/hot/dry/light/clarity/ ascent/activity/outward

Nine Foundational Daoist Principles and Values

1. Effortlessness

2. Flexibility

3. Receptivity

4. Anonymity

5. Serenity

6. Aptitude

7. Non-attachment

8. Contentment

9. Deference

Practice

Cosmological Attunement

Dietetics

Health and Longevity Practice

Meditation

Ritual

Scripture Study

Artistic Expression

Experience

Being & Embodiment

Community

Place

Residency/Habitation

Mystical Experience & Revelation

Identity

Affiliation

Daoist Religious Identity

“Daoist”

Adherent of the religious tradition which is Daoism

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Affinity

Formal Affiliation

Lineage

Mystical Experience

Ordination

Revelation

Training

Transmission

Daoist Ordination and Lineage:

Huashan華山 Lineage of Quanzhen 全真

(Complete Perfection)

Chen Tuan 䱇ᩊ Hao Datong 䚱໻䗮

(Xiyi Ꮰ་; d. 989) (Guangning ᒷᆻ; 1140-1212)

Chen Yuming 䱇ᅛᯢ

(b. 1969)

Louis Komjathy ᒋᗱ༛ Kate Townsend ૤䛝ᘽ

(Xiujing ׂ䴰; Wanrui 㨀⨲; b. 1971) (Baojing ᢅ䴰; Wanqing 㨀⏙; b. 1962)

Daoist Ordination and Lineage

Xue Tailai 薛泰來

(1924-2001)

24^th Generation

Shiye 師爺 (Master-grandfather)

Chen Yuming 陳宇明

(b. 1969)

25^th Generation

Shifu 師父 (Master-father)

Kang Wanrui 康萬瑞

(b. 1971)

26^th Generation

Huashan 華山 100-Character Lineage Poem

圓永勤敬希養清嘉沖至太誕人郝

Yuan Yong Qin Jing Xi Yang Qing Jia Chong Zhi Tai Dan Ren Hao

Complete Eternal Aid Revere Rare Nourish Clear Good Infuse Utmost Great Birthday Person Hao

滿建能謹賢素靜祥和一古十號祖

Man Jian Neng Jiang Xian Su Jing Xiang He Yi Gu Shi Hao Zu

Full Establish Able Discuss Worthy Simple Still Omen Harmony One Ancient Ten Name Patriarch 光根扶規遵守通宗德無廣二華太

Guang Gen Fu Gui Zun Shou Tong Zong De Wu Guang Er Hua Tai

Radiant Root Support Rule Venerate Guard Pervade Ancestor Virtue Without Expand Two Hua Great

華基世良祕堅玄泰正上寧月山古

Hua Ji Shi Liang Mi Jian Xuan Tai Zheng Shang Ning Yue Shan Gu

照(Flower ) 厚(Base ) 運(World ) 善(Good ) 法(Secret ) 志(Firm ) 化 (Mystery )宇(Great ) 本(Align ) 道(High ) 通(Serene ) 三(Month ) 派(Shan ) 真 (Ancient )

Zhao Hou Yun Shan Fa Zhi Hua Yu Ben Dao Tong San Pai Zhen

Light Thick Revolve Good Method Will Change Cosmos Source Dao Pervade Three Lineage Perfect 玄十正人

Xuan Shi Zheng Ren

Mystery Ten First Person

雲仙積默慎虛體萬仁崇妙日月山

Yun Xian Ji Mo Shen Xu Ti Wan Ren Chong Miao Ri Yue Shan

Cloud Immortal Amass Silent Care Empty Body Myriad Humane Venerate Subtle Day Month Shan

天瀛久功修靈性理義教極飛初東

Tian Ying Jiu Gong Xiu Ling Xing Li Yi Jiao Ji Fei Chu Dong

Heaven Island Long Merit Cultivate Numen Nature Principle RighteousTeaching Limit Fly Begin Dong

慶書大毓保慧悟復禮演真昇三萊

Qing Shu Da Yu Bao Hui Wu Fu Li Yan Zhen Sheng San Lai

Omen Book Great Nourish Protect Wisdom Awake Return Propriety Expand Perfect Ascend Three Lai

上盛丹秀純業誠元智全君日州

Shang Ying Dan Xiu Chun Ye Cheng Yuan Zhi Quan Jun Ri Zhou

High Full Elixir Flourish Pure Karma Sincere Origin Wisdom Complete Lord Day Zhou

昇名成英貞生明亨信真聖府

Sheng Ming Cheng Ying Zhen Sheng Ming Heng Xin Zhen Sheng Fu

Ascend Name Complete Flourish Pure Birth Light Pervade Honesty Perfect Sacred Prefect

Quanzhen Monasteries Resided At

Taiqing gong 太清宮

(Palace of Great Clarity)

Laoshan 嶗山

(Mount Lao; near Qingdao, Shandong) Yuquan yuan 玉泉院

(Temple of Jade Spring)

Huashan 華山

(Mount Hua; near Huayin, Shaanxi)

Abbot and Administrative Monks of Taiqing gong

The Three Teachings and Their Relationship

Ÿ Confucianism (rujia 儒家; rujiao 儒教). Technically misnomer: Ruism. Indigenous Chinese tradition. Begins around 5^th c. BCE. Emphasis on moral cultivation and cultural refinement. Also ritual. Some competition, cooperation, and crosspollination with Daoism. Now considered “culture” and “philosophy,” not

“religion.”

Ÿ Daoism (daojia 道家; daojiao 道教). Covered. Some competition, cooperation, and cross-pollination with Confucianism and Buddhism. Now one of “official five religions.”

Ÿ Buddhism (fojiao 佛教). Indian religion transmitted to China beginning in 1^st and 2^nd c. CE. Initially rejected as “inferior.” Then Chinese conversion and adaptation. “Reincarnation.” Sinification and Chinese schools of Mahayana Buddhism. “Chinese Buddhism” and “East Asian Buddhism.” Some competition, cooperation, and crosspollination with Daoism. Only Asian missionary religion. Now one of “official five religions.”

Ÿ Also folk/popular religion. Pan-Chinese and/or religion of the masses. Everything that is not Confucian, Daoist, or Buddhist.

Ÿ “Chinese religion.” Syncretism. Confucian in social life; Daoist in retirement; Buddhist in death. Major disruptions after 1912, 1949, & 1966-1976, but post-1980 liberalization and revitalization

2023/08/13

Common misconceptions about Daoist tradition

Further reading

2023/08/12