보살
위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
거란의 요나라시기 제작된 관세음보살상: 유희좌 자세를 취하고 있다
불교
교의와 용어[보이기]
인물[보이기]
역사와 종파[보이기]
경전[보이기]
성지[보이기]
지역별 불교[보이기]
v
t
e
보살(菩薩, 산스크리트어: बोधिसत्त्व bodhisattva 보디사트바, 팔리어: बोधिसत्त bodhisatta 보디삿따)은 부처(깨달은 사람 또는 존재)가 되기 위해 수행하는 사람(초기불교 경전-니까야에서의 정의), 또는 여러 생을 거치며 선업을 닦아 높은 깨달음의 경지에 다다른 위대한 사람을 뜻한다. 특히 대승불교에서 강조되었다. 보리살타 · 보살마하살 · 각유정 등으로도 불린다. 대승불교가 발달하면서 초기불교의 보살의 의미가 변화되었다.
대승불교는 원래 재가(在家)의 신자들이 중심이 되어 일으킨 것으로, 종래의 부파불교가 출가수행자(出家修行者)의 독점물이었던 것을 널리 전 불교도의 것으로 만드는 데 목적이 있었다.[1] 부파불교 시대에서 보살이라 하면 전생시대(前生時代)의 고타마 붓다 한 사람만을 지칭하는 것이었는데, 대승불교가 일어난 후로는 모든 사람이 다 부처가 될 수 있다는 입장에서 불교의 수행자 모두가 부처의 후보자로서 보살이라고 칭해지게 되었다.[1]
대승불교에서는 성문승과 연각승의 2승(二乘: 두 가지 탈것, 두 종류의 가르침, 두 종류의 길)에 대하여 이들 2가지 길보다 더 뛰어난 길로서의 보살승 즉 보살의 길을 포함시켜 3승(三乘: 세 가지 탈것, 세 종류의 가르침, 세 종류의 길)의 교의를 주장하였다. 3승의 교의의 문맥에서는 보살은 보살승의 수행자 즉 대승불교의 수행자를 뜻한다.[2][3] 이런 취지에서 2승의 수행자인 성문 · 연각과 비교하여, 대승불교 경전인 《해심밀경(解深密經)》에서는 "미세하고 아주 깊고 통달하기 어려워 범부나 2승은 이해할 수 없는 승의제를 이해할 수 있는 사람"을 보살이라 하고 있다.[4]
보살행(菩薩行)은 부처의 후보자로서의 보살의 수행, 또는, 높은 깨달음을 성취한 위대한 사람으로서의 보살이라는 경지에 다다르기 위한 수행을 뜻하는데, 보살행의 구체적인 실천 항목으로 6바라밀(六婆羅蜜)이 세워졌다.[1] 이후 대승불교의 교학이 발달하면서 10바리밀과 10지설이 성립되었고, 《화엄경》에서 설하고 있는, 10지설을 중심으로 하는, 41위의 보살 수행계위에 기반하여 대승불교에서 널리 채택하여 사용하고 있는 10신 · 10주 · 10행 · 10회향 · 10지 · 등각 · 묘각의 52위의 보살 수행계위가 성립되었다.[5][6]
목차
1이름의 뜻
2대승불교
2.1보살의 성격
2.2보살의 수행
3유명한 보살
4문화적 용어
5같이 보기
6각주
7참고 문헌
이름의 뜻[편집]
보살은 보리살타(菩提薩唾)의 줄임말로 보리살타는 산스크리트어 "보디사트바(bodhisattva)'"를 음에 따라 번역한 것이다. 산스크리트어 "보디(bodhi: 보리)"는 깨닫다는 뜻이며 "사트바(sattva)"는 존재 또는 유정(有情)을 뜻한다. 즉 보리살타는 깨달은 존재라는 뜻으로 각유정(覺有情)이라 의역되기도 한다. 유정은 중생이라 불리기도 한다.
보살은 빠알리어의 보디삿따(Bodhisatta, 菩提薩唾)라는 말을 음사(音寫)한 것으로 깨달음을 향해 나아가는 사람이란 뜻이다.
대승불교에서는 깨달음을 이룬 존재라는 뜻으로 사용되고 있지만 초기불교에서는 깨달음을 향해 나아가는 사람이란 뜻으로 사용되었다.
대승불교[편집]
보살의 성격[편집]
보살은 대승불교의 주요 특징이다. 개인의 깨달음과 열반뿐 아니라 중생과 함께 열반에 이르는 것을 가장 큰 가치로 삼기 때문이다. 보살의 사홍서원은 이러한 특징을 잘 드러낸다. 지장보살은 지옥에서 고통받는 모든 중생이 구원받기전에는 부처가 되지 않겠다고 서원하고, 법장비구(법장보살이라고도 불리며 아미타불이 부처가 되기 전인 전생의 수행 비구)는 괴로운 중생에게 깨달음을 주기 전에는 결코 부처가 되지 않겠다고 서원한다.[7]
보살의 수행[편집]
6바라밀, 보살 수행계위 문서를 참고하십시오.대승불교에서는 수행자로서의 보살은 6바라밀을 닦아야 한다고 말한다.[8] 이 중에서도 반야바라밀은 나머지 다섯 바라밀의 성립 근거가 되는 무분별지(無分別智)로서,[8] 특히 중요시되고 있다. 예를 들어, 대승불교의 논서인 《대지도론(大智度論)》에서는 육안(肉眼) · 천안(天眼) · 혜안(慧眼) · 법안(法眼) · 불안(佛眼)의 오안(五眼)을 얻고자 한다면 반야바라밀을 닦아야 한다는 불교 경전의 진술을 인용해 이를 해설하고 있다.[9]
대승불교의 6바라밀은 단순히 재가 신도(在家信徒)를 위한 것이라기보다는 출가 · 재가를 불문하고 전불교도의 기본적인 덕목으로서 8정도(八正道)에서는 설명되어 있지 않는 이타행(利他行)으로서의 보시(布施)가 제1차적으로 취급된 점에 특색이 있다.[1] 또한 후에는 6바라밀에 방편(方便) · 원(願) · 역(力) · 지(智)의 이타적인 내용을 가진 4개의 덕목이 추가되어 십바라밀설(十婆羅蜜說)이 출현했다.[1] 대승불교에서는 이타(利他)가 그대로 자리(自利)로 되는 곳에 대승의 실천도의 현묘함이 있다고 주장한다.[1]
유명한 보살[편집]
관세음보살, 지장보살, 대세지보살, 문수보살 등이 유명하다.
문화적 용어[편집]
한국의 불교에서는 여성 평신도를 가리키는 용어로도 쓰인다.
같이 보기[편집]
명자보살
성문승
연각승
불승
각주[편집]
↑ 이동:가 나 다 라 마 바 종교·철학 > 세계의 종교 > 불 교 > 불교의 사상 > 초기 대승불교의 사상 > 보살행, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
↑ 종교·철학 > 세계의 종교 > 불 교 > 불교의 사상 > 초기 대승불교의 사상 > 삼승, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
"삼승: 三乘 삼승이란 3종의 탈것이라는 뜻으로 대승불교가 일어난 후 부처를 목표로 하는가 아라한을 목표로 하는가의 차이에 따라 타는 것도 달라진다는 생각에서 대승 편에서 주장하기 시작한 것이다. 스스로는 부처를 목표로 하는 불보살승(佛菩薩乘)이며 소승은 성문승(聲聞乘)·연각승(緣覺乘)의 2승(二乘)으로서 아라한은 될 수 있어도 부처로는 영원히 될 수 없다고 하여 구별한 것이다. 우선 성문(聲聞)이란 부처의 가르침을 듣고서 도에 정진하는 자라는 뜻으로서 불제자를 가리킨다. 따라서 성문승이란 불제자의 도로서 구체적으로는 부처의 교법에 의해서 4체(四諦)의 이(理)를 보고 스스로 아라한으로 될 것을 이상으로 하는 낮은 수행자라고 한다. 연각승의 연각(緣覺)은 독각(獨覺)이라고도 하며, 원래 고타마가 스승에 의하지 아니하고 혼자서 깨달음을 얻은(無師獨悟) 면을 나타낸 말인데 교리(敎理)상으로는 12연기를 관찰하여 미(迷)를 끊고 이법(理法)을 깨닫는다(斷惑證理)는 뜻으로 사용되었다. 그러나 구체적으로는 독각은 제자도 없고 설교하지도 않으므로 이념적인 것에 불과한 것이다."
↑ 운허, "三乘(삼승)". 2013년 4월 8일에 확인
"三乘(삼승):
[1] 성문ㆍ연각ㆍ보살에 대한 세가지 교법(敎法). 승(乘)은 물건을 실어 옮기는 것을 목표로 하니, 부처님의 교법도, 중생을 실어 열반의 언덕에 이르게 하는데 비유. (1) 성문승. 4제(諦)의 법문이니, 부처님이 말씀하는 소리를 듣고, 이를 관하여 해탈을 얻음. (2) 연각승. 12인연의 법문이니, 스승에게 가지 않고, 스스로 잎이 피고, 꽃이 지는 따위의 이치를 관하여 깨닫는 것. (3) 보살승. 6바라밀의 법문이니, 보살은 이 법문에 의하여 스스로 해탈하고, 남을 해탈케 하여 부처를 이룸.
[2] 3승법에 의하여 각기 수행을 마치고, 얻은 성문과ㆍ연각과ㆍ보살과를 말함."
↑ 이봉순, 〈해심밀경의 보살사상〉, 《불교학 연구 제 15권》, 273쪽 이하. 불교학연구회, 2006.
↑ 고려대장경연구소 K1513 (T.1733), 화엄경 탐현기 해제
"[《화엄경탐현기》는] 60권 본 화엄경을 해석한 주석서인데, 열 가지 범주 즉 10문(門)로 이루어져 있다. 제1권은 탐현기 전체의 열 가지 범주 중에서 아홉 가지 범주를 다루고 있다. ... 이상의 아홉 가지 범주가 모두 제1권에서 설해지고 있으니, 제1권을 현담(玄談)이라 부른다. 열째 범주는 경문을 따라서 해석하는 것(隨文解釋)이다. 제2권 이하 전체에 걸치고 있는데, 법장은 스스로 화엄경 전체를 어떻게 이해하고 있는지 밝힌다. 그는 크게 화엄경을 서분(序分)과 정종분(正宗分)으로 나누고 있으니, "화엄경은 법계에 계합하는 법문이기 때문에 총체적으로 유통분(流通分)이 없다."라고 하였다. ... 제4권 이하는 정종분을 주석하는 것이니, 각 품마다 반드시 이름을 해석하는 석명(釋名), 그 품이 그 위치에 있어야 할 논리적 이유를 앞뒤의 품과 관련하여 논하는 내의(來意), 그 품의 주제를 분석하여 밝힌 종취(宗趣), 본문의 구절 구절을 해석하는 석문(釋文) 등의 넷으로 나누어서 번쇄하다 할 정도로 철저히 주석한다. 그의 스승 지엄(智儼)이 그에게 문지(文持)라는 호를 하사할 정도이다. 제4권 이하의 정종분 중에서 가장 자세하게 주석하고 있는 것은 십지품과 입법계품이다. 입법계품은 원래 본문이 방대하기 때문이지만 십지품은 제9권부터 제14권에 이르기까지 총 5권에 이르는 분량으로 상세하게 주석하고 있음을 통해서 볼 때, 화엄 교학에 있어서 10지 사상이 차지하는 비중을 알 수 있다."
↑ 운허, "菩薩瓔珞本業經(보살영락본업경)". 2013년 4월 10일에 확인
"菩薩瓔珞本業經(보살영락본업경):
K-530, T-1485. 축불념(竺佛念)이 전진(前秦)시대인 374년에서 요진(姚秦)시대(384-417) 사이에 번역하였다. 줄여서 『보살영락경』ㆍ『본업경』ㆍ『영락경』ㆍ『영락본업경』이라고 한다. 보살의 본업인 10주(住)ㆍ10행(行)ㆍ10회향(廻向)ㆍ10지(地)ㆍ등각(等覺)ㆍ묘각(妙覺)의 42현성(賢聖)의 행업(行業)과 인과(因果)를 설한 경전이다. 『범망경』과 함께 대승의 계율을 설한 경전으로, 전체 8품으로 이루어져 있다. 제1 「집중품(集衆品)」에는 부처님이 발하신 42가지의 빛이 영락이 되어 불신(佛身)을 장엄하고 법계에 가득 하자, 시방 일체의 국토에서 수많은 보살들이 몰려오는 광경이 설해져 있다. 제2 「현성명자품(賢聖名字品)』에서는 부처님께서 42현성명문(賢聖名門)과 10원명자(願名字) 보살, 10종 불가회계(不可悔戒)에 대해 설하신다. 제3 「현성학관품(賢聖學觀品)』에서는 보살 명자(名字)의 의상(義相)을 배우고 관찰하는 것에 대하여 설하시는데, 습종성(習種性)ㆍ성종성(性種性)ㆍ도종성(道種性)ㆍ성종성(聖種性)ㆍ등각성(等覺性)ㆍ묘각성(妙覺性)의 6종성과 동ㆍ은ㆍ금ㆍ유리ㆍ마니ㆍ수정의 여섯 가지 영락을 연결지어 말씀하신다. 제4 「석의품(釋義品)」에서는 10주부터 묘각지의 의상(義相)에 대해 설하신다. 의(義)는 공덕을 가리키며, 보살의 체(體)로부터 나온다. 제5 「불모품(佛母品)」에서는 2제(諦)와 중도제일의제(中道第一義諦)에 대해 설하시고, 제6 「인과품(因果品)」에서는 3세의 모든 부처님이 행하신 인(因)인 10바라밀에 대해 설하신다. 제7 「대중수학품(大衆受學品)에서는 일체의 중생이 3보의 바다에 들어와서는 믿음으로 근본을 삼고 불가(佛家)에 들어와서는 계(戒)로써 근본으로 삼는데, 계는 일체행 공덕장의 근본이고 일체의 악을 없애는 정법의 밝은 거울이라고 말씀하시고, 섭선법계(攝善法戒)ㆍ섭중생계(攝衆生戒)ㆍ섭율의계(攝律義戒)와 3종의 수계(受戒)에 대해 설하신다. 제8 「집산품(集散品)」에서는 부처님께서 대중들에게 42현성의 인과법문을 들었으니 모두 3보리심을 일으키고 받아 지닐 것을 당부하신다. 이 경전의 42현성은 60권 『화엄경』에 의거한 것이며, 부분적으로는 『보살본행경』ㆍ『범망경』ㆍ『인왕반야경』ㆍ『보살지지론』ㆍ『우바새계경』 등과 밀접한 관련을 갖는다. 수(隋)의 천태대사와 당(唐)의 현수 법장이 이 경전을 중시하였으며, 주석서로는 원효의 『소(疏)』 하권만이 일본속장경에 전해지고 있는데 『의천록(義天錄)』에 의하면 이 소(疏)는 본래 3권이었다고 한다. 이 경의 번역자에 대해서는 이설(異說)이 있으며, 중국에서 만들어진 위경(僞經)일 것이라는 학설도 있다."
↑ 서재원의 불교 기초강좌.
↑ 이동:가 나 세계사상 > 사 상 용 어 > 동양사상 관계 > 불교 관계 > 바라밀, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
↑ 《"대지도론(大智度論)" Archived 2010년 6월 21일 - 웨이백 머신》, 제33권, 대정신수대장경. Vol. 25, No. 1509, CBETA, T25n1509_p0305c17(00) - T25n1509_p0305c19(01). 2011년 4월 4일에 확인.【經】 「復次，舍利弗！菩薩摩訶薩欲得五眼者，當學般若波羅蜜！」 【論】 何等五？肉眼、天眼、慧眼、法眼、佛眼。
참고 문헌[편집]
위키미디어 공용에 관련된미디어 분류가 있습니다.
보살
이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 내용을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다.펼치기
v
t
e
불교 Bodhisattva
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
This article is about Buddhism. For the 2010 film, see Bodhisattva (film). For the song by Steely Dan, see Countdown to Ecstasy.
Bodhisattva
An image of Bodhisattva in Plaosan temple, 9th century Central Java, Indonesia
Sanskrit बोधिसत्त्व (Bodhisattva)
Pāli बोधिसत्त (Bodhisatta)
Burmese ဗောဓိသတ် (bɔ́dḭθaʔ)
Chinese 菩提薩埵（菩薩）, 菩提萨埵（菩萨）, (pútísàduǒ (púsà) ), (Wade–Giles: p'u2-sa4), (Jyutping: pou4 tai4 saat3 do3)
Japanese 菩薩 (romaji: bosatsu)
Khmer ពោធិសត្វ (Pothisat)
Korean 보살, 菩薩 (RR: bosal)
Thai โพธิสัตว์ (phothisat)
Tibetan བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་ (chang chub sems dpa)
Vietnamese Bồ Tát
菩薩
Information
Venerated by Theravada, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna
Religion portal
Part of a series on
Buddhism
History[show]
Dharma
Concepts[show]
Buddhist texts[show]
Practices[show]
Nirvāṇa[show]
Traditions[show]
Buddhism by country[show]
Outline
Religion portal
v
t
e
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva (/ˌboʊdiːˈsʌtvə/ BOH-dee-SUT-və)[1] is any person who is on the path towards Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools as well as modern Theravada Buddhism, a bodhisattva (Pali: bodhisatta) refers to anyone who has made a resolution to become a Buddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living Buddha that this will be so.[2]
In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generated bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.[3]
The elaborate concept refers to a sentient being or sattva that develops bodhi or enlightenment — thus possessing the boddisattva's psyche; described as those who work to develop and exemplify the loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuṇā), empathetic joy (mudita) and equanimity (upekkha). These four virtues are the four divine abodes, called Brahmavihara (illimitables).[4]
Contents
1Early Buddhism and the Nikāya schools
1.1Later Theravāda
2In Mahāyāna Buddhism
2.1Early Mahāyāna
2.2Mature Mahāyāna
2.3Bodhisattva grounds or levels
2.4School doctrines
3Iconography and the popular mind
4Gallery
5See also
6Citations
7General references
8External links
Early Buddhism and the Nikāya schools[edit]
Gandharan relief depicting the bodhisattva (future Gautama Buddha) taking a vow at the foot of Dipankara Buddha, Art Institute of Chicago.
In early Buddhism, the term bodhisattva is used in the early texts to refer to Gautama Buddha in his previous lives[5] and as a young man in his current life in the period during which he was working towards his own liberation. During his discourses, to recount his experiences as a young aspirant he regularly uses the phrase "When I was an unenlightened bodhisatta..."[citation needed] The term therefore connotes a being who is "bound for enlightenment", in other words, a person whose aim is to become fully enlightened. In the Pāli canon, the bodhisatta (bodhisattva) is also described as someone who is still subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement, and delusion. Some of the previous lives of the Buddha as a bodhisattva are featured in the Jataka tales.
According to the Theravāda monk Bhikkhu Bodhi, the bodhisattva path is not taught in the earliest strata of Buddhist texts such as the Pali Nikayas (and their counterparts such as the Chinese Āgamas) which instead focus on the ideal of the Arahant.[6]
The oldest known story about how Gautama Buddha becomes a bodhisattva is the story of his encounter with the previous Buddha, Dīpankara. During this encounter, a previous incarnation of Gautama, variously named Sumedha, Megha, or Sumati offers five blue lotuses and spreads out his hair or entire body for Dīpankara to walk on, resolving to one day become a Buddha. Dīpankara then confirms that they will attain Buddhahood.[2] Early Buddhist authors saw this story as indicating that the making of a resolution (abhinīhāra) in the presence of a living Buddha and his prediction/confirmation of one's future Buddhahood was necessary to become a bodhisattva. According to Drewes, "all known models of the path to Buddhahood developed from this basic understanding."[2]
The path is explained differently by the various Nikaya schools. In the Theravāda Buddhavaṃsa (1st-2nd century BCE), after receiving the prediction, Gautama took four asaṃkheyyas ("incalculable aeons") and a hundred thousand, shorter kalpas (aeons) to reach Buddhahood.[2]
The Sarvāstivāda school had similar models about how the Buddha Gautama became a bodhisattva. They held it took him three asaṃkhyeyas and ninety one kalpas (aeons) to become a Buddha after his resolution (praṇidhāna) in front of a past Buddha. During the first asaṃkhyeya he is said to have encountered and served 75,000 Buddhas, and 76,000 in the second, after which he received his first prediction (vyākaraṇa) of future Buddhahood from Dīpankara, meaning that he could no longer fall back from the path to Buddhahood.[2] Thus, the presence of a living Buddha is also necessary for Sarvāstivāda. The Mahāvibhāṣā explains that its discussion of the bodhisattva path is partly meant "to stop those who are in fact not bodhisattvas from giving rise to the self-conceit that they are."[2]
The Mahāvastu of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādins presents four stages of the bodhisattva path without giving specific time frames (though it's said to take various asaṃkhyeya kalpas):[2]
Natural (prakṛti), one first plants the roots of merit in front of a Buddha to attain Buddhahood.
Resolution (praṇidhāna), one makes their first resolution to attain Buddhahood in the presence of a Buddha.
Continuing (anuloma), one continues to practice until one meets a Buddha who confirms one's future Buddhahood.
Irreversible (anivartana), at this stage, one cannot fall back.
Later Theravāda[edit]
Probable early image of a bodhisattva (Bimaran casket, 50 CE).[7]
The Sri Lankan commentator Dhammapala in his commentary on the Cariyāpiṭaka, a text which focuses on the bodhisattva path, notes that to become a bodhisattva one must make a valid resolution in front of a living Buddha, which confirms that one is irreversible (anivattana) from the attainment of Buddhahood. The Nidānakathā, as well as the Buddhavaṃsa and Cariyāpiṭaka commentaries makes this explicit by stating that one cannot use a substitute (such as a Bodhi tree, Buddha statue or Stupa) for the presence of a living Buddha, since only a Buddha has the knowledge for making a reliable prediction. This is the generally accepted view maintained in orthodox Theravada today.[2] The idea is that any resolution to attain Buddhahood may easily be forgotten or abandoned during the aeons ahead. The Burmese monk Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) explains that though it is easy to make vows for future Buddhahood by oneself, it is very difficult to maintain the necessary conduct and views during periods when the Dharma has disappeared from the world. One will easily fall back during such periods and this is why one is not truly a full bodhisattva until one receives recognition from a living Buddha.[2]
Because of this, it was and remains a common practice in Theravada to attempt to establish the necessary conditions to meet the future Buddha Maitreya and thus receive a prediction from him. Medieval Theravada literature and inscriptions report the aspirations of monks, kings and ministers to meet Maitreya for this purpose. Modern figures such as Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933), and U Nu (1907–1995) both sought to receive a prediction from a Buddha in the future and believed meritorious actions done for the good of Buddhism would help in their endeavor to become bodhisattvas in the future.[2]
Over time the term came to be applied to other figures besides Gautama Buddha in Theravada lands, possibly due to the influence of Mahayana. The Theravada Abhayagiri tradition of Sri Lanka practiced Mahayana Buddhism and was very influential until the 12th century.[8] Kings of Sri Lanka were often described as bodhisattvas, starting at least as early as Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247–249), who was renowned for his compassion, took vows for the welfare of the citizens, and was regarded as a mahāsatta (Sanskrit mahāsattva), an epithet used almost exclusively in Mahayana Buddhism.[9] Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattvas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with the practice of the Ten Pāramitās.[10] In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives.[2]
Modern depiction of the bodhisattva resolution (praṇidhāna) in front of Dipankara.
Theravadin bhikkhu and scholar Walpola Rahula stated that the bodhisattva ideal has traditionally been held to be higher than the state of a śrāvaka not only in Mahayana but also in Theravada Buddhism. He also quotes the 10th century king of Sri Lanka, Mahinda IV (956–972 CE), who had the words inscribed "none but the bodhisattvas will become kings of a prosperous Lanka," among other examples.[11]
But the fact is that both the Theravada and the Mahayana unanimously accept the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest...Although the Theravada holds that anybody can be a Bodhisattva, it does not stipulate or insist that all must be Bodhisattva which is considered not practical.
— Walpola Rahula, Bodhisattva Ideal in Buddhism[12]
Jeffrey Samuels echoes this perspective, noting that while in Mahayana Buddhism the bodhisattva path is held to be universal and for everyone, in Theravada it is "reserved for and appropriated by certain exceptional people."[13] Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in Thailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.[14]
In Mahāyāna Buddhism[edit]
Early Mahāyāna[edit]
Bodhisattva of Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st-3rd century
Mahāyāna Buddhism (often also called Bodhisattvayāna, or the "Bodhisattva Vehicle") is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva.[15] This path was seen as nobler than becoming an arhat or a solitary Buddha. According to David Drewes, "Mahayana sutras unanimously depict the path beginning with the first arising of the thought of becoming a Buddha (prathamacittotpāda), or the initial arising of bodhicitta, typically aeons before one first receives a Buddha’s prediction, and apply the term bodhisattva from this point."[2]
The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, one of the earliest known Mahayana texts, contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva, which is also the earliest known Mahāyāna definition.[16][17] This definition is given as the following: "Because he has bodhi as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called."[18]
The Aṣṭasāhasrikā, also divides the path into three stages. The first stage is that of bodhisattvas who “first set out in the vehicle” (prathamayānasaṃprasthita), then there is the “irreversible” (avinivartanīya) stage, and finally the third “bound by one more birth” (ekajātipratibaddha), as in, destined to become a Buddha in the next life.[2] Drewes also notes that:
When Mahāyāna sūtras present stories of Buddhas and bodhisattvas’ first arising of the thought of attaining Buddhahood, they invariably depict it as taking place in the presence of a Buddha, suggesting that they shared with all known nikāya traditions the understanding that this is a necessary condition for entering the path. In addition, though this key fact is often obscured in scholarship, they apparently never encourage anyone to become a bodhisattva or present any ritual or other means of doing so. Like nikāya texts, they also regard the status of new or recent bodhisattvas as largely meaningless. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā, for instance, states that as many bodhisattvas as there grains of sand in the Ganges turn back from the pursuit of Buddhahood and that out of innumerable beings who give rise to bodhicitta and progress toward Buddhahood, only one or two will reach the point of becoming irreversible.[2]
Mural of Padmapani in Ajanta Caves. India, 5th century
Drewes also adds that early texts like the Aṣṭasāhasrikā treat bodhisattvas who are beginners (ādikarmika) or "not long set out in the [great] vehicle" with scorn, describing them as "blind", "unintelligent", "lazy" and "weak". Early Mahayana works identify them with those who reject Mahayana or who abandon Mahayana, and they are seen as likely to become śrāvakas (those on the arhat path). Rather than encouraging them to become bodhisattvas, what early Mahayana sutras like the Aṣṭa do is to help individuals determine if they have already received a prediction in a past life, or if they are close to this point.[2] The Aṣṭa provides a variety of methods, including forms of ritual or divination, methods dealing with dreams and various tests, especially tests based on one's reaction to the hearing of the content in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā itself. The text states that encountering and accepting its teachings mean one is close to being given a prediction and that if one does not "shrink back, cower or despair" from the text, but "firmly believes it", one is irreversible. Many other Mahayana sutras such as the Akṣobhyavyūha and the Śūraṃgamasamādhi Sūtra present textual approaches to determine one's status as an advanced bodhisattva. These mainly consist in one's attitude towards listening to, believing, preaching, proclaiming, copying or memorizing and reciting the sutra.[2] According to Drewes, this claim that merely having faith in Mahāyāna sūtras meant that one was an advanced bodhisattva, was a departure from previous Nikaya views about bodhisattvas. It created new groups of Buddhists who accepted each other's bodhisattva status.[2]
Clay sculpture of a bodhisattva. Afghanistan, 7th century
Some of early depictions of the Bodhisattva path in texts such as the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra describe it as an arduous, difficult monastic path suited only for the few which is nevertheless the most glorious path one can take. Three kinds of bodhisattvas are mentioned: the forest, city, and monastery bodhisattvas—with forest dwelling being promoted a superior, even necessary path in sutras such as the Ugraparipṛcchā and the Samadhiraja sutras.[19] The early Rastrapalapariprccha sutra also promotes a solitary life of meditation in the forests, far away from the distractions of the householder life. The Rastrapala is also highly critical of monks living in monasteries and in cities who are seen as not practicing meditation and morality.[20] The Ratnagunasamcayagatha also says the bodhisattva should undertake ascetic practices (dhutanga), "wander freely without a home", practice the paramitas and train under a guru in order to perfect his meditation practice and realization of prajñaparamita.[21] Some scholars have used these texts to argue for "the forest hypothesis", the theory that the initial Bodhisattva ideal was associated with a strict forest asceticism. But other scholars point out that many other Mahayana sutras do not promote this ideal, focusing on sutra based practices.[22]
Some Mahayana sutras promoted another revolutionary doctrinal turn, claiming that the three vehicles of the Śrāvakayāna, Pratyekabuddhayāna and the Bodhisattvayāna were really just one vehicle (ekayana). This is most famously promoted in the Lotus Sūtra which claims that the very idea of three separate vehicles is just an upaya, a skillful device invented by the Buddha to get beings of various abilities on the path. But ultimately, it will be revealed to them that there is only one vehicle, the ekayana, which ends in Buddhahood.[23]
Mature Mahāyāna[edit]
Wood carving of Avalokiteśvara. Liao China, 907–1125
Over time, Mahayana Buddhists developed mature systematized doctrines about the bodhisattva path. The authors of the various Madhyamaka shastras (treatises) often presented the view of the ekayana. The texts and sutras associated with the Yogacara school developed a different theory of three separate gotras or lineages, that inherently predisposed a person to either the vehicle of the arhat, pratyekabuddha or samyak-saṃbuddha (fully self awakened one).[22] However, the term was also used in a broader sense. According to the eight century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra, the term "bodhisattva" can refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards bodhi (awakening). Therefore, the specific term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a mahāsattva (great being) bodhisattva.[24] According to Atiśa's 11th century Bodhipathapradīpa, the central defining feature of a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is the universal aspiration to end suffering for all sentient beings, which is termed bodhicitta (the heart set on awakening).[25] Later Sanskrit Mahayana Buddhists also developed specific rituals and devotional acts for the arising of this absolutely central quality of bodhicitta, such as the "seven part worship" (Saptāṇgapūjā or Saptavidhā Anuttarapūjā). This ritual form is visible in the works of Shantideva (8th century) and includes:[26]
Vandana (obeisance, bowing down)
Puja (worship of the Buddhas)
Sarana-gamana (going for refuge)
Papadesana (confession of bad deeds)
Punyanumodana (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and others)
Adhyesana (prayer, entreaty) and yacana (supplication) – request to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma
Atmabhavadi-parityagah (surrender)
Twenty-five Bodhisattvas Descending from Heaven. Japanese painting, c. 1300
Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism follows this model and encourages everyone to give rise to bodhicitta and ceremonially take bodhisattva vows. With these vows, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings by practicing the transcendent virtues or paramitas.[27]
Related to the different views on the different types of yanas or vehicles is the question of a bodhisattva's relationship to nirvāṇa. In the various Mahāyāna texts, two theories can be discerned. One view is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained (at which point one ceases to be reborn, which is the classical view of nirvāṇa). This view is promoted in some sutras like the Pañcavimsatisahasrika-prajñaparamita-sutra.[28] The second theory is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called apratiṣṭhita (non-abiding) that allows a Buddha to remain engaged in the world. This doctrine developed in Yogacara. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature, therefore while earlier sutras may sometimes speak of "postponement", later texts saw no need to postpone the "superior" apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa.[28]
In this Yogacara model, the bodhisattva definitely rejects and avoids the liberation of the śravaka and pratyekabuddha, described in Mahāyāna literature as either inferior or "Hina" (as in Asaṅga's fourth century Yogācārabhūmi) or as ultimately false or illusory (as in the Lotus Sūtra).[29] That a bodhisattva has the option to pursue such a lesser path, but instead chooses the long path towards Buddhahood is one of the five criteria for one to be considered a bodhisattva. The other four are: being human, being a man, making a vow to become a Buddha in the presence of a previous Buddha, and receiving a prophecy from that Buddha.
Gathering of bodhisattvas. China, 6th century.
Over time, a more varied analysis of bodhisattva careers developed focused on one's motivation. This can be seen in the Tibetan Buddhist teaching on three types of motivation for generating bodhicitta. According to Patrul Rinpoche's 19th century Words of My Perfect Teacher (Kun bzang bla ma'i gzhal lung), a bodhisattva might be motivated in one of three ways. They are:
King-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha first in order to then help sentient beings.
Boatman-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha at the same time as other sentient beings.
Shepherd-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha only after all other sentient beings have done so.
These three are not types of people, but rather types of motivation. According to Patrul Rinpoche, the third quality of intention is most noble though the mode by which Buddhahood occurs is the first; that is, it is only possible to teach others the path to enlightenment once one has attained enlightenment oneself.[30] The ritualized formulation of the bodhisattva vow also reflects this order (becoming a buddha so that one can then teach others to do the same). A bodhisattva vow ritual text attributed to Nāgārjuna, of the second-third century CE, states the vow as follows: "Just as the past tathāgata arhat samyaksambuddhas, when engaging in the behavior of a bodhisattva, generated the aspiration to unsurpassed complete enlightenment so that all beings be liberated, all beings be freed, all beings be relieved, all beings attain complete nirvana, all beings be placed in omniscient wisdom, in the same way, I whose name is so-and-so, from this time forward, generate the aspiration to unsurpassed complete enlightenment so that all beings be liberated, all beings be freed, all beings be relieved, all beings attain complete nirvana, all beings be placed in omniscient wisdom."[31]
The six perfections that constitute bodhisattva practice should not be confused with the acts of benefiting beings that the bodhisattva vows to accomplish once he or she is a buddha. The six perfections are a mental transformation and need not benefit anyone. This is seen in the story of Vessantara, an incarnation of Śākyamuni Buddha while he was still a bodhisattva, who commits the ultimate act of generosity by giving away his children to an evil man who mistreats them. Vessantara's generous act causes indirect harm, however, the merit from the perfection of his generosity fructifies when he attains complete enlightenment as Śākyamuni Buddha.[32]
Bodhisattva grounds or levels[edit]
Bronze statue of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. Sri Lanka, c. 750 CE.
According to many traditions within Mahāyāna Buddhism, on the way to becoming a Buddha, a bodhisattva proceeds through ten, or sometimes fourteen, grounds or bhūmis. Below is the list of the ten bhūmis and their descriptions according to the Avataṃsaka Sūtra and The Jewel Ornament of Liberation, a treatise by Gampopa, an influential teacher of the Tibetan Kagyu school. (Other schools give slightly variant descriptions.)
Before a bodhisattva arrives at the first ground, he or she first must travel the first two of five paths:
the path of accumulation
the path of preparation
The ten grounds of the bodhisattva then can be grouped into the next three paths:
bhūmi 1 the path of insight
bhūmis 2–7 the path of meditation
bhūmis 8–10 the path of no more learning
The chapter of ten grounds in the Avataṃsaka Sūtra refers to 52 stages. The 10 grounds are:
Great Joy: It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for all sentient beings, one achieves great joy, hence the name. In this bhūmi the bodhisattvas practice all perfections (pāramitās), but especially emphasizing generosity (dāna).
Stainless: In accomplishing the second bhūmi, the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, this bhūmi is named "stainless". The emphasized perfection is moral discipline (śīla).
Luminous: The light of Dharma is said to radiate for others from the bodhisattva who accomplishes the third bhūmi. The emphasized perfection is patience (kṣānti).
Radiant: This bhūmi it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment. The emphasized perfection is vigor (vīrya).
Very difficult to train: Bodhisattvas who attain this ground strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do. The emphasized perfection is meditative concentration (dhyāna).
Obviously Transcendent: By depending on the perfection of wisdom, [the bodhisattva] does not abide in either saṃsāra or nirvāṇa, so this state is "obviously transcendent". The emphasized perfection is wisdom (prajñā).
Gone afar: Particular emphasis is on the perfection of skillful means (upāya), to help others.
Immovable: The emphasized virtue is aspiration. This "immovable" bhūmi is where one becomes able to choose his place of rebirth.
Good Discriminating Wisdom: The emphasized virtue is the understanding of self and non-self.
Cloud of Dharma: The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom.
After the ten bhūmis, according to Mahāyāna Buddhism, one attains complete enlightenment and becomes a Buddha.
With the 52 stages, the Śūraṅgama Sūtra recognizes 57 stages. With the 10 grounds, various Vajrayāna schools recognize 3–10 additional grounds, mostly 6 more grounds with variant descriptions.[33][34]
A bodhisattva above the 7th ground is called a mahāsattva. Some bodhisattvas such as Samantabhadra are also said to have already attained buddhahood.[35]
School doctrines[edit]
Mural of bodhisattvas. China, Tang Dynasty, 7th–9th century.
Some sutras said a beginner would take 3–22 countless eons (mahāsaṃkhyeya kalpas) to become a buddha.[36][37][38] Pure Land Buddhism suggests buddhists go to the pure lands to practice as bodhisattvas. Tiantai, Huayan, Zen and Vajrayāna schools say they teach ways to attain buddhahood within one karmic cycle.[39][40]
Various traditions within Buddhism believe in specific bodhisattvas. Some bodhisattvas appear across traditions, but due to language barriers may be seen as separate entities. For example, Tibetan Buddhists believe in various forms of Chenrezig, who is Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, Guanyin in China, Gwan-eum in Korea, Quan Am in Vietnam, and Kannon in Japan. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas to be an emanation of Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion.
The place of a bodhisattva's earthly deeds, such as the achievement of enlightenment or the acts of Dharma, is known as a bodhimaṇḍa, and may be a site of pilgrimage. Many temples and monasteries are famous as bodhimaṇḍas. Perhaps the most famous bodhimaṇḍa of all is the Bodhi Tree under which Śākyamuṇi achieved buddhahood. In the tradition of Chinese Buddhism, there are four mountains that are regarded as bodhimaṇḍas for bodhisattvas, with each site having major monasteries and being popular for pilgrimages by both monastics and laypeople. These four bodhimandas are:
Mount Putuo: Avalokiteśvara, Bodhisattva of Compassion (Chinese: 觀自在菩薩, 觀世音菩薩, 觀音菩薩; pinyin: Guānzìzài Púsà, Guānshìyīn Púsà, Guānyīn Púsà)
Mount Emei: Samantabhadra, Bodhisattva of Practice (Chinese: 普賢菩薩 普贤菩萨; pinyin: Pǔxián Púsà)
Mount Wutai: Mañjuśrī, Bodhisattva of Wisdom (Chinese: 文殊菩薩, 文殊师利菩薩, 曼殊室利菩薩, 妙吉祥菩薩; pinyin: Wénshū Púsà, Wénshūshīlì Púsà, Mànshūshìlì Púsà, Miàojíxiáng Púsà)
Mount Jiuhua: Kṣitigarbha, Bodhisattva of the Great Vow (Chinese: 地藏菩薩 地藏菩萨; pinyin: Dìzàng Púsà)
Iconography and the popular mind[edit]
A silver figure of youthful Manjushri bodhisattva, Sailendra art early 9th century Central Java, collection of the National Museum.
In Buddhist art, a bodhisattva is often described as a beautiful figure, most often personified as a youthful prince with serene expression and graceful manner. This is probably in accordance to the description of Prince Siddhārtha Gautama as a bodhisattva. The depiction of bodhisattva in Buddhist art around the world aspire to express the bodhisattva's quality; loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), empathetic joy (mudita) and equanimity (upekkha).[4]
Gender variant representations of some bodhisattvas, most notably Avalokiteśvara, has prompted conversation regarding the nature of a bodhisattva's appearance. Chan master Sheng Yen has stated that Mahāsattvas such as Avalokiteśvara (known as Guanyin in Chinese) are androgynous (Ch. 中性; pinyin: "zhōngxìng"), which accounts for their ability to manifest in masculine and feminine forms of various degrees.[41]
While bodhisattvas tend to be depicted as conventionally beautiful, there are instances of their manifestation as wrathful and monstrous beings. A notable example is Guanyin's manifestation as a preta named "Flaming Face" (面燃大士).[42] This trope is commonly employed among the Wisdom Kings, among whom Mahāmāyūrī Vidyārājñī stands out with a feminine title and benevolent expression. In some depictions, her mount takes on a wrathful appearance. This variation is also found among images of Vajrapani.
Gallery[edit]
Standing bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd century.
Standing bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd century.
Boddhisattva Vajrapani. Mendut near Borobudur, Central Java, Indonesia. Sailendran art c. 8th century.
The golden Srivijayan Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, Muarabulian, Jambi, Indonesia c. 11th century.
See also[edit]
Bodhicharyavatara (A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life)
Bodhisattvas of the Earth
Bodhisattva vows
Buddhist holidays
Junzi
Karuna (compassion in Sanskrit)
List of bodhisattvas
Vegetarianism in Buddhism
Citations[edit]
^ "Bodhisattva". Collins English Dictionary.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Drewes, David, Mahāyāna Sūtras and Opening of the Bodhisattva Path, Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019.
^ The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, page 1, Tharpa Publications(2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
^ Jump up to:a b Flanagan, Owen (2011-08-12). The Bodhisattva's Brain: Buddhism Naturalized. MIT Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-262-29723-3.
^ Basham, A.L. (1981). The evolution of the concept of the bodhisattva. In: Leslie S Kawamura, The bodhisattva doctrine in Buddhism, Published for the Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion by Wilfrid Laurier University Press, p. 19
^ "Arahants, Bodhisattvas and Buddhas".
^ "The crossroads of Asia", edited by Ellizabeth Errington and Joe Cribb, The ancient India and Iran Trust, 1992, ISBN 0951839918, pp. 189–190
^ Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). "Abhayagiri". Encyclopædia Britannica. I: A–ak Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
^ Holt, John. Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. 1991. p. 59
^ Holt, John. Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. 1991. pp. 59–60
^ Holt, John. Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. 1991. p. 60
^ Rahula, Walpola. "Bodhisattva Ideal in Buddhism (from Gems of Buddhist Wisdom)". Buddhist Missionary Society, 1996.
^ Samuels, J. THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN THERAVAADA, BUDDHIST THEORY AND PRACTICE: A REEVALUATION OF THE BODHISATTVA-`SRAAVAKA OPPOSITION; Philosophy East and West Volume 47, Number 3 July 1997 pp. 399–415, University of Hawai'i Press
^ Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Taylor & Francis, 1989, p. 328.
^ Nattier, Jan (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 174
^ Mall, Linnart. Studies in the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita and Other Essays. Motilal Banarsidass. 2005. pp. 53–54.
^ Hirakawa, Akira. A history of Indian Buddhism: from Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna.Motilal Banarsidass. 2007. p. 297.
^ Conze, Edward. The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary. Grey Fox Press. 2001. p. 89.
^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist saints in India, p. 252.
^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist saints in India, p. 265.
^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist saints in India, p. 255.
^ Jump up to:a b Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, Religion Compass 4/2 (2010): 66–74, doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x
^ Silk, Jonathan; Hinüber, Oskar von; Eltschinger, Vincent; eds. (2016). "Lotus Sutra", in Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Volume 1: Literature and Languages. Leiden: Brill. p. 147
^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 55.
^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, pp. 195–196.
^ Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1999, p. 54.
^ The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, pp. 4–12, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
^ Jump up to:a b Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, pp. 59–60.
^ "bodhisattva" In The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 135.
^ Words of My Perfect Teacher: A Complete Translation of A Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Translated by The Padmakara Translation Group. (Walnut Creek: Altamira, 1994), 218.
^ Nagārjuna. Byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga (Bodhicittotpadaviddhi, Ritual for Generating the Intention for Supreme Buddhahood). Toh. 3966 Tengyur, mdo, gi. (sems can thams cad bsgral ba dang/ sems can thams cad dgrol ba dang/ sems can thams cad dbugs dbyung ba dang/ sems can thams cad yongs su mya ngan las 'da' ba dang/ sems can thams cad thams cad mkhyen pa'i ye shes la dgod pa'i slad du ci ltar bla na med pa yang dag par rdzogs pa'i byang chub tu thugs bskyed pa de bzhin du bdag ming 'di zhes bgyi ba yang dus 'di nas bzung)
^ "Vessantara" In The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 965.
^ "大圆满心性休息 – 显密文库 佛教文集". Archived from the original on 8 September 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ 鄔金旺度. "吉祥鄔金密嚴寺". Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ 459 因地菩薩和果地菩薩
^ 三大阿僧祇劫 Archived November 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
^ 成佛的目的是到每 – 個世界去度眾生. Archived April 11, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
^ 即身成就與三大阿僧祇劫之修行 Archived May 26, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
^ "顯教與密教". Archived from the original on 11 September 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ 「無諍之辯」導讀
^ Sheng Yen. "圣严法师《观世音菩萨的性别》". 佛弟子文库. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
^ Master Yan Shou of Yong Ming Monastery. "四十四世永明延壽大師 Patriarchs of the Forty-fourth Generation". Vajra Bodhi Sea. Retrieved 2019-10-17.
General references[edit]
Analayo, The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal, Hamburg Buddhist Studies 1, Hamburg University Press 2010
Gampopa; The Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Snow Lion Publications; ISBN 1-55939-092-1
White, Kenneth R.; The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment: Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo; The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005; ISBN 0-7734-5985-5
Lampert, K.; Traditions of Compassion: From Religious Duty to Social Activism. Palgrave-Macmillan; ISBN 1-4039-8527-8
Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
Shantideva: Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life: How to Enjoy a Life of Great Meaning and Altruism, a translation of Shantideva's Bodhisattvacharyavatara with Neil Elliott, Tharpa Publications (2002) ISBN 978-0-948006-88-3
The Making of a Savior Bodhisattva: Dizang in Medieval China, by Zhiru (Kuroda Institute Studies in East Asian Buddhism series no. 21), University of Hawaii Press, 2007 at Google Books; ISBN 978-0-8248-3045-8
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Bodhisattva
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bodhisattvas.
Look up bodhisattva in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Ethical Discipline of Bodhisattvas, by Geshe Sonam Rinchen (Tibetan Gelug Tradition)
Bodhisattva, probably Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin), Northern Qi dynasty, c. 550--60, video, Smarthistory.
The 37 Practices of Bodhisattvas online with commentaries.
The Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattvas, all-in-one page with memory aids & collection of different versions.
Audio recitation of 'The 37 Practices of Bodhisattvas' in MP3 format (Paul & Lee voices).
What A Bodhisattva Does: Thirty-Seven Practices by Ngulchu Thogme with slide show format.
Access to Insight Library: Bodhi's Wheel409
Arahants, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas by Bhikkhu Bodhi
The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Theory and Practice by Jeffrey Samuels
Online exhibition analyzing a Korean Bodhisattva sculpture
Buddhanet.net Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva
Sacred visions : early paintings from central Tibet, fully digitized text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries
show
v
t
e
Topics in Buddhism
show
v
t
e
Bodhisattvas
Authority control
GND: 4221379-4
LCCN: sh85015213
NDL: 00560879
Jump to navigationJump to search
This article is about Buddhism. For the 2010 film, see Bodhisattva (film). For the song by Steely Dan, see Countdown to Ecstasy.
Bodhisattva
An image of Bodhisattva in Plaosan temple, 9th century Central Java, Indonesia
Sanskrit बोधिसत्त्व (Bodhisattva)
Pāli बोधिसत्त (Bodhisatta)
Burmese ဗောဓိသတ် (bɔ́dḭθaʔ)
Chinese 菩提薩埵（菩薩）, 菩提萨埵（菩萨）, (pútísàduǒ (púsà) ), (Wade–Giles: p'u2-sa4), (Jyutping: pou4 tai4 saat3 do3)
Japanese 菩薩 (romaji: bosatsu)
Khmer ពោធិសត្វ (Pothisat)
Korean 보살, 菩薩 (RR: bosal)
Thai โพธิสัตว์ (phothisat)
Tibetan བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་ (chang chub sems dpa)
Vietnamese Bồ Tát
菩薩
Information
Venerated by Theravada, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna
Religion portalPart of a series on
Buddhism
History[show]
Dharma
Concepts[show]
Buddhist texts[show]
Practices[show]
Nirvāṇa[show]
Traditions[show]
Buddhism by country[show]
Outline
Religion portalv
t
e
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva (/ˌboʊdiːˈsʌtvə/ BOH-dee-SUT-və)[1] is any person who is on the path towards Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools as well as modern Theravada Buddhism, a bodhisattva (Pali: bodhisatta) refers to anyone who has made a resolution to become a Buddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living Buddha that this will be so.[2]
In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generated bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.[3]
The elaborate concept refers to a sentient being or sattva that develops bodhi or enlightenment — thus possessing the boddisattva's psyche; described as those who work to develop and exemplify the loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuṇā), empathetic joy (mudita) and equanimity (upekkha). These four virtues are the four divine abodes, called Brahmavihara (illimitables).[4]
Contents
1Early Buddhism and the Nikāya schools
1.1Later Theravāda
2In Mahāyāna Buddhism
2.1Early Mahāyāna
2.2Mature Mahāyāna
2.3Bodhisattva grounds or levels
2.4School doctrines
3Iconography and the popular mind
4Gallery
5See also
6Citations
7General references
8External links
Early Buddhism and the Nikāya schools[edit]
Gandharan relief depicting the bodhisattva (future Gautama Buddha) taking a vow at the foot of Dipankara Buddha, Art Institute of Chicago.
In early Buddhism, the term bodhisattva is used in the early texts to refer to Gautama Buddha in his previous lives[5] and as a young man in his current life in the period during which he was working towards his own liberation. During his discourses, to recount his experiences as a young aspirant he regularly uses the phrase "When I was an unenlightened bodhisatta..."[citation needed] The term therefore connotes a being who is "bound for enlightenment", in other words, a person whose aim is to become fully enlightened. In the Pāli canon, the bodhisatta (bodhisattva) is also described as someone who is still subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement, and delusion. Some of the previous lives of the Buddha as a bodhisattva are featured in the Jataka tales.
According to the Theravāda monk Bhikkhu Bodhi, the bodhisattva path is not taught in the earliest strata of Buddhist texts such as the Pali Nikayas (and their counterparts such as the Chinese Āgamas) which instead focus on the ideal of the Arahant.[6]
The oldest known story about how Gautama Buddha becomes a bodhisattva is the story of his encounter with the previous Buddha, Dīpankara. During this encounter, a previous incarnation of Gautama, variously named Sumedha, Megha, or Sumati offers five blue lotuses and spreads out his hair or entire body for Dīpankara to walk on, resolving to one day become a Buddha. Dīpankara then confirms that they will attain Buddhahood.[2] Early Buddhist authors saw this story as indicating that the making of a resolution (abhinīhāra) in the presence of a living Buddha and his prediction/confirmation of one's future Buddhahood was necessary to become a bodhisattva. According to Drewes, "all known models of the path to Buddhahood developed from this basic understanding."[2]
The path is explained differently by the various Nikaya schools. In the Theravāda Buddhavaṃsa (1st-2nd century BCE), after receiving the prediction, Gautama took four asaṃkheyyas ("incalculable aeons") and a hundred thousand, shorter kalpas (aeons) to reach Buddhahood.[2]
The Sarvāstivāda school had similar models about how the Buddha Gautama became a bodhisattva. They held it took him three asaṃkhyeyas and ninety one kalpas (aeons) to become a Buddha after his resolution (praṇidhāna) in front of a past Buddha. During the first asaṃkhyeya he is said to have encountered and served 75,000 Buddhas, and 76,000 in the second, after which he received his first prediction (vyākaraṇa) of future Buddhahood from Dīpankara, meaning that he could no longer fall back from the path to Buddhahood.[2] Thus, the presence of a living Buddha is also necessary for Sarvāstivāda. The Mahāvibhāṣā explains that its discussion of the bodhisattva path is partly meant "to stop those who are in fact not bodhisattvas from giving rise to the self-conceit that they are."[2]
The Mahāvastu of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādins presents four stages of the bodhisattva path without giving specific time frames (though it's said to take various asaṃkhyeya kalpas):[2]
Natural (prakṛti), one first plants the roots of merit in front of a Buddha to attain Buddhahood.
Resolution (praṇidhāna), one makes their first resolution to attain Buddhahood in the presence of a Buddha.
Continuing (anuloma), one continues to practice until one meets a Buddha who confirms one's future Buddhahood.
Irreversible (anivartana), at this stage, one cannot fall back.
Later Theravāda[edit]
Probable early image of a bodhisattva (Bimaran casket, 50 CE).[7]
The Sri Lankan commentator Dhammapala in his commentary on the Cariyāpiṭaka, a text which focuses on the bodhisattva path, notes that to become a bodhisattva one must make a valid resolution in front of a living Buddha, which confirms that one is irreversible (anivattana) from the attainment of Buddhahood. The Nidānakathā, as well as the Buddhavaṃsa and Cariyāpiṭaka commentaries makes this explicit by stating that one cannot use a substitute (such as a Bodhi tree, Buddha statue or Stupa) for the presence of a living Buddha, since only a Buddha has the knowledge for making a reliable prediction. This is the generally accepted view maintained in orthodox Theravada today.[2] The idea is that any resolution to attain Buddhahood may easily be forgotten or abandoned during the aeons ahead. The Burmese monk Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) explains that though it is easy to make vows for future Buddhahood by oneself, it is very difficult to maintain the necessary conduct and views during periods when the Dharma has disappeared from the world. One will easily fall back during such periods and this is why one is not truly a full bodhisattva until one receives recognition from a living Buddha.[2]
Because of this, it was and remains a common practice in Theravada to attempt to establish the necessary conditions to meet the future Buddha Maitreya and thus receive a prediction from him. Medieval Theravada literature and inscriptions report the aspirations of monks, kings and ministers to meet Maitreya for this purpose. Modern figures such as Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933), and U Nu (1907–1995) both sought to receive a prediction from a Buddha in the future and believed meritorious actions done for the good of Buddhism would help in their endeavor to become bodhisattvas in the future.[2]
Over time the term came to be applied to other figures besides Gautama Buddha in Theravada lands, possibly due to the influence of Mahayana. The Theravada Abhayagiri tradition of Sri Lanka practiced Mahayana Buddhism and was very influential until the 12th century.[8] Kings of Sri Lanka were often described as bodhisattvas, starting at least as early as Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247–249), who was renowned for his compassion, took vows for the welfare of the citizens, and was regarded as a mahāsatta (Sanskrit mahāsattva), an epithet used almost exclusively in Mahayana Buddhism.[9] Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattvas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with the practice of the Ten Pāramitās.[10] In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives.[2]
Modern depiction of the bodhisattva resolution (praṇidhāna) in front of Dipankara.
Theravadin bhikkhu and scholar Walpola Rahula stated that the bodhisattva ideal has traditionally been held to be higher than the state of a śrāvaka not only in Mahayana but also in Theravada Buddhism. He also quotes the 10th century king of Sri Lanka, Mahinda IV (956–972 CE), who had the words inscribed "none but the bodhisattvas will become kings of a prosperous Lanka," among other examples.[11]
But the fact is that both the Theravada and the Mahayana unanimously accept the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest...Although the Theravada holds that anybody can be a Bodhisattva, it does not stipulate or insist that all must be Bodhisattva which is considered not practical.
— Walpola Rahula, Bodhisattva Ideal in Buddhism[12]
Jeffrey Samuels echoes this perspective, noting that while in Mahayana Buddhism the bodhisattva path is held to be universal and for everyone, in Theravada it is "reserved for and appropriated by certain exceptional people."[13] Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in Thailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.[14]
In Mahāyāna Buddhism[edit]
Early Mahāyāna[edit]
Bodhisattva of Gandhara, Pakistan, 1st-3rd century
Mahāyāna Buddhism (often also called Bodhisattvayāna, or the "Bodhisattva Vehicle") is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva.[15] This path was seen as nobler than becoming an arhat or a solitary Buddha. According to David Drewes, "Mahayana sutras unanimously depict the path beginning with the first arising of the thought of becoming a Buddha (prathamacittotpāda), or the initial arising of bodhicitta, typically aeons before one first receives a Buddha’s prediction, and apply the term bodhisattva from this point."[2]
The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, one of the earliest known Mahayana texts, contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva, which is also the earliest known Mahāyāna definition.[16][17] This definition is given as the following: "Because he has bodhi as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called."[18]
The Aṣṭasāhasrikā, also divides the path into three stages. The first stage is that of bodhisattvas who “first set out in the vehicle” (prathamayānasaṃprasthita), then there is the “irreversible” (avinivartanīya) stage, and finally the third “bound by one more birth” (ekajātipratibaddha), as in, destined to become a Buddha in the next life.[2] Drewes also notes that:
When Mahāyāna sūtras present stories of Buddhas and bodhisattvas’ first arising of the thought of attaining Buddhahood, they invariably depict it as taking place in the presence of a Buddha, suggesting that they shared with all known nikāya traditions the understanding that this is a necessary condition for entering the path. In addition, though this key fact is often obscured in scholarship, they apparently never encourage anyone to become a bodhisattva or present any ritual or other means of doing so. Like nikāya texts, they also regard the status of new or recent bodhisattvas as largely meaningless. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā, for instance, states that as many bodhisattvas as there grains of sand in the Ganges turn back from the pursuit of Buddhahood and that out of innumerable beings who give rise to bodhicitta and progress toward Buddhahood, only one or two will reach the point of becoming irreversible.[2]
Mural of Padmapani in Ajanta Caves. India, 5th century
Drewes also adds that early texts like the Aṣṭasāhasrikā treat bodhisattvas who are beginners (ādikarmika) or "not long set out in the [great] vehicle" with scorn, describing them as "blind", "unintelligent", "lazy" and "weak". Early Mahayana works identify them with those who reject Mahayana or who abandon Mahayana, and they are seen as likely to become śrāvakas (those on the arhat path). Rather than encouraging them to become bodhisattvas, what early Mahayana sutras like the Aṣṭa do is to help individuals determine if they have already received a prediction in a past life, or if they are close to this point.[2] The Aṣṭa provides a variety of methods, including forms of ritual or divination, methods dealing with dreams and various tests, especially tests based on one's reaction to the hearing of the content in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā itself. The text states that encountering and accepting its teachings mean one is close to being given a prediction and that if one does not "shrink back, cower or despair" from the text, but "firmly believes it", one is irreversible. Many other Mahayana sutras such as the Akṣobhyavyūha and the Śūraṃgamasamādhi Sūtra present textual approaches to determine one's status as an advanced bodhisattva. These mainly consist in one's attitude towards listening to, believing, preaching, proclaiming, copying or memorizing and reciting the sutra.[2] According to Drewes, this claim that merely having faith in Mahāyāna sūtras meant that one was an advanced bodhisattva, was a departure from previous Nikaya views about bodhisattvas. It created new groups of Buddhists who accepted each other's bodhisattva status.[2]
Clay sculpture of a bodhisattva. Afghanistan, 7th century
Some of early depictions of the Bodhisattva path in texts such as the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra describe it as an arduous, difficult monastic path suited only for the few which is nevertheless the most glorious path one can take. Three kinds of bodhisattvas are mentioned: the forest, city, and monastery bodhisattvas—with forest dwelling being promoted a superior, even necessary path in sutras such as the Ugraparipṛcchā and the Samadhiraja sutras.[19] The early Rastrapalapariprccha sutra also promotes a solitary life of meditation in the forests, far away from the distractions of the householder life. The Rastrapala is also highly critical of monks living in monasteries and in cities who are seen as not practicing meditation and morality.[20] The Ratnagunasamcayagatha also says the bodhisattva should undertake ascetic practices (dhutanga), "wander freely without a home", practice the paramitas and train under a guru in order to perfect his meditation practice and realization of prajñaparamita.[21] Some scholars have used these texts to argue for "the forest hypothesis", the theory that the initial Bodhisattva ideal was associated with a strict forest asceticism. But other scholars point out that many other Mahayana sutras do not promote this ideal, focusing on sutra based practices.[22]
Some Mahayana sutras promoted another revolutionary doctrinal turn, claiming that the three vehicles of the Śrāvakayāna, Pratyekabuddhayāna and the Bodhisattvayāna were really just one vehicle (ekayana). This is most famously promoted in the Lotus Sūtra which claims that the very idea of three separate vehicles is just an upaya, a skillful device invented by the Buddha to get beings of various abilities on the path. But ultimately, it will be revealed to them that there is only one vehicle, the ekayana, which ends in Buddhahood.[23]
Mature Mahāyāna[edit]
Wood carving of Avalokiteśvara. Liao China, 907–1125
Over time, Mahayana Buddhists developed mature systematized doctrines about the bodhisattva path. The authors of the various Madhyamaka shastras (treatises) often presented the view of the ekayana. The texts and sutras associated with the Yogacara school developed a different theory of three separate gotras or lineages, that inherently predisposed a person to either the vehicle of the arhat, pratyekabuddha or samyak-saṃbuddha (fully self awakened one).[22] However, the term was also used in a broader sense. According to the eight century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra, the term "bodhisattva" can refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards bodhi (awakening). Therefore, the specific term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a mahāsattva (great being) bodhisattva.[24] According to Atiśa's 11th century Bodhipathapradīpa, the central defining feature of a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is the universal aspiration to end suffering for all sentient beings, which is termed bodhicitta (the heart set on awakening).[25] Later Sanskrit Mahayana Buddhists also developed specific rituals and devotional acts for the arising of this absolutely central quality of bodhicitta, such as the "seven part worship" (Saptāṇgapūjā or Saptavidhā Anuttarapūjā). This ritual form is visible in the works of Shantideva (8th century) and includes:[26]
Vandana (obeisance, bowing down)
Puja (worship of the Buddhas)
Sarana-gamana (going for refuge)
Papadesana (confession of bad deeds)
Punyanumodana (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and others)
Adhyesana (prayer, entreaty) and yacana (supplication) – request to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma
Atmabhavadi-parityagah (surrender)
Twenty-five Bodhisattvas Descending from Heaven. Japanese painting, c. 1300
Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism follows this model and encourages everyone to give rise to bodhicitta and ceremonially take bodhisattva vows. With these vows, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings by practicing the transcendent virtues or paramitas.[27]
Related to the different views on the different types of yanas or vehicles is the question of a bodhisattva's relationship to nirvāṇa. In the various Mahāyāna texts, two theories can be discerned. One view is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained (at which point one ceases to be reborn, which is the classical view of nirvāṇa). This view is promoted in some sutras like the Pañcavimsatisahasrika-prajñaparamita-sutra.[28] The second theory is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called apratiṣṭhita (non-abiding) that allows a Buddha to remain engaged in the world. This doctrine developed in Yogacara. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature, therefore while earlier sutras may sometimes speak of "postponement", later texts saw no need to postpone the "superior" apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa.[28]
In this Yogacara model, the bodhisattva definitely rejects and avoids the liberation of the śravaka and pratyekabuddha, described in Mahāyāna literature as either inferior or "Hina" (as in Asaṅga's fourth century Yogācārabhūmi) or as ultimately false or illusory (as in the Lotus Sūtra).[29] That a bodhisattva has the option to pursue such a lesser path, but instead chooses the long path towards Buddhahood is one of the five criteria for one to be considered a bodhisattva. The other four are: being human, being a man, making a vow to become a Buddha in the presence of a previous Buddha, and receiving a prophecy from that Buddha.
Gathering of bodhisattvas. China, 6th century.
Over time, a more varied analysis of bodhisattva careers developed focused on one's motivation. This can be seen in the Tibetan Buddhist teaching on three types of motivation for generating bodhicitta. According to Patrul Rinpoche's 19th century Words of My Perfect Teacher (Kun bzang bla ma'i gzhal lung), a bodhisattva might be motivated in one of three ways. They are:
King-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha first in order to then help sentient beings.
Boatman-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha at the same time as other sentient beings.
Shepherd-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha only after all other sentient beings have done so.
These three are not types of people, but rather types of motivation. According to Patrul Rinpoche, the third quality of intention is most noble though the mode by which Buddhahood occurs is the first; that is, it is only possible to teach others the path to enlightenment once one has attained enlightenment oneself.[30] The ritualized formulation of the bodhisattva vow also reflects this order (becoming a buddha so that one can then teach others to do the same). A bodhisattva vow ritual text attributed to Nāgārjuna, of the second-third century CE, states the vow as follows: "Just as the past tathāgata arhat samyaksambuddhas, when engaging in the behavior of a bodhisattva, generated the aspiration to unsurpassed complete enlightenment so that all beings be liberated, all beings be freed, all beings be relieved, all beings attain complete nirvana, all beings be placed in omniscient wisdom, in the same way, I whose name is so-and-so, from this time forward, generate the aspiration to unsurpassed complete enlightenment so that all beings be liberated, all beings be freed, all beings be relieved, all beings attain complete nirvana, all beings be placed in omniscient wisdom."[31]
The six perfections that constitute bodhisattva practice should not be confused with the acts of benefiting beings that the bodhisattva vows to accomplish once he or she is a buddha. The six perfections are a mental transformation and need not benefit anyone. This is seen in the story of Vessantara, an incarnation of Śākyamuni Buddha while he was still a bodhisattva, who commits the ultimate act of generosity by giving away his children to an evil man who mistreats them. Vessantara's generous act causes indirect harm, however, the merit from the perfection of his generosity fructifies when he attains complete enlightenment as Śākyamuni Buddha.[32]
Bodhisattva grounds or levels[edit]
Bronze statue of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. Sri Lanka, c. 750 CE.
According to many traditions within Mahāyāna Buddhism, on the way to becoming a Buddha, a bodhisattva proceeds through ten, or sometimes fourteen, grounds or bhūmis. Below is the list of the ten bhūmis and their descriptions according to the Avataṃsaka Sūtra and The Jewel Ornament of Liberation, a treatise by Gampopa, an influential teacher of the Tibetan Kagyu school. (Other schools give slightly variant descriptions.)
Before a bodhisattva arrives at the first ground, he or she first must travel the first two of five paths:
the path of accumulation
the path of preparation
The ten grounds of the bodhisattva then can be grouped into the next three paths:
bhūmi 1 the path of insight
bhūmis 2–7 the path of meditation
bhūmis 8–10 the path of no more learning
The chapter of ten grounds in the Avataṃsaka Sūtra refers to 52 stages. The 10 grounds are:
Great Joy: It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for all sentient beings, one achieves great joy, hence the name. In this bhūmi the bodhisattvas practice all perfections (pāramitās), but especially emphasizing generosity (dāna).
Stainless: In accomplishing the second bhūmi, the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, this bhūmi is named "stainless". The emphasized perfection is moral discipline (śīla).
Luminous: The light of Dharma is said to radiate for others from the bodhisattva who accomplishes the third bhūmi. The emphasized perfection is patience (kṣānti).
Radiant: This bhūmi it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment. The emphasized perfection is vigor (vīrya).
Very difficult to train: Bodhisattvas who attain this ground strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do. The emphasized perfection is meditative concentration (dhyāna).
Obviously Transcendent: By depending on the perfection of wisdom, [the bodhisattva] does not abide in either saṃsāra or nirvāṇa, so this state is "obviously transcendent". The emphasized perfection is wisdom (prajñā).
Gone afar: Particular emphasis is on the perfection of skillful means (upāya), to help others.
Immovable: The emphasized virtue is aspiration. This "immovable" bhūmi is where one becomes able to choose his place of rebirth.
Good Discriminating Wisdom: The emphasized virtue is the understanding of self and non-self.
Cloud of Dharma: The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom.
After the ten bhūmis, according to Mahāyāna Buddhism, one attains complete enlightenment and becomes a Buddha.
With the 52 stages, the Śūraṅgama Sūtra recognizes 57 stages. With the 10 grounds, various Vajrayāna schools recognize 3–10 additional grounds, mostly 6 more grounds with variant descriptions.[33][34]
A bodhisattva above the 7th ground is called a mahāsattva. Some bodhisattvas such as Samantabhadra are also said to have already attained buddhahood.[35]
School doctrines[edit]
Mural of bodhisattvas. China, Tang Dynasty, 7th–9th century.
Some sutras said a beginner would take 3–22 countless eons (mahāsaṃkhyeya kalpas) to become a buddha.[36][37][38] Pure Land Buddhism suggests buddhists go to the pure lands to practice as bodhisattvas. Tiantai, Huayan, Zen and Vajrayāna schools say they teach ways to attain buddhahood within one karmic cycle.[39][40]
Various traditions within Buddhism believe in specific bodhisattvas. Some bodhisattvas appear across traditions, but due to language barriers may be seen as separate entities. For example, Tibetan Buddhists believe in various forms of Chenrezig, who is Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, Guanyin in China, Gwan-eum in Korea, Quan Am in Vietnam, and Kannon in Japan. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas to be an emanation of Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion.
The place of a bodhisattva's earthly deeds, such as the achievement of enlightenment or the acts of Dharma, is known as a bodhimaṇḍa, and may be a site of pilgrimage. Many temples and monasteries are famous as bodhimaṇḍas. Perhaps the most famous bodhimaṇḍa of all is the Bodhi Tree under which Śākyamuṇi achieved buddhahood. In the tradition of Chinese Buddhism, there are four mountains that are regarded as bodhimaṇḍas for bodhisattvas, with each site having major monasteries and being popular for pilgrimages by both monastics and laypeople. These four bodhimandas are:
Mount Putuo: Avalokiteśvara, Bodhisattva of Compassion (Chinese: 觀自在菩薩, 觀世音菩薩, 觀音菩薩; pinyin: Guānzìzài Púsà, Guānshìyīn Púsà, Guānyīn Púsà)
Mount Emei: Samantabhadra, Bodhisattva of Practice (Chinese: 普賢菩薩 普贤菩萨; pinyin: Pǔxián Púsà)
Mount Wutai: Mañjuśrī, Bodhisattva of Wisdom (Chinese: 文殊菩薩, 文殊师利菩薩, 曼殊室利菩薩, 妙吉祥菩薩; pinyin: Wénshū Púsà, Wénshūshīlì Púsà, Mànshūshìlì Púsà, Miàojíxiáng Púsà)
Mount Jiuhua: Kṣitigarbha, Bodhisattva of the Great Vow (Chinese: 地藏菩薩 地藏菩萨; pinyin: Dìzàng Púsà)
Iconography and the popular mind[edit]
A silver figure of youthful Manjushri bodhisattva, Sailendra art early 9th century Central Java, collection of the National Museum.
In Buddhist art, a bodhisattva is often described as a beautiful figure, most often personified as a youthful prince with serene expression and graceful manner. This is probably in accordance to the description of Prince Siddhārtha Gautama as a bodhisattva. The depiction of bodhisattva in Buddhist art around the world aspire to express the bodhisattva's quality; loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), empathetic joy (mudita) and equanimity (upekkha).[4]
Gender variant representations of some bodhisattvas, most notably Avalokiteśvara, has prompted conversation regarding the nature of a bodhisattva's appearance. Chan master Sheng Yen has stated that Mahāsattvas such as Avalokiteśvara (known as Guanyin in Chinese) are androgynous (Ch. 中性; pinyin: "zhōngxìng"), which accounts for their ability to manifest in masculine and feminine forms of various degrees.[41]
While bodhisattvas tend to be depicted as conventionally beautiful, there are instances of their manifestation as wrathful and monstrous beings. A notable example is Guanyin's manifestation as a preta named "Flaming Face" (面燃大士).[42] This trope is commonly employed among the Wisdom Kings, among whom Mahāmāyūrī Vidyārājñī stands out with a feminine title and benevolent expression. In some depictions, her mount takes on a wrathful appearance. This variation is also found among images of Vajrapani.
Gallery[edit]
_(5424601351).jpg)
Standing bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd century.
Standing bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd century.
Boddhisattva Vajrapani. Mendut near Borobudur, Central Java, Indonesia. Sailendran art c. 8th century.
The golden Srivijayan Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, Muarabulian, Jambi, Indonesia c. 11th century.
See also[edit]
Bodhicharyavatara (A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life)
Bodhisattvas of the Earth
Bodhisattva vows
Buddhist holidays
Junzi
Karuna (compassion in Sanskrit)
List of bodhisattvas
Vegetarianism in Buddhism
Citations[edit]
^ "Bodhisattva". Collins English Dictionary.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Drewes, David, Mahāyāna Sūtras and Opening of the Bodhisattva Path, Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019.
^ The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, page 1, Tharpa Publications(2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
^ Jump up to:a b Flanagan, Owen (2011-08-12). The Bodhisattva's Brain: Buddhism Naturalized. MIT Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-262-29723-3.
^ Basham, A.L. (1981). The evolution of the concept of the bodhisattva. In: Leslie S Kawamura, The bodhisattva doctrine in Buddhism, Published for the Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion by Wilfrid Laurier University Press, p. 19
^ "Arahants, Bodhisattvas and Buddhas".
^ "The crossroads of Asia", edited by Ellizabeth Errington and Joe Cribb, The ancient India and Iran Trust, 1992, ISBN 0951839918, pp. 189–190
^ Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). "Abhayagiri". Encyclopædia Britannica. I: A–ak Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
^ Holt, John. Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. 1991. p. 59
^ Holt, John. Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. 1991. pp. 59–60
^ Holt, John. Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. 1991. p. 60
^ Rahula, Walpola. "Bodhisattva Ideal in Buddhism (from Gems of Buddhist Wisdom)". Buddhist Missionary Society, 1996.
^ Samuels, J. THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN THERAVAADA, BUDDHIST THEORY AND PRACTICE: A REEVALUATION OF THE BODHISATTVA-`SRAAVAKA OPPOSITION; Philosophy East and West Volume 47, Number 3 July 1997 pp. 399–415, University of Hawai'i Press
^ Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Taylor & Francis, 1989, p. 328.
^ Nattier, Jan (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 174
^ Mall, Linnart. Studies in the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita and Other Essays. Motilal Banarsidass. 2005. pp. 53–54.
^ Hirakawa, Akira. A history of Indian Buddhism: from Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna.Motilal Banarsidass. 2007. p. 297.
^ Conze, Edward. The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary. Grey Fox Press. 2001. p. 89.
^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist saints in India, p. 252.
^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist saints in India, p. 265.
^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist saints in India, p. 255.
^ Jump up to:a b Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, Religion Compass 4/2 (2010): 66–74, doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x
^ Silk, Jonathan; Hinüber, Oskar von; Eltschinger, Vincent; eds. (2016). "Lotus Sutra", in Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Volume 1: Literature and Languages. Leiden: Brill. p. 147
^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 55.
^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, pp. 195–196.
^ Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1999, p. 54.
^ The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, pp. 4–12, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
^ Jump up to:a b Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, pp. 59–60.
^ "bodhisattva" In The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 135.
^ Words of My Perfect Teacher: A Complete Translation of A Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Translated by The Padmakara Translation Group. (Walnut Creek: Altamira, 1994), 218.
^ Nagārjuna. Byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga (Bodhicittotpadaviddhi, Ritual for Generating the Intention for Supreme Buddhahood). Toh. 3966 Tengyur, mdo, gi. (sems can thams cad bsgral ba dang/ sems can thams cad dgrol ba dang/ sems can thams cad dbugs dbyung ba dang/ sems can thams cad yongs su mya ngan las 'da' ba dang/ sems can thams cad thams cad mkhyen pa'i ye shes la dgod pa'i slad du ci ltar bla na med pa yang dag par rdzogs pa'i byang chub tu thugs bskyed pa de bzhin du bdag ming 'di zhes bgyi ba yang dus 'di nas bzung)
^ "Vessantara" In The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 965.
^ "大圆满心性休息 – 显密文库 佛教文集". Archived from the original on 8 September 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ 鄔金旺度. "吉祥鄔金密嚴寺". Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ 459 因地菩薩和果地菩薩
^ 三大阿僧祇劫 Archived November 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
^ 成佛的目的是到每 – 個世界去度眾生. Archived April 11, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
^ 即身成就與三大阿僧祇劫之修行 Archived May 26, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
^ "顯教與密教". Archived from the original on 11 September 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ 「無諍之辯」導讀
^ Sheng Yen. "圣严法师《观世音菩萨的性别》". 佛弟子文库. Retrieved 2019-08-30.
^ Master Yan Shou of Yong Ming Monastery. "四十四世永明延壽大師 Patriarchs of the Forty-fourth Generation". Vajra Bodhi Sea. Retrieved 2019-10-17.
General references[edit]
Analayo, The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal, Hamburg Buddhist Studies 1, Hamburg University Press 2010
Gampopa; The Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Snow Lion Publications; ISBN 1-55939-092-1
White, Kenneth R.; The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment: Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo; The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005; ISBN 0-7734-5985-5
Lampert, K.; Traditions of Compassion: From Religious Duty to Social Activism. Palgrave-Macmillan; ISBN 1-4039-8527-8
Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
Shantideva: Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life: How to Enjoy a Life of Great Meaning and Altruism, a translation of Shantideva's Bodhisattvacharyavatara with Neil Elliott, Tharpa Publications (2002) ISBN 978-0-948006-88-3
The Making of a Savior Bodhisattva: Dizang in Medieval China, by Zhiru (Kuroda Institute Studies in East Asian Buddhism series no. 21), University of Hawaii Press, 2007 at Google Books; ISBN 978-0-8248-3045-8
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Bodhisattva Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bodhisattvas. Look up bodhisattva in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.The Ethical Discipline of Bodhisattvas, by Geshe Sonam Rinchen (Tibetan Gelug Tradition)
Bodhisattva, probably Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin), Northern Qi dynasty, c. 550--60, video, Smarthistory.
The 37 Practices of Bodhisattvas online with commentaries.
The Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattvas, all-in-one page with memory aids & collection of different versions.
Audio recitation of 'The 37 Practices of Bodhisattvas' in MP3 format (Paul & Lee voices).
What A Bodhisattva Does: Thirty-Seven Practices by Ngulchu Thogme with slide show format.
Access to Insight Library: Bodhi's Wheel409
Arahants, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas by Bhikkhu Bodhi
The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Theory and Practice by Jeffrey Samuels
Online exhibition analyzing a Korean Bodhisattva sculpture
Buddhanet.net Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva
Sacred visions : early paintings from central Tibet, fully digitized text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries
show
v
t
e
Topics in Buddhism
show
v
t
e
Bodhisattvas
Authority control
GND: 4221379-4
LCCN: sh85015213
NDL: 00560879
