'에 남겨 두고 내 손을 끌어 그 자리를 벗어났다. 잡깐 걷던 사 부님이 한숨을 쉬면서 이런 말을 했다.
'베노는 탐욕의 희생 자이다. 탐욕은 곧 번뇌이다만, 베렝가리오나 레미지오의 탐 육과는 유가 다르다. 학승(부처합)들에게 그러하듯이 베노에게 도 지식에의 탐욕이 있다. 지식 자체에 대한 탐욕.....이 지 직이 울타리 저쪽에 격리되어 있을 동안 베노는 거기에 접근 하려고 몸부림쳤다. 그런데 이제 그것을 붙잡았다. 말라키아 는 지식에 대한 탐욕과 베노라는 인간을 잘 알았다. 말라키
•아는 서책을 되찾고 베노의 입을 막는, 일석이조의 묘수를 쓴 것이다. 너는, 사람들이 접할 수 없는 바에, 그런 지식의 보고를 관리하는 일에 무슨 가치가 있겠느냐고 할 것이다.
그래서 내가 너에게 탐욕 이야기를 하는 것이다. 내 사부님 이신 로저 베이컨의 지식에 대한 갈망은 탐욕이 아니었다.
그분은 당신의 지식을 쓰시되, 하느님 백성의 삶을 개선시키 는 데 쓰셨다. 따라서 그분은 지식 자체를 위한 지식은 구하 지 않으셨다. 그러나 베노는 참을 수 없는 호기심을 채우고, 제 비천한 욕망을 충족시키는 수단으로서 지식을 갈망한다.
다른 수도사들 중에는 이 갈망 때문에 육(치)을 탐하는 자가 있기도 하고, 기독교 신앙을 지키고자, 혹은 이단을 지키고 자 하는 용사로 변하는 자들도 있다. 탐욕이라고 해서 꼭 육
(12)의 탐육만 있는 것이 아니다. 베르나르 기는 탐욕스러운 위인이다. 베르나르는 정의에의 왜곡된 탐욕에 사로잡혀 있 다.그 탐욕은 왜곡되어 결국 권력에의 탐욕이 되어 버렸다.
우리의 신성한, 그러나 그래야 하는데도 불구하고 별로 신성
하지 못한 교황은 부(화)에의 탐욕에 사로잡힌 자이다. 식료 계 레미지오? 이자는 소득적부터 제 몸으로 제험함으로써 저 자신을 변용시키고, 참회하려는 탐욕에 사로잡혀 있던 자이 다.
그러나 이제는 죽음에의 탐욕에 사로잡혀 있을 게다. 베 그는 서책에 대한 탑욕에 지나친 집착을 보인다. 제 씨앗을 땅에 흘린 오난의 경우가 그러하듯이. 무릇 모든 탐욕이 그 려하듯이, 베노의 탐욕은 참으로 불모스러운 것,. 세상과 인 간에 대한 사랑과는 아무 인연도 없는 것인 법이다..」 [알고 있습니다..... 나는 나도 모르게 중얼거렸다. 사부 님은 내 말은 못 들은 척하고 말을 이었다. 「사랑하는 대상에 계 절이 될 만한 것을 바라는 것이 참사랑이다.!
「베노 주도사는 이제 제 손에 들어온 서책의 선을 지킨답
지코 그 책을 호기심에 찬 시선으로부터 지키고자 하는 것은 아닐까요?,
저서책의 선은 읽히는 데 있다. 서책은 하나의 기호를 밝히 는 또 하나의 기호로 되어 있다. 기호는 이렇게 모여서 한 사 상(흑축)의 모습을 증언하는 게다. 이를 읽는 눈이 없으면.
서책은 아무런 개념도 낳지 못하는 기호를 담고 있을 뿐이 다. 따라서 그런 서책은 벙어리나 다를 바가 없다. 이 장서관 은 원래 서책을 보관하기 위해 만들어진 모양이다만 이제는 그 서책을 묻어 버리고 있구나. 이 장서관이 부정과 죄악의 수채 구멍이 된 것도 다 그 때문이다. 레미지오는 제가 배신 을 했다고 얘기했지. 베노도 그렇다. 베노도 배신을 했다. 참 으로 지긋지긋한 하루였구나. 피가 튀고 이 세상 귀퉁이가 우르르무너지는 것 같은 하루였다. 이 하루가 어찌 이리도 길었던고, 종과 성무 시간이다. 어서 들렀다가 자리에 들자-
의상대사는 화엄사상을 정립한 것으로 존경받는데 이는 마치 거미줄의 한편에서 신음하는 괴로움이 다른 반대편 거미줄에서도 그 고통이 전해지는 것처럼 이 세상이 거미줄의 씨줄과 날줄로 촘촘히 짜여 있어서 그 어느 하나라도 홀로 있거나 저혼자 일어난 일은 없으며 이 모두가 연관되어 끝없는 시간과 공간 속에서 서로의 원인과 결과로 얽히고 섥혀있는바 자신의 욕망을 위해 악을 선택하기보다는 서로에게 연민을 갖고 어렵지만 선을 베푸는 것이 결국 모두를 위해 선한 곳으로 만들 수 있는 궁극적으로 우리가 평화롭게 함께 살 수 있는 길이라는 맥락의 언급을 한 바있다.[1]
프로테스탄트이자 청교도인 토머스 굿윈은 그리스도를 연민의 표상으로 제안한바있다. 이것은 그리스도의 마음이 인류사적으로 유일한 십자가 사건에서 확인되는 바와같이 지극히 온전하고 연민적이라는 것이다. 이런 묘사는 사랑으로 표현되는 보다 더 상대방의 감정을 같이 느끼는 공감능력을 보여주는 그리스도로 본 점에서 인성도 그 결정성이 얼마나 이타적으로 최고조에 이르는 연민의 감정으로 가능할 수 있는지를 잘 언급하고 있다.[3][4]
Compassion is a social feeling that motivates people to go out of their way to relieve the physical, mental, or emotional pains of others and themselves. Compassion is sensitivity to the emotional aspects of the suffering of others. When based on notions such as fairness, justice, and interdependence, it may be considered partially rational in nature.
Compassion involves "feeling for another" and is a precursor to empathy, the "feeling as another" capacity (as opposed to sympathy, the "feeling towards another"). In common parlance, active compassion is the desire to alleviate another's suffering.[1]
Compassion involves allowing ourselves to be moved by suffering to help alleviate and prevent it. An act of compassion is one that is intended to be a helpful act. Other virtues that harmonize with compassion include patience, wisdom, kindness, perseverance, warmth, and resolve. It is often, though not inevitably, the key component in altruism.The difference between sympathy and compassion is that the former responds to others' suffering with sorrow and concern whereas the latter responds with warmth and care.[2] An article in Clinical Psychology Review suggests that "compassion consists of three facets: noticing, feeling, and responding".[3]
The English nouncompassion, meaning "to suffer together with", comes from Latin. Its prefixcom- comes directly from com, an archaic version of the Latin preposition and affix cum (= with); the -passion segment is derived from passus, past participle of the deponent verbpatior, patī, passus sum. Compassion is thus related in origin, form and meaning to the English noun patient (= one who suffers), from patiens, present participle of the same patior, and is akin to the Greek verb πάσχειν (paskhein, to suffer) and to its cognate noun πάθος (= pathos).[4] Ranked a great virtue in numerous philosophies, compassion is considered in almost all the major religious traditions as among the greatest of virtues.
Theoretical perspectives show contrasts in their approaches to compassion.
Compassion is simply a variation of love or sadness, not a distinct emotion.[5]
From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, compassion can be viewed as a distinct emotional state, which can be differentiated from distress, sadness, and love.[6]
Compassion is a synonym of empathic distress, which is characterized by the feeling of distress in connection with another person's suffering.[7] This perspective of compassion is based on the finding that people sometimes emulate and feel the emotions of people around them.[8]
According to Thupten Jinpa, compassion is a sense of concern that arises in us in the face of someone who is in need or someone who is in pain. It is accompanied by a kind of a wishing (i.e. desire) to see the relief or end of that situation and wanting (i.e. motivation) to do something about it.[9] Compassion is not pity, compassion is not attachment, compassion is not the same as empathetic feeling, compassion is not simply wishful thinking, compassion is not self-regard.[10]
Emma Seppala distinguishes compassion from empathy and altruism as follows: "... The definition of compassion is often confused with that of empathy. Empathy, as defined by researchers, is the visceral or emotional experience of another person's feelings. It is, in a sense, an automatic mirroring of another's emotion, like tearing up at a friend's sadness. Altruism is an action that benefits someone else. It may or may not be accompanied by empathy or compassion, for example in the case of making a donation for tax purposes. Although these terms are related to compassion, they are not identical. Compassion often does, of course, involve an empathic response and altruistic behavior. However, compassion is defined as the emotional response when perceiving suffering and involves an authentic desire to help."[11]
The more a person knows about the human condition and human experiences, the more vivid the route to identification with suffering becomes.[12][page needed] Identifying with another person is an essential process for human beings, something that is even illustrated by infants who begin to mirror the facial expressions and body movements of their mother as early as the first days of their lives.[13] Compassion is recognized through identifying with other people (i.e. perspective-taking), the knowledge of human behavior, the perception of suffering, transfer of feelings, knowledge of goal- and purpose-changes in sufferers, and leads to the absence of the suffering from the group[clarification needed].[12][page needed]
Personality psychology agrees that human suffering is always individual and unique. Suffering can result from psychological, social, and physical trauma[14] and it happens in acute forms as well as chronically.[14]Suffering has been defined as the perception of a person's impending destruction or loss of integrity, which continues until the threat is vanquished or the person's integrity can be restored.[12][page needed]
Compassion has three major requirements: The compassionate person must feel that the troubles that evoke their feelings are serious, believe that the sufferers' troubles are not self-inflicted, and have the ability to picture themself with the same problems in a non-blaming, non-shaming manner.[12][page needed]
Compassion is characteristic of democratic societies.[12][page needed] The compassion process is highly related to identifying with the other person because sympathizing with others is possible among people from other countries, cultures, locations, etc.[needs copy edit]
A possible source of this process of identifying with others comes from a universal category called "Spirit."[clarification needed] Toward the late 1970s, very different cultures and nations around the world took a turn to religious fundamentalism, which has occasionally been attributed[by whom?] to "Spirit".[15]
The role of compassion as a factor contributing to individual or societal behavior has been the topic of continuous debate.[16] In contrast to the process of identifying with other people, a complete absence of compassion may require ignoring or disapproving identification with other people or groups.[12][page needed] Earlier[compared to?] studies established the links between interpersonal violence and cruelty which leads to indifference.[17] Compassion may induce feelings of kindness and forgiveness, which could give people the ability to stop situations that have the potential to be distressing and occasionally lead to violence.[18] This concept has been illustrated throughout history: The Holocaust, genocide, European colonization of the Americas, etc.[citation needed] The seemingly essential step in these atrocities could be the definition of the victims as "not human" or "not us".[dubious– discuss] The atrocities committed throughout human history are thus claimed[by whom?] to have only been relieved, minimized, or overcome in their damaging effects through the presence of compassion,[12][page needed][19] although recently, drawing on empirical research in evolutionary theory, developmental psychology, social neuroscience, and psychopathy, it has been counterargued that compassion or empathy and morality are neither systematically opposed to one another, nor inevitably complementary, since[non sequitur] over the course of history, mankind has created social structures for upholding universal moral principles, such as Human Rights and the International Criminal Court.[20]
On one hand, Thomas Nagel, for instance, critiques Joshua Greene by suggesting that he is too quick to conclude utilitarianism specifically from the general goal of constructing an impartial morality; for example, he says, Immanuel Kant and John Rawls offer other impartial approaches to ethical questions.[21][relevant?]
In his defense against the possible destructive nature of passions, Plato compared the human soul to a chariot: the intellect is the driver and the emotions are the horses, and life is a continual struggle to keep the emotions under control.[22][relevant?] In his defense of a solid universal morality, Immanuel Kant saw compassion as a weak and misguided sentiment. "Such benevolence is called soft-heartedness and should not occur at all among human beings", he said of it.[23]
Compassion has become associated with and researched in the fields of positive psychology and social psychology.[24] Compassion is a process of connecting by identifying with another person. This identification with others through compassion can lead to increased motivation to do something in an effort to relieve the suffering of others.
Compassion is an evolved function from the harmony of a three grid internal system[jargon]: contentment-and-peace system, goals-and-drives system, and threat-and-safety system. Paul Gilbert defines these collectively as necessary regulated systems for compassion.[25][page needed][26]
Paul Ekman describes a "taxonomy of compassion" including: emotional recognition (knowing how another person feels), emotional resonance (feeling emotions another person feels), familial connection (care-giver-offspring), global compassion (extending compassion to everyone in the world), sentient compassion (extended compassion to other species), and heroic compassion (compassion that comes with a risk).[27]
Ekman also distinguishes proximal (i.e. in the moment) from distal compassion (i.e. predicting the future; affective forecasting): "...it has implications in terms of how we go about encouraging compassion. We are all familiar with proximal compassion: Someone falls down in the street, and we help him get up. That's proximal compassion: where we see someone in need, and we help them. But, when I used to tell my kids, 'Wear a helmet,' that's distal compassion: trying to prevent harm before it occurs. And that requires a different set of skills: It requires social forecasting, anticipating harm before it occurs, and trying to prevent it. Distal compassion is much more amenable to educational influences, I think, and it's our real hope."[28] Distal compassion also requires perspective-taking.[28]
Compassion is associated with psychological outcomes including increases in mindfulness and emotion regulation.[29]
People with a higher capacity or responsibility to empathize with others may be at risk for "compassion fatigue", also called "secondary traumatic stress". Examples of people at risk for compassion fatigue are those who spend significant time responding to information related to suffering.[30] However, newer research by Singer and Ricard suggests that it is lack of suitable distress tolerance that gets people fatigued from compassion activities.[31] Individuals at risk for compassion fatigue usually display these four key attributes: diminished endurance and/or energy, declined empathic ability, helplessness and/or hopelessness, and emotional exhaustion.[32] Negative coping skills can also increase the risk of developing compassion fatigue.[33]
People can alleviate sorrow and distress by doing self-care activities on a regular basis. Improving consciousness[clarification needed] helps to guide people to recognize the impact and circumstances of past events. After people learn the experience from the situation in the past[clarification needed], they are able to find the causes of compassion fatigue in their daily life.[34] Practice of nonjudgmental compassion can prevent fatigue and burnout.[35] Some methods that can help people to heal compassion fatigue include physical activity, eating healthy food with every meal, good relations with others, enjoying interacting with others in the community, writing a journal frequently, and sleeping enough every day.[34] The practice of mindfulness and self-awareness also helps with compassion fatigue.[36]
Psychologist Paul Gilbert provides factors that can reduce the likelihood of someone being willing to be compassionate to another. These include (less): likability, competence, deservedness, empathic-capacity; (more) self-focused competitiveness, anxiety-depression, overwhelmed; and inhibitors in social structures and systems.[37]
Compassion fade is the tendency of people to experience a decrease in empathy as the number of people in need of aid increases. The term was coined by psychologist Paul Slovic.[38] It is a type of cognitive bias that people use to justify their decision to help or not to help, and to ignore certain information.[39] To turn compassion into compassionate behavior requires the singular person's response to the group in need, followed by motivation to help that can lead to action[clarification needed].[40]
In an examination of the motivated regulation of compassion in the context of large-scale crises, such as natural disasters and genocides, research established that people tend to feel more compassion for single identifiable victims than single anonymous victims or large masses of victims (the Identifiable victim effect).[41] People only show less compassion for many victims than for single victims of disasters when they expect to incur a financial cost upon helping. This collapse of compassion depends on having the motivation and ability to regulate emotions.[42] People are more apt to offer help to a certain number of needy people if that number is closer to the whole number of people in need.[43] People feel more compassionate towards members of another species the more recently our species and theirs had a common ancestor.[44]
In laboratory research, psychologists are exploring how concerns about becoming emotionally exhausted may motivate people to curb their compassion for—and dehumanize—members of stigmatized social groups, such as homeless individuals and drug addicts.[45][better source needed]
Olga Klimecki (et al.), found differential (non-overlapping) fMRI brain activation areas in respect to compassion and empathy: compassion was associated with the mOFC, pregenual ACC, and ventral striatum. Empathy, in contrast, was associated with the anterior insula and the anterior midcingulate cortex (aMCC).[35]
In one study conducted by Jill Rilling and Gregory Berns, neuroscientists at Emory University, subjects' brain activity was recorded while they helped someone in need. It was found that while the subjects were performing compassionate acts the caudate nucleus and anterior cingulate regions of the brain were activated, the same areas of the brain associated with pleasure and reward. One brain region, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain, contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait empathy.[46] The same study showed a connection between giving to charity and the promotion of social bonding and personal reputation.[47] True compassion, if it exists at all, is thus inherently motivated (at least to some degree) by self-interest.[dubious– discuss]
In a 2009 small fMRI experiment, researchers at the Brain and Creativity Institute studied strong feelings of compassion for social[clarification needed] and physical pain in others. Both feelings involved an expected change in activity in the anterior insula, anterior cingulate, hypothalamus, and midbrain, but they also found a previously undescribed pattern of cortical activity on the posterior medial surface of each brain hemisphere, a region involved in the default mode of brain function, and implicated in self-related processes[clarification needed]. Compassion for social pain in others was associated with strong activation in the interoceptive, inferior/posterior portion of this region, while compassion for physical pain in others involved heightened activity in the exteroceptive, superior/anterior portion. Compassion for social pain activated this superior/anterior section, to a lesser extent. Activity in the anterior insula related to compassion for social pain peaked later and endured longer than that associated with compassion for physical pain.[48] Compassionate emotions toward others affect the prefrontal cortex, inferior frontal cortex, and the midbrain.[48] Feelings and acts of compassion stimulate areas known to regulate homeostasis, such as the anterior insula, the anterior cingulate, the mesencephalon, the insular cortex and the hypothalamus, supporting the hypothesis that social emotions use some of the same basic devices involved in other, primary emotions.[49]
Compassion is one of the most important attributes for physicians practicing medical services.[50][page needed] Compassion brings about the desire to do something to help the sufferer.[12][page needed] That desire to be helpful is not compassion, but it does suggest that compassion is similar to other emotions in that it motivates behaviors to reduce the tension brought on by the emotion.[12][page needed] Physicians generally identify their central duties as the responsibility to put the patient's interests first, including the duty not to harm, to deliver proper care, and to maintain confidentiality.[12][page needed] Compassion is seen in each of those duties because of its direct relation to the recognition and treatment of suffering.[12][page needed] Physicians who use compassion understand the effects of sickness and suffering on human behavior.[51][page needed] Compassion may be closely related to love and the emotions evoked in sickness and suffering. This is illustrated[how?] by the relationship between patients and physicians in medical institutions.[12][page needed] The relationship between suffering patients and their caregivers provides evidence that compassion is a social emotion that is related to[vague] the closeness and cooperation between individuals.
Compassion-focused therapy, created by clinical psychologist Professor Paul Gilbert, focuses on the evolutionary psychology behind compassion: balancing of affect regulation systems (e.g. using affiliative emotions from the care-and-contentment system to soothe and reduce painful emotions from the threat-detection system).[jargon][52][53]
Self-compassion is a process of self-kindness[clarification needed] and accepting suffering as a quality of being human. It has positive effects on subjective happiness, optimism, wisdom, curiosity, agreeableness, and extroversion.[54]Kristin Neff and Christopher Germer identified three levels of activities that thwart self-compassion: self-criticism, self-isolation, and self-absorption; they equate this to fight, flight, and freeze responses.[55] Parenting practices contribute to the development of self-compassion in children. Maternal support, secure attachment, and harmonious family functioning all create an environment where self-compassion can develop. On the other hand, certain developmental factors (i.e., personal fable[jargon]) can hinder the development of self-compassion in children.[56]
Authentic leadership centered on humanism and on nourishing quality interconnectedness increase compassion in the workplace to self and others.[57]
Judith Jordan's concept of self-empathy is similar to self-compassion, it implies the capacity to notice, care, and respond towards one's own felt needs. Strategies of self-care involve valuing oneself, thinking about one's ideations of needs[clarification needed] compassionately, and connecting with others in order to conversely experience[clarification needed] renewal, support, and validation. Research indicates that self-compassionate individuals experience greater psychological health than those who lack self-compassion.[58]
Compassion in action: an 18th-century Italian depiction of the Parable of the Good Samaritan
The Christian Bible's Second Epistle to the Corinthians is but one place where God is spoken of as the "Father of mercies" (or "compassion")[59] and the "God of all comfort."
Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of mercies and God of all comfort, who comforts us in all our affliction so that we will be able to comfort those who are in any affliction with the comfort with which we ourselves are comforted by God.
Jesus embodies the essence of compassion and relational care. Christ challenges Christians to forsake their own desires and to act compassionately towards others, particularly those in need or distress.[61]: Ch. 1
Carry each other's burdens, and in this way you will fulfill the law of Christ.
One of his most well-known teachings about compassion is the Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:29–37), in which a Samaritan traveler "was moved with compassion" at the sight of a man who was beaten. Jesus also demonstrated compassion to those his society had condemned – tax collectors, prostitutes, and criminals, by saying "just because you received a loaf of bread, does not mean you were more conscientious about it, or more caring about your fellow man".[64]
An interpretation of the incarnation and crucifixion of Jesus is that it was undertaken from a compassionate desire to feel the suffering of and effect the salvation of mankind; this was also a compassionate sacrifice by God of his own son ("For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son..."[65]).
A 2012 study of the historical Jesus claimed that he sought to elevate Judaic compassion as the supreme human virtue, capable of reducing suffering and fulfilling our God-ordained purpose of transforming the world into something more worthy of its creator.[64]
A 1930s photograph of a desert traveler seeking the assistance of Allah the Merciful, the Compassionate
In the Muslim tradition, foremost among God'sattributes are mercy and compassion, or, in the canonical language of Arabic, Rahman and Rahim. Each of the 114 chapters of the Quran, with one exception, begins with the verse, "In the name of Allah the Compassionate, the Merciful."[66]
Certainly a Messenger has come to you from among yourselves; grievous to him is your falling into distress, excessively solicitous respecting you; to the believers (he is) compassionate.
The Arabic word for compassion is rahmah. Its roots abound in the Quran. A good Muslim is to commence each day, each prayer, and each significant action by invoking Allah the Merciful and Compassionate, i.e., by reciting Bism-i-llah a-Rahman-i-Rahim. The womb and family ties are characterized by compassion and named after the exalted attribute of Allah "Al-Rahim" (The Compassionate).[67]
In the Jewish tradition, God is the Compassionate and is invoked as the Father of Compassion:[61] hence Raḥmana or Compassionate becomes the usual designation for His revealed word. (Compare, above, the frequent use of raḥman in the Quran).[68] Sorrow and pity for one in distress, creating a desire to relieve it, is a feeling ascribed alike to man and God: in Biblical Hebrew, (riḥam, from reḥem, the mother, womb), "to pity" or "to show mercy" in view of the sufferer's helplessness, hence also "to forgive" (Habakkuk 3:2), "to forbear" (Exodus 2:6; 1 Samuel 15:3; Jeremiah 15:15, 21:7). The Rabbis speak of the "thirteen attributes of compassion". The Biblical conception of compassion is the feeling of the parent for the child. Hence the prophet's appeal in confirmation of his trust in God invokes the feeling of a mother for her offspring (Isaiah 49:15).[68]
A classic articulation of the Golden Rule came from the first century Rabbi Hillel the Elder. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud and, as such, is one of the most important figures in Jewish history. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion "while standing on one leg" (meaning in the most concise terms) Hillel stated: "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is the explanation; go and learn."[69] Post 9/11, the words of Rabbi Hillel are frequently quoted in public lectures and interviews around the world by the prominent writer on comparative religion Karen Armstrong.
Many Jewish sources speak of the importance of compassion for and prohibitions on causing needless pain to animals. Significant rabbis who have done so include Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch[70] Rabbi Simhah Zissel Ziv,[71] and Rabbi Moshe Cordovero.[72]
In ancient Greek philosophy motivations based on pathos (feeling, passion) were typically distrusted. Reason was generally considered to be the proper guide to conduct. Compassion was considered pathos; hence, Justice is depicted as blindfolded, because her virtue is dispassion — not compassion.[73]
Aristotle compared compassion with indignation and thought they were both worthy feelings: Compassion means being pained by another person's unearned misfortune; indignation means being pained by another's unearned good fortune. Both are an unhappy awareness of an unjust imbalance.[74]
In Roman society, compassion was often seen as a vice when it was expressed as pity rather than mercy. In other words, showing empathy toward someone who was seen as deserving was considered virtuous, whereas showing empathy to someone deemed unworthy was considered immoral and weak.[75]
Mencius maintained that everyone possesses the germ or root of compassion, illustrating his case with the famous example of the child at an open well:
"Suppose a man were, all of a sudden, to see a young child on the verge of falling into a well. He would certainly be moved to compassion, not because he wanted to get into the good graces of the parents, nor because he wished to win the praise of his fellow-villagers or friends, nor yet because he disliked the cry of the child".[76]: 18 & 82
Mencius saw the task of moral cultivation as that of developing the initial impulse of compassion into an enduring quality of benevolence.[76]: 22–27
The first of the Four Noble Truths is the truth of suffering or dukkha (unsatisfactoriness or stress). Dukkha is one of the three distinguishing characteristics of all conditioned existence. It arises as a consequence of not understanding the nature of impermanence anicca (the second characteristic) as well as a lack of understanding that all phenomena are empty of self anatta (the third characteristic).
When one has an understanding of suffering and its origins and understands that liberation from suffering is possible, renunciation arises.[77] Renunciation then lays the foundation for the development of compassion for others who also suffer.[78] This is developed in stages:
Ordinary compassion
The compassion we have for those close to us such as friends and family and a wish to free them from the 'suffering of suffering'[79]
Immeasurable compassion
This is the compassion that wishes to benefit all beings without exception. It is associated with both the Hinayana and Mahayana paths.[80]
The American monkBhikkhu Bodhi states that compassion "supplies the complement to loving-kindness: whereas loving-kindness has the characteristic of wishing for the happiness and welfare of others, compassion has the characteristic of wishing that others be free from suffering, a wish to be extended without limits to all living beings. Like metta, compassion arises by considering that all beings, like ourselves, wish to be free from suffering, yet despite their wishes continue to be harassed by pain, fear, sorrow, and other forms of dukkha."[82]
Great Compassion
This is practiced exclusively in the Mahayana tradition and is associated with the development of Bodhicitta.[83] The Bodhisattva Vow begins (in one version): "Suffering beings are numberless, I vow to liberate them all."[84]
The 14th Dalai Lama has said, "If you want others to be happy, practice compassion. If you want to be happy, practice compassion."[85] But he also warned that compassion is difficult to develop:
This is no easy task... there is no blessing or initiation — which, if only we could receive it — or any mysterious or magical formula or mantra or ritual — if only we could discover it — that can enable us to achieve transformation instantly. It comes little by little, just as a building is constructed brick by brick or, as the Tibetan expression has it, an ocean is formed drop by drop.... Nor should the reader suppose that what we are talking about here is the mere acquisition of knowledge. It is not even a question of developing the conviction that may come from such knowledge. What we are talking about is gaining an experience of virtue through constant practice and familiarization so that it becomes spontaneous. What we find is that the more we develop concern for others' well-being, the easier it becomes to act in others' interests. As we become habituated to the effort required, so the struggle to sustain it lessens. Eventually, it will become second nature. But there are no shortcuts.[86]
Yoga aims at physical, mental, and spiritual purification, with a compassionate mind and spirit being one of its most important goals.[87] Various asanas and mudras are combined with meditation and self-reflection exercises to cultivate compassion.[88]
In classical literature of Hinduism, compassion[89] is a virtue with many shades, each shade explained by different terms. Three most common terms are daya (दया),[90]karuṇā (करुणा),[91] and anukampā (अनुकम्पा).[92] Other words related to compassion in Hinduism include karunya, kripa, and anukrosha.[93][94] Some of these words are used interchangeably among the schools of Hinduism to explain the concept of compassion, its sources, its consequences, and its nature. The virtue of compassion to all living beings, claims Gandhi and others,[95][page needed][96] is a central concept in Hindu philosophy.[89]
Daya is defined by Padma Purana as the virtuous desire to mitigate the sorrow and difficulties of others by putting forth whatever effort necessary.[93][97]Matsya Purana describes daya as the value that treats all living beings (including human beings) as one's own self, wanting the welfare and good of the other living being.[93][98] Such compassion, claims Matsya Purana, is one of necessary paths to being happy. Ekadashi Tattvam[99] explains daya is treating a stranger, a relative, a friend, and a foe as one's own self; and argues that compassion is that state when one sees all living beings as part of one's own self, and when everyone's suffering is seen as one's own suffering. Compassion to all living beings, including to those who are strangers and those who are foes, is seen as a noble virtue.[93]
Karuna, another word for compassion in Hindu philosophy, means placing one's mind in other's favor, thereby seeking to understand the best way to help alleviate their suffering through an act of karuna (compassion). Anukampa, yet another word for compassion, refers to one's state after one has observed and understood the pain and suffering in others.[100]
In Mahabharata, Indra praises Yudhishthira for his anukrosha – compassion, sympathy – for all creatures.[101]Tulsidas contrasts daya (compassion) with abhiman (arrogance, contempt of others), claiming compassion is a source of dharmic life, while arrogance a source of sin. Daya (compassion) is not kripa (pity) in Hinduism, or feeling sorry for the sufferer, because that is marred with condescension; compassion is recognizing one's own and another's suffering in order to actively alleviate that suffering.[102] Compassion is the basis for ahimsa, a core virtue in Hindu philosophy and an article of everyday faith and practice.[103]Ahimsa, or non-injury, is compassion-in-action that helps actively prevent suffering in all living things as well as helping beings overcome suffering and move closer to liberation.
Compassion in Hinduism is discussed as an absolute and a relative concept. There are two forms of compassion: one for those who suffer even though they have done nothing wrong and one for those who suffer because they did something wrong. Absolute compassion applies to both, while relative compassion addresses the difference between the former and the latter. An example of the latter include those who plead guilty or are convicted of a crime such as murder; in these cases, the virtue of compassion must be balanced with the virtue of justice.[93]
The classical literature of Hinduism exists in many Indian languages. For example, Tirukkuṛaḷ, written between 200 BCE and 400 CE, and sometimes called the Tamil Veda, is a cherished classic on Hinduism written in a South Indian language. It dedicates Chapter 25 of Book 1 to compassion,[104] further dedicating separate chapters each for the resulting values of compassion, chiefly, vegetarianism or veganism (Chapter 26), doing no harm (Chapter 32), non-killing (Chapter 33), possession of kindness (Chapter 8), dreading evil deeds (Chapter 21), benignity (Chapter 58), the right scepter (Chapter 55), and absence of terrorism (Chapter 57), to name a few.[105]
Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to the Jain tradition. Though all life is considered sacred, human life is deemed the highest form of earthly existence. To kill any person, no matter their crime, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only substantial religious tradition that requires both monks and laity to be vegetarian. It is suggested that certain strains of the Hindu tradition became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences.[106] The Jain tradition's stance on nonviolence, however, goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice veganism. Jains run animal shelters all over India. The Lal Mandir, a prominent Jain temple in Delhi, is known for the Jain Birds Hospital in a second building behind the main temple.[107][better source needed]
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^Jazaieri, Hooria; McGonigal, Kelly; Jinpa, Thupten; Doty, James R.; Gross, James J.; Goldin, Philippe R. (1 February 2014). "A randomized controlled trial of compassion cultivation training: Effects on mindfulness, affect, and emotion regulation". Motivation and Emotion. 38 (1): 23–35. doi:10.1007/s11031-013-9368-z. ISSN1573-6644. S2CID35717645.
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^Peus, Claudia (15 April 2011). "Money over man versus caring and compassion? Challenges for today's organizations and their leaders". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 32 (7): 955–960. doi:10.1002/job.751.
Leary, Mark R.; Tate, Eleanor B.; Adams, Claire E.; Batts Allen, Ashley; Hancock, Jessica (2007). "Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 92 (5): 887–904. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887. PMID17484611. S2CID17335165.
Neff, K. D.; Rude, S. S.; Kirkpatrick, K. (2007). "An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits". Journal of Research in Personality. 41 (4): 908–916. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.08.002.
^ Jump up to:abDrake-Brockman, Tom (2012). Christian Humanism: the compassionate theology of a Jew called Jesus. Sydney: Denis Jones and associates. ISBN9780646530390.
^Jeffrey, Isobel (4 February 2007). "The Contemporary Influences of Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi in the West: The Beshara School and the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society". Comparative Islamic Studies. 1 (1): 43–68. doi:10.1558/cis.v1i1.43. ISSN1743-1638.
^ Jump up to:abMartin, Nancy (2010). "Grace and Compassion". In Jacobsen, Knut (ed.). Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol. II. Brill. pp. 752–757. ISBN978-90-04-17893-9.
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^Tripathi, A.; Mullet, E. (2010). "Conceptualizations of forgiveness and forgivingness among Hindus". The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion. 20 (4): 255–266. doi:10.1080/10508619.2010.507694. S2CID144014675.
^Parmeshwaranand, Swami (2003). Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Dharmaśāstra. Sarup & Sons. pp. 369–370. ISBN978-81-7625-365-9.
^Sherlyn Jimenez, see article on Compassion, The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology, Volume I, Editor: Shane Lopez, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN978-1-4051-6125-1
Compassion (영어: Compassion)은 다른 사람의 고통 이나 불행 에 대해 동정심 , 관심, 도움을 주고자 하는 의지를 말합니다 .
"연민"은 라틴어에서 유래되었으며 (초기) 의미는 "공동의 고통"입니다. 연민은 ' 타인의 상황에 대한 감정 ' 을 포함하며 공감 , 즉 '타인을 느끼는 능력 '의 전 단계로, 이는 더 나은 사람 중심의 긍정적 연민적 행동으로 이어질 수 있다. 다른 사람이 원하는 고통. [1]
1895년 2월9일(음력), 보국안민(輔國安民·위태로운 나라를 돕고 고통에 빠진 백성을 편안케 함)과 척왜양(斥倭洋·일본과 서양세력을 배척함)의 기치(旗幟) 아래 동학농민군을 이끌다 체포된 전봉준(全琫準)에 대한 1차 심문이 열렸다. 법아관원(法衙官員)이 ‘고부민란(古阜民亂)’을 일으킨 연유를 물었다.
“처음부터 학정(虐政)을 했다면 그 즉시에 난을 일으키지 않은 이유는 무엇인가?”
“그 일대의 백성이 참고 참다 못해서 끝내는 부득이 난을 일으켰다.”
“너는 피해가 없으면서 어찌하여 난을 일으켰는가?”
“일신의 피해를 면하려고 난을 일으키는 것을 어찌 남아(男兒)의 할일이라 하겠는가. 백성의 원한이 맺혀 있었기에 백성을 위하여 학정을 없애고자 했을 뿐이다.”
전봉준의 공초록(供招錄·진술서)에 따르면 심문관은 고부군수 조병갑(趙秉甲)이 부임(1892년 4월)한 뒤 줄곧 탐학(貪虐)을 거듭했는데도 뒤늦게 난리를 일으킨 연유가 뭐냐, 너는 ‘아침 밥 저녁 죽’으로 살던 형편이어서 수탈(收奪)당할 것이 없었다면서 왜 난리에 앞장섰느냐, 물은 것이다. 전봉준은 답했다. ‘참고 참다 못해서, 백성을 위하여’라고.
용산 철거민들도 ‘참고 참다 못해서’ 망루에 올라갔을 것이다. 먼저 뉴타운과 재개발, 재건축 등 도심재생사업에서 밀려난 이들의 이야기를 들어보자.(이하 경향신문 2009년 2월2일자 ‘철거민 집담회’에서 발췌 인용)
“2002년 결혼하면서 서울 성동구 하왕십리에서 7년째 전세를 살고 있습니다. 이곳은 2003년부터 재개발 바람이 불었습니다. 세입자인 저의 경우 임대아파트 입주가 가능했습니다. 조합 측에서 이사를 가면 이사비용을 주고 아니면 임대아파트 입주권을 주겠다고 약속했습니다. 그래서 계속 살고 있는데 최근 갑자기 임대아파트 입주를 하려면 2~3년 더 기다려야 한다는 겁니다. 뉴타운이 너무 많이 조성되면서 임대아파트 입주예정자들이 넘쳐난다는 겁니다. 그래서 이사를 가려 했는데 갈 수도 없게 됐습니다. 방 2칸짜리 집을 2500만원에 전세 살고 있었는데, 주변 전·월세 값이 치솟아 이 규모로 이사를 가려면 보증금 2500만원에 따로 월세를 50만~60만원을 내야 합니다. 반지하에 수평도 맞지 않는 집 전셋값이 1억2000만원이나 합니다. 조합은 집을 비워달라고 하는데 나갈 수가 없는 처지입니다. 지금 보증금으로는 길거리에 나앉아야 하는 상황입니다. 여기서 죽나, 나가서 죽나 똑같다는 생각이 들어 움직이지 못하고 있습니다.”(주택세입자 L씨)
“저는 서울 은평구 응암동에서 10년간 살고 있습니다. 재개발이 시작되자 처음에는 조합에서 1 대 1 맞교환이라고 했습니다. 철석같이 믿었습니다. 그런데 철거 직전에 조합이 말을 바꾸기 시작하더군요. 대지 2평에 아파트 분양평수가 1평이다, 2 대 1이 안 된다는 둥 말입니다. 게다가 관리처분인가가 나오니 건평 24평짜리 집의 감정평가금액은 고작 1억원이었습니다. 32평형 아파트입주권이 주어졌는데 분양가가 4억2000만원입니다. 3억원이 넘는 돈을 더 내야 내 집을 장만한다니 말이 됩니까.”(주택소유자 L씨)
“저는 서울 성동구 왕십리에서 20년 동안 인테리어 업체를 운영하고 있습니다. 보증금 1300만원에 월세 100만원으로 25평 규모입니다. 뉴타운이 들어서면 이사를 가야 하는데 주변에는 갈 곳이 없습니다. 마땅한 사업장을 알아보려고 한 달 넘게 다녀봤는데 제일 싼 데가 보증금 5000만원에 월세 300만원이었습니다. 왕십리도 용산처럼 그런 사건이 벌어질지도 모르지만 대책을 어떻게 찾아야 할지 막막합니다.”(상가세입자 B씨)
“저는 1981년부터 29년째 서울 응암동에서 가게를 하고 있습니다. 4평짜리 작은 구멍가게지만 다섯 식구가 사는 데 부족함이 없었습니다. 그런데 재개발이 시작되면서 생계가 막막합니다. 한때 시세가 1억원이 넘었던 가게 보상비가 4600만원입니다. 구입할 때 치른 돈 6000만원에도 모자랍니다. 이런 말도 안 되는 셈법이 어디 있습니까.”(상가소유자 J씨)
주택이든 상가든, 소유자든 세입자든 말이 되느냐, 죽겠다, 살길이 막막하다는 하소연이다. 그렇다면 뉴타운, 재개발, 재건축은 과연 누구를 위한 것인가. 다수 원거주민(이들의 입주율은 10%에도 미치지 못한다)을 몰아내고 힘없는 세입자를 쫓아내는 이른바 도심재생사업을 이대로 계속할 것인가. 이는 원칙, 법치 이전에 생존권의 문제다. 사람을 살게 하면서 원칙도 따지고 법치도 내세워야지, 살려달라는 호소에는 귀를 막은 채 내몰려만 한다면 참고 참다 못한 이들이 ‘난’을 일으킬밖에 더 있겠는가. ‘용산 참사(慘事)’의 본질은 여기에 있다.
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부패하고 무능했던 왕조 말기의 민란에 오늘날 철거민의 문제를 빗대자는 것은 아니다. 불법 폭력적인 ‘난’을 부추기는 것은 더욱 아니다. 그러나 이번 참극의 본질은 뒷전에 밀어놓은 채 ‘엄정한 법치’만을 앞세운다면 ‘난’은 언제 재발할지 모른다.
그 점에서 이명박 대통령의 인식은 틀리지 않다. 그는 1월30일 TV 원탁대화에서 “이 문제를 하나의 사건으로 취급하면 여러 곳에서 (유사 사건이) 발생할 수 있다. 이번 일을 계기로 합의가 안 되는 10~15% 정도의 사람을 위한 협의기구를 정부가 법률적으로 제도적으로 만들어줘야 한다”고 말했다. 오세훈 서울시장도 “지금의 재개발은 세입자 희생이 너무 커 분쟁을 조정하는 공적기구를 만들겠다”(2009년 2월9일자 중앙일보 인터뷰)고 했다. 현행 재개발은 세입자의 희생 위에서 지주와 시행사가 이익을 창출하는 구조라는 것이다. 서울시장 시절 뉴타운 개발을 주도했던 대통령이나 현 서울시장이 현행 도심 재개발의 문제점을 파악하고 있었다는 얘기다. 그러나 대책은 없었다. 전·현직 서울시장이 미리 적절한 해결책을 내놓았더라면 ‘용산 참사’는 벌어지지 않았을 것이다. 그 점에서 과거 집권당이던 민주당도 큰소리 칠 자격은 없다.
정부는 김석기 경찰청장 내정자의 자진사퇴 날짜(2월10일)에 맞춘 듯 부랴부랴 재개발사업 개선방안을 발표했다. 상가세입자에게 분양권을 우선 부여하고, 휴업보상비를 상향조정하겠다는 것이다. 재개발사업과정에서 세입자와 조합, 조합과 조합원 사이의 분쟁을 해결하기 위해 시 군 구에 전문가, 시민단체 등으로 구성된 분쟁조정위원회도 설치한다고 한다. 말 그대로 사후약방문(死後藥方文)인 격이지만 늦은 만큼 하려면 제대로 해야 한다. 급한 불 끄는 식의 임기응변으로 철거민들을 다시 분노와 절망의 구렁텅이로 몰아넣어선 안 된다.
재개발 사업 중이거나 앞으로 할 예정인 지역의 여야 정치인들도 서로 삿대질이나 할 게 아니라 자기 지역구의 실태를 파악하고 대책을 마련하는 데 힘을 보태야 한다. 하물며 지난 총선에서 ‘뉴타운 바람’ 덕분에 의원 배지를 달게 된 상당수 한나라당 의원은 자신의 공약을 지키기 위해서라도 지역 실태 파악과 문제점 해결에 앞장서야 한다. 정부 대책은 발표하자마자 실효성을 의심받고 있다. 언제까지 ‘도심 테러’ ‘체제 전복’ 하며 이념 공세에나 열을 올리고 있을 텐가.
정부나 정치권에만 맡겨놓을 일은 아니다. 언론도 벌어진 사건이나 발표된 것만을 보도하는 소극적 태도에서 벗어나 현장 탐사보도를 통해 문제점을 지적하고 대안을 제시해야 한다. 언론이 그동안 철거민 문제에 지속적인 관심을 갖고 현장 실태, 예컨대 철거용역들의 폭력적 행태 등을 생생히 보도했었다면 ‘용산 참사’는 막을 수도 있었을 것이다. 용산 철거민들을 망루로 올려 보낸 책임에서 언론도 자유로울 수 없다.
조선 정부의 심문관은 전봉준에게 “너는 피해가 없으면서 어찌하여 난을 일으켰느냐?”고 했다. 요즘으로 치면 왜 제3자가 개입했느냐는 얘기다. 반상(班常)의 신분제를 체제의 근간으로 하는 봉건왕조의 관리가 ‘약자들의 연대’를 인식했을 리 없다. 그로부터 114년이 지난 오늘 대한민국의 몇몇 정부 여당 사람도 잠깐이나마 조선시대 관리로 돌아가는 듯했다. ‘용산 참화’ 직후 정부와 한나라당이 재개발 관련 제3자 개입금지를 추진했으니 말이다. 한나라당 임태희 정책위의장은 “용산 사건의 핵심은 일종의 전문조직이라고 할 수 있는 단체가 개입하게 되는 틈새가 왜 생기는지 당에서 파악해서 제도적인 개선책을 마련하는 것”이라고 말했다. 한마디로 재개발 현장의 분규에 제3자인 전국철거민연합(전철연)이 개입하지 못하게 하겠다는 얘기다.
전철연이 철거민들에게 망루 짓는 방법을 가르치고, 거기에 시너와 화염병 등 위험물질을 갖고 들어가 격렬한 투쟁을 하도록 교사(敎唆)했다면, 그들의 행위를 용납하기는 어렵다.
그러나 그에 앞서 일부나마 철거민들이 왜 과격한 전철연에 의존하게 되는지, 그 ‘틈새’가 무엇인지부터 알아야 한다. 철거민들은 입을 모아 말한다. “전철연만이 우리들에게 관심을 가져주었기 때문”이라고. 그렇다면 그 ‘틈새’부터 메워줘야 한다. 최소한 이해관계의 한 당사자인 철거민들의 하소연에 귀 기울이고 그들에게 관심을 기울이는 공적기관이 있었다면 그들이 화염병을 들고 전철연 사람들과 망루로 올라갔겠는가. 결국 ‘틈새’는 제대로 된 제3자가 존재하지 않았기에 생겨난 것이다. 관할구청장이 농성 철거민들을 ‘떼잡이’라고 비하하고, 관할경찰이 철거용역들과 한편으로 비치는 현실에서 ‘틈새’가 왜 생기는지 몰랐다면 집권여당 정책위의장으로선 부끄러워할 일이다.
원칙도 좋고, 법치도 마땅히 지켜져야 한다. 그러나 약자에 대한 연민(憐憫)조차 없는 원칙, 약자의 고통과 분노는 외면한 채 ‘고의 방화’네 ‘자폭범’이네, 모지락스러운 발언을 쏟아내는 저열한 법치로는 더불어 사는 사회공동체를 이룰 수 없다. 사람의 얼굴을 한 법치, 약자의 눈물을 닦아줄 수 있는 법치가 정의롭게 작동한다면 굳이 엄정한 법치를 강조할 까닭이 있겠는가. 소통 없는 원칙, 연민 없는 법치가 지배하는 세상은 삭막하다. 춘래불사춘(春來不似春)이다.
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