Samatha (Pāli) or śamatha^{[note 1]} (Sanskrit: शमथ; Chinese: 止 zhǐ) is a Buddhist term that is often translated as the "tranquility of the mind", or "mind-calmness".

The Pali Canon describes it as one of two qualities of mind^[1] which is developed (bhāvanā) in Buddhist meditation, the other being vipassana (insight). Samatha is said to be achieved by practicing single-pointed meditation. This includes a variety of mind-calming techniques. Samatha is common to many Buddhist traditions.

Etymology[edit]

The semantic field of Tibetan shi and Sanskrit shama is "pacification", "the slowing or cooling down", "rest".^[2] The semantic field of Tibetan né is "to abide or remain" and this is cognate or equivalent with the final syllable of the Sanskrit, thā.^[3]

The Tibetan term for samatha is shyiné (Wylie: zhi-gnas). According to Jamgon Kongtrul, the terms refer to "peace" and "pacification" of the mind and the thoughts.^[4]

Samatha and vipassana[edit]

The Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice:

Samatha, calm abiding, which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind;
Vipassanā, insight, which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).^[5]

The Buddha is said to have extolled serenity and insight as conduits for attaining the unconditioned state of nibbana (Pāli; Skt.: Nirvana). For example, in the Kimsuka Tree Sutta (SN 35.245), the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of nibbana via the noble eightfold path.^[6]

In the Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta (AN 4.170), Ven. Ānanda reports that people attain arahantship using calm abiding and insight in one of three ways:

They develop calm abiding and then insight (Pāli: samatha-pubbangamam vipassanam)
They develop insight and then calm abiding (Pāli: vipassana-pubbangamam samatham)^{[note 2]}
They develop calm abiding and insight in tandem (Pāli: samatha-vipassanam yuganaddham), for instance, obtaining the first jhāna and then seeing in the associated aggregates the three marks of existence before proceeding to the second jhāna.^[7]

In the Pāli canon, the Buddha never mentions independent samatha and vipassana meditation practices; instead, samatha and vipassana are two "qualities of mind" to be developed through meditation. As Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes,

When [the Pāli suttas] depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying 'go do vipassana,' but always 'go do jhana.' And they never equate the word "vipassana" with any mindfulness techniques. In the few instances where they do mention vipassana, they almost always pair it with samatha — not as two alternative methods, but as two qualities of mind that a person may 'gain' or 'be endowed with,' and that should be developed together.^[8]

Similarly, referencing MN 151, vv. 13-19, and AN IV, 125-27, Ajahn Brahm (who, like Bhikkhu Thanissaro, is of the Thai Forest Tradition) writes that

Some traditions speak of two types of meditation, insight meditation (vipassana) and calm meditation (samatha). In fact the two are indivisible facets of the same process. Calm is the peaceful happiness born of meditation; insight is the clear understanding born of the same meditation. Calm leads to insight and insight leads to calm."^[9]

Buddhist and Asian studies scholar Robert Buswell Jr. states that the most common meditation method described in the Pāli canon is one where samatha is first done to induce jhana and then jhana is used to go on to vipassana. Buddhist texts describe that all Buddhas and their chief disciples used this method. Texts also describe a method where vipassana is done alone, but this is less common.^[10]

Theravāda and the Vipassana movement[edit]

Function[edit]

In modern Theravada, liberation is thought to be attained by insight into the transitory nature of phenomena. This is accomplished by establishing sati (mindfulness) and samatha through the practice of anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing), using mindfulness for observing the impermanence in the bodily and mental changes, to gain insight (vipassanā (P: vipassanā; S: vipaśyana), sampajañña) c.q. wisdom (P: paññā, S: prajñā) into the true nature of phenomena.^[11] According to the Theravada tradition, samatha refers to techniques that assist in calming the mind. Samatha is thought to be developed by samadhi ("concentration"), which is thought to be the ability to rest the attention on a single object of perception. One of the principal techniques for this purpose is mindfulness of breathing (Pali: ānāpānasati).^[11] Samatha is commonly practiced as a prelude to and in conjunction with wisdom practices.^[11]

According to modern Theravada, mindfulness of breathing leads the practitioner into concentration (Dhyāna), the domain of experience wherein the senses are subdued and the mind abides in uninterrupted concentration upon the object (i.e., the breath), if not in meditative absorption (samādhi). According to modern Theravada, it is the condition for insight (vipassanā) and subsequently the development of liberating wisdom (paññā). In Theravada-Buddhism morality (śīla) is understood to be a stable foundation upon which to attain samatha. According to the Theravada tradition, samatha and vipassanā form an integral part of the Noble Eightfold Path as described by the Buddha in his core teaching, the Four Noble Truths.

Samatha meditation and jhana (dhyana) are often considered synonymous by modern Theravada, but the four jhanas involve a heightened awareness, instead of a narrowing of the mind.^[11] Vetter notes that samadhi may refer to the four stages of dhyana meditation, but that only the first stage refers to strong concentration, from which arise the other stages, which include mindfulness.^[12]^{[note 3]} According to Richard Gombrich, the sequence of the four rupa-jhanas describes two different cognitive states.^[14]^{[note 4]}^{[note 5]} Gombrich and Wynne note that, while the second jhana denotes a state of absorption, in the third and fourth jhana one comes out of this absorption, being mindfully aware of objects while being indifferent to it.^[15] According to Gombrich, "the later tradition has falsified the jhana by classifying them as the quintessence of the concentrated, calming kind of meditation, ignoring the other – and indeed higher – element.^[14] Alexander Wynne further explains that the dhyana-scheme is poorly understood.^[16] According to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of awareness, such as sati, sampajāno, and upekkhā, are mistranslated or understood as particular factors of meditative states,^[16] whereas they refer to a particular way of perceiving the sense objects.^[16]^{[note 6]}

Through the meditative development of calm abiding, one is able to suppress the obscuring five hindrances: sensual desire, ill-will, tiredness and sleepiness, excitement and depression, and doubt. With the suppression of these hindrances, the meditative development of insight yields liberating wisdom.^[18]

Objects of meditation[edit]

Some meditation practices such as contemplation of a kasina object favor the development of samatha, others such as contemplation of the aggregates are conducive to the development of vipassana, while others such as mindfulness of breathing are classically used for developing both mental qualities.^[19]

The Visuddhimagga (5th century CE) mentions forty objects of meditation. Mindfulness (sati) of breathing (ānāpāna: ānāpānasati; S. ānāpānasmṛti^[20]) is the most common samatha practice. Samatha can include other samādhi practices as well.

Signs and stages of joy[edit]

Theravada Buddhism describes the development of Samatha in terms of three successive mental images or 'signs' (nimitta) and five stages of joy (Pīti). Pīti is a feeling of joy, gladness or rapture arising from the abandonment of the five hindrances in favor of concentration on a single object.^[21] These stages are outlined by the Theravada exegete Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimagga (also in Atthasālinī) and the earlier Upatissa (author of the Vimuttimagga).

Five stages of joy:^[22]

Slight joy (khuddaka piti) - Raises the hairs of the body
Momentary joy (khanika piti) - Arises momentarily like repeated flashes of lightning
Showering joy (okkantika piti)- Washes over the body, like waves, again and again and then subsides
Uplifting joy (ubbega piti) - Sensations of lifting of the body into the air
Suffusing joy (pharana piti) - Pervades the whole body touching every part - signals 'access concentration'.

The three nimittas are the preparatory sign, the acquired sign and the counterpart sign. These are certain mental images, perceptions or sensations which indicate a further refinement of the state of meditative awareness.

Following the establishment of access concentration (upacāra-samādhi), one can enter the four jhanas, powerful states of joyful absorption in which the entire body is pervaded with Pīti.

Variations[edit]

In the Theravada-tradition various understandings of samatha exist.^{[note 7]}

In Sri Lanka samatha includes all the meditations directed at static objects.^[24]

In Burma, samatha comprises all concentration practices, aimed at calming the mind.

The Thai Forest tradition deriving from Ajahn Mun and popularized by Ajahn Chah stresses the inseparability of samatha and vipassana, and the essential necessity of both practices.

Indo-Tibetan tradition[edit]

Tibetan writers usually define samatha practice as when one's mind remains fixed on a single object without moving. Dakpo Tashi Namgyal for example, defines samatha as:

by fixing the mind upon any object so as to maintain it without distraction . . . by focusing the mind on an object and maintaining it in that state until finally it is channeled into one stream of attention and evenness.^[25]

According to Geshe Lhundup Sopa, samatha is:

just a one-pointedness of mind (cittaikagrata) on a meditative object (alambana). Whatever the object may be . . . if the mind can remain upon its object one-pointedly, spontaneously and without effort (nabhisamskara), and for as long a period of time as the meditator likes, it is approaching the attainment of meditative stabilization (samatha).^[26]

Mahayana sūtras[edit]

A number of Mahāyāna sūtras address śamatha, usually in conjunction with vipaśyanā.

One of the most prominent, the Cloud of Jewels Sutra (Ārya Ratnamegha Sutra, Tib. 'phags-pa dkon-mchog sprin-gyi mdo, Chinese 寶雲經 T658, 大乘寶雲經 T659) divides all forms of meditation into either śamatha or vipaśyanā, defining śamatha as "single-pointed consciousness" and vipaśyanā as "seeing into the nature of things."^[27]

The Sūtra Unlocking the Mysteries (Samdhinirmocana Sūtra), a yogācāra sūtra, is also often used as a source for teachings on śamatha. The Samādhirāja Sūtra is often cited as an important source for śamatha instructions by the Kagyu tradition, particularly via commentary by Gampopa,^[28] although scholar Andrew Skilton, who has studied the Samādhirāja Sūtra extensively, reports that the sūtra itself "contains no significant exposition of either meditational practices or states of mind."^[29]

Dhyana[edit]

Śamatha furthers the right concentration aspect of the noble eightfold path. The successful result of śamatha is also sometimes characterized as meditative absorption (samādhi, ting nge ’dzin) and meditative equipoise (samāhita, mnyam-bzhag), and freedom from the five obstructions (āvaraṇa, sgrib-pa). It may also result in the siddhis of clairvoyance (abhijñā, mgon shes) and magical emanation (nirmāna, sprul pa).^[30]

Factors in śamatha[edit]

According to Culadasa (2015), "Samatha has five characteristics: effortlessly stable attention (samādhi), powerful mindfulness (sati), joy (pīti), tranquility (passaddhi), and equanimity (upekkhā). The complete state of samatha results from working with stable attention (samādhi) and mindfulness (sati) until joy emerges. Joy then gradually matures into tranquility, and equanimity arises out of that tranquility. A mind in samatha is the ideal instrument for achieving Insight and Awakening" ^[31]

Nine mental abidings[edit]

In a formulation originating in the Śrāvakabhūmi section of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra^{[note 8]} śamatha practice is said to progress through nine "mental abidings" or Nine stages of training the mind (S. navākārā cittasthiti, Tib. sems gnas dgu), leading to śamatha proper (the equivalent of "access concentration" in the Theravāda system), and from there to a state of meditative concentration called the first dhyāna (Pāli: jhāna; Tib. bsam gtan) which is often said to be a state of tranquillity or bliss.^[33]^[34] An equivalent succession of stages is described in the Ten oxherding pictures of Zen.^[35] The Nine Mental Abidings as described by Kamalaśīla are:^[30]^[33]

Placement of the mind (S. cittasthāpana, Tib. འཇོག་པ - sems ’jog-pa) occurs when the practitioner is able to place their attention on the object of meditation, but is unable to maintain that attention for very long. Distractions, dullness of mind and other hindrances are common.
Continuous placement (S. samsthāpana, Tib. རྒྱུན་དུ་འཇོག་པ - rgyun-du ‘jog-pa) occurs when the practitioner experiences moments of continuous attention on the object before becoming distracted. According to B Alan Wallace, this is when you can maintain your attention on the meditation object for about a minute.^[36]
Repeated placement (S. avasthāpana, Tib. བླན་ཏེ་འཇོག་པ - slan-te ’jog-pa) is when the practitioner's attention is fixed on the object for most of the practice session and she or he is able to immediately realize when she or he has lost their mental hold on the object and is able to restore that attention quickly. Sakyong Mipham Rinpoche suggests that being able to maintain attention for 108 breaths is a good benchmark for when we have reached this stage.^[37]
Close placement (S. upasthāpana, Tib. ཉེ་བར་འཇོག་པ - nye-bar ’jog-pa) occurs when the practitioner is able to maintain attention throughout the entire meditation session (an hour or more) without losing their mental hold on the meditation object at all. In this stage the practitioner achieves the power of mindfulness. Nevertheless, this stage still contains subtle forms of excitation and dullness or laxity.^[38]
Taming (S. damana, Tib. དུལ་བར་བྱེད་པ - dul-bar byed-pa), by this stage the practitioner achieves deep tranquility of mind, but must be watchful for subtle forms of laxity or dullness, peaceful states of mind which can be confused for calm abiding. By focusing on the future benefits of gaining Shamatha, the practitioner can uplift (gzengs-bstod) their mind and become more focused and clear.^[39]
Pacifying (S. śamana,Tib. ཞི་བར་བྱེད་པ་ - zhi-bar byed-pa) is the stage during which subtle mental dullness or laxity is no longer a great difficulty, but now the practitioner is prone to subtle excitements which arise at the periphery of meditative attention. According to B. Alan Wallace this stage is achieved only after thousands of hours of rigorous training.^[40]
Fully pacifying (S. vyupaśamana,Tib. རྣམ་པར་ཞི་བར་བྱེད་པ་ - nye-bar zhi-bar byed-pa), although the practitioner may still experience subtle excitement or dullness, they are rare and the practitioner can easily recognize and pacify them.
Single-pointing (S. ekotīkarana,Tib. རྩེ་གཅིག་ཏུ་བྱེད་པ་ - rtse-gcig-tu byed-pa) in this stage the practitioner can reach high levels of concentration with only a slight effort and without being interrupted even by subtle laxity or excitement during the entire meditation session.
Balanced placement (S. samādhāna,Tib. མཉམ་པར་འཇོག་པ་བྱེད་པ་ - mnyam-par ’jog-pa) the meditator now effortlessly reaches absorbed concentration (ting-nge-‘dzin, S. samadhi.) and can maintain it for about four hours without any single interruption.^[40]
Śamatha, Tib. ཞི་གནས་, shyiné - the culmination, is sometimes listed as a tenth stage.

Five faults and eight antidotes[edit]

The textual tradition of Tibetan Buddhism identifies five faults and eight antidotes within the practice of śamatha meditation. The five faults identify obstacles to meditation practice, and the eight antidotes are applied to overcome the five faults. This formulation originates with Maitreyanātha's Madhyānta-vibhāga and is elaborated upon in further texts, such as the Stages of Meditation (Bhāvanākrama) by Kamalaśīla.^[41]

Five faults[edit]

To practice śamatha, one must select an object of observation (ālambana, dmigs-pa). Then one must overcome the five faults (ādīnava, nyes-dmigs):^[30]^[42]

1. laziness (kausīdya, le-lo)

2. forgetting the instruction (avavādasammosa, gdams-ngag brjed-pa)

3. laxity (laya, bying-ba) and excitement (auddhatya, rgod-pa). Laxity may be coarse (audārika, rags-pa) or subtle (sūksma, phra-mo). Lethargy (styāna, rmugs-pa) is often also present, but is said to be less common.

4. non-application (anabhisamskāra, ’du mi-byed-pa)

5. [over]application (abhisamskāra, ’du byed-pa)

Eight antidotes[edit]

The following eight antidodes (pratipakṣa, gnyen-po) or applications (abhisamskāra, ’du-byed pa) can be applied to overcome the five faults:^[30]

for laziness:

1. faith (śraddhā, dad-pa)

2. aspiration (chanda, ’dun-pa)

3. exertion (vyayama, rtsol-ba)

4. pliancy (praśrabdhi, shin-sbyangs)

for forgetting the instruction:

5. mindfulness (smṛti, dran-pa)

for laxity and excitement:

6. awareness (samprajaña, shes-bzhin)

for non-application:

7. application (abhisaṃskāra, ’du byed-pa)

for overapplication:

8. non-application (anabhisaṃskāra, ’du mi-byed-pa)

Six Powers[edit]

Six powers (bala, stobs) are also needed for śamatha:^[43]

1. hearing (śruta, thos-pa)

2. thinking (cintā, bsam-pa)

3. mindfulness (smṛti, dran-pa)

4. awareness (samprajaña, shes-bzhin)

5. effort (vīrya, brtson-’grus)

6. familiarity (paricaya, yong-su ’dris-pa)

Four modes of mental engagement[edit]

Four modes of mental engagement (manaskāra, yid-la byed-pa) are said to be possible:^[30]

1. forcible engagement (balavāhana, sgrim-ste ’jug-pa)

2. interrupted engagement (sacchidravāhana, chad-cing ’jug-pa)

3. uninterrupted engagement (niśchidravāhana, med-par ’jug-pa)

4. spontaneous engagement (anābhogavāhana, lhun-grub-tu ’jug-pa)

Mahāmudrā and dzogchen[edit]

Śamatha is approached somewhat differently in the mahāmudrā tradition as practiced in the Kagyu lineage. As Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche explains,

In the practice of Mahamudra tranquility meditation ... we treat all thoughts as the same in order to gain sufficient distance and detachment from our current mental state, which will allow us to ease naturally into a state of tranquility without effort or contrivance [...] In order for the mind to settle, we need to suspend the value judgments that we impose on our mental activities [...] it is essential that we not try to create a state of tranquility but allow the mind to enter into tranquility naturally. This is an important notion in the Mahamudra tradition, that of nondoing. We do not do tranquility meditation, we allow tranquility to arise of its own accord, and it will do so only if we stop thinking of the meditative state as a thing that we need to do actively [...] In a manner of speaking, catching yourself in the act of distraction is the true test of tranquility meditation, for what counts is not the ability to prevent thoughts or emotions from arising but the ability to catch ourselves in a particular mental or emotional state. This is the very essence of tranquility meditation [in the context of Mahāmudrā] [...] The Mahamudra style of meditation does not encourage us toward the different levels of meditative concentration traditionally described in the exoteric meditation manuals [...] From the Mahamudra point of view, we should not desire meditative equipoise nor have an aversion to discursive thoughts and conflicting emotions but view both of these states with equanimity. Again, the significant point is not whether meditative equipoise is present but whether we are able to maintain awareness of our mental states. If disturbing thoughts do arise, as they certainly will, we should simply recognize these thoughts and emotions as transient phenomena.^[44]

For the Kagyupa, in the context of mahāmudrā, śamatha by means of mindfulness of breathing is thought to be the ideal way for the meditator to transition into taking the mind itself as the object of meditation and generating vipaśyanā on that basis.^[45]

Quite similar is the approach to śamatha found in dzogchen semde (Sanskrit: mahāsandhi cittavarga). In the semde system, śamatha is the first of the four yogas (Tib. naljor, Wylie: rnal-’byor),^[46] the others being vipaśyanā (Wylie: lhag-mthong), nonduality (advaya, Tib. nyime,Wylie: gnyis-med),^[47] and spontaneous presence (anābogha or nirābogha, Tib. lhundrub, Wylie: lhun-grub).^[48] These parallel the four yogas of mahāmudrā.

Ajahn Amaro, a longtime student in the Thai Forest Theravādin tradition of Ajahn Chah, has also trained in the dzogchen semde śamatha approach under Tsoknyi Rinpoche. He found similarities in the approaches of the two traditions to śamatha.^[49]

Relationship with vipaśyanā[edit]

Dzogchen Pönlop Rinpoche clearly charts the developmental relationship of the practices of śamatha and vipaśyanā:

The ways these two aspects of meditation are practised is that one begins with the practice of shamatha; on the basis of that, it becomes possible to practice vipashyana or lhagthong. Through one's practice of vipashyana being based on and carried on in the midst of shamatha, one eventually ends up practicing a unification [yuganaddha] of shamatha and vipashyana. The unification leads to a very clear and direct experience of the nature of all things. This brings one very close to what is called the absolute truth.^[50]

Similar practices in other religions[edit]

Meditations from other religious traditions may also be recognized as samatha meditation, that differ in the focus of concentration. In this sense, samatha is not a strictly Buddhist meditation. Samatha in its single-pointed focus and concentration of mind is cognate with the sixth "limb" of aṣṭanga yoga', rāja yoga which is concentration (dhāraṇā).

For further discussion, see the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali.

Notes[edit]

^ Also romanized to shamatha, Tib. ཞི་གནས་, shyiné; Wylie: zhi gnas; English: "calm" or "tranquility"
^ While the Nikayas identify that the pursuit of vipassana can precede the pursuit of samatha, a fruitful vipassana-oriented practice must still be based upon the achievement of stabilizing "access concentration" (Pāli: upacara samādhi).
^ Vetter: "...to put it more accurately, the first dhyana seems to provide, after some time, a state of strong concentration, from which the other stages come forth; the second stage is called samadhija"^[13] [...] "born from samadhi."^[12]
^ Original publication: Gombrich, Richard (2007), Religious Experience in Early Buddhism, OCHS Library
^ Gombrich: "I know this is controversial, but it seems to me that the third and fourth jhanas are thus quite unlike the second."
^ Wynne: "Thus the expression sato sampajāno in the third jhāna must denote a state of awareness different from the meditative absorption of the second jhāna (cetaso ekodibhāva). It suggests that the subject is doing something different from remaining in a meditative state, i.e. that he has come out of his absorption and is now once again aware of objects. The same is true of the word upek(k)hā: it does not denote an abstract 'equanimity', [but] it means to be aware of something and indifferent to it [...] The third and fourth jhāna-s, as it seems to me, describe the process of directing states of meditative absorption towards the mindful awareness of objects."^[17]
^ A 2008 book by Richard Shankman entitled The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation comparatively surveys the treatment of samatha in the suttas, in the commentarial tradition of the Visuddhimagga, and among a number of prominent contemporary Theravāda teachers of various orientations.^[23]
^ This is also found in Asaṅga's Abhidharmasamuccaya.^[32] It is also found in the Mahāyānasūtrālaṅkāra of Maitreyanātha.

References[edit]

^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu 1997.
^ Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.)(2004). In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-849-1 (pbk.: alk. paper) p.69.
^ Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.)(2004). In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-849-1 (pbk.: alk. paper) p.70.
^ Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.)(2004). In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 1-57062-849-1 (pbk.: alk. paper) p.69.
^ These definitions of samatha and vipassana are based on the Four Kinds of Persons Sutta (AN 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2005). "In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon," pp. 269-70, 440 n. 13. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 9780861714919. See also Thanissaro (1998d) Archived 2018-10-13 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Bodhi (2000), pp. 1251-53. See also Thanissaro (1998c) Archived 2019-09-01 at the Wayback Machine (where this suttais identified as SN 35.204). See also, for instance, a discourse (Pāli: sutta) entitled "Serenity and Insight" (SN 43.2), where the Buddha states: "And what, bhikkhus, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight...." (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1372-73).
^ Bodhi (2005), pp. 268, 439 nn. 7, 9, 10. See also Thanissaro (1998f) Archived 2013-06-19 at the Wayback Machine.
^ "Thanissaro 1997". Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Retrieved 2010-01-24.
^ Brahm (2006). Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond. Wisdom Publications, Inc. p. 25. ISBN 0-86171-275-7.
^ Buswell, Robert E. (2004). Encyclopedia of Buddhism (PDF). Macmillan Reference, USA. pp. 889–890. ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d "Wallace, A: 'The Attention Revolution', Wisdom Publications, 1st ed., 2006, p.164". Archived from the originalon 2007-03-12. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Vetter 1988, p. XXVI, note 9.
^ Vetter 1988, p. 13.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Wynne 2007, p. 140, note 58.
^ Wynne 2007, p. 106-107; 140, note 58.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Wynne 2007, p. 106.
^ Wynne 2007, p. 106-107.
^ See, for instance, AN 2.30 in Bodhi (2005), pp. 267-68, and Thanissaro (1998e) Archived 2013-06-19 at the Wayback Machine.
^ See, for instance, Bodhi (1999) Archived 2010-02-14 at the Wayback Machine and Nyanaponika (1996), p. 108.
^ although this term is also used for vipassanā meditation
^ Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas In Theravada Buddhist Meditation, https://www.wisdomlib.org/buddhism/book/the-jhanas/d/doc979.html Archived 2016-12-20 at the Wayback Machine
^ Gethin, The foundations of Buddhism, 1998, pg 182-83
^ The Experience of Samadhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation by Richard Shankman. Shambhala: 2008. ISBN 1-59030-521-3
^ Schumann 1997.
^ Powers, John. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, Revised Edition, p. 86.
^ Powers, John. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, Revised Edition, p. 86.
^ "How to practice Calm-Abiding Meditation," Dharma Fellowship, [1] Archived 2009-02-14 at the Wayback Machine,
^ Collected Works of Chogyam Trungpa, Vol. II Shambhala Publications. pg 19
^ "State or Statement?: Samādhi in Some Early Mahāyāna Sūtras." The Eastern Buddhist. 34-2. 2002 pg 57
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Meditative States in Tibetan Buddhism By Lati Rinpoche, Denma Locho Rinpoche, Leah Zahler, Jeffrey Hopkins Wisdom Publications: December 25, 1996. ISBN 0-86171-119-X pgs 53-85
^ Yates, Culadasa John; Immergut, Matthew; Graves, Jeremy (2015-10-06). The Mind Illuminated: A Complete Meditation Guide Integrating Buddhist Wisdom and Brain Science. Dharma Treasure Press.
^ See Abhidharmasamuccaya Archived 2014-10-14 at the Wayback Machine
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Wallace, A: 'The Attention Revolution', Wisdom Publications, 1st ed., 2006, p.6 [2] Archived 2014-07-28 at the Wayback Machine
^ The Practice of Tranquility & Insight: A Guide to Tibetan Buddhist Meditation by Thrangu Rinpoche. Snow Lion Publications; 2 edition. 1998 ISBN 1-55939-106-5 pg 19
^ "Piya Tan (2004), The Taming of the Bull. Mind-training and the formation of Buddhist traditions" (PDF). Archived(PDF) from the original on 2013-07-18. Retrieved 2014-10-08.
^ "Wallace, A: 'The Attention Revolution', Wisdom Publications, 1st ed., 2006, p.30". Archived from the original on 2007-03-12. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
^ "Nine Stages of Training the Mind". Archived from the original on 2012-10-15. Retrieved 2012-11-09.
^ "Wallace, A: 'The Attention Revolution', Wisdom Publications, 1st ed., 2006, p.62". Archived from the original on 2007-03-12. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
^ "Achieving Shamatha by Dr. Alexander Berzin on StudyBuddhism.com". Archived from the original on 2016-08-08. Retrieved 2016-06-20.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b "Wallace, A: 'The Attention Revolution', Wisdom Publications, 1st ed., 2006, p.99". Archived from the original on 2007-03-12. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
^ Study and Practice of Meditation: Tibetan Interpretations of the Concentrations and Formless Absorptions by Leah Zahler. Snow Lion Publications: 2009 pg 23
^ Study and Practice of Meditation: Tibetan Interpretations of the Concentrations and Formless Absorptions by Leah Zahler. Snow Lion Publications: 2009 pg 5)
^ Meditative States in Tibetan Buddhism By Lati Rinpoche, Denma Locho Rinpoche, Leah Zahler, Jeffrey Hopkins Wisdom Publications: December 25, 1996. ISBN 0-86171-119-X pgs 54-58
^ Mind at Ease, by Traleg Kyabgon, Shambhala Publications, pgs 149-152, 157
^ Pointing Out the Great Way: The Stages of Meditation in the Mahamudra tradition by Dan Brown. Wisdom Publications: 2006 pg 221-34
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-10-03. Retrieved 2009-09-29.
^ Unbounded Wholeness by Anne C. Klein, Tenzin Wangyal. ISBN 0-19-517849-1 pg 349)
^ Unbounded Wholeness by Anne C. Klein, Tenzin Wangyal. ISBN 0-19-517849-1 pg 357, 359
^ Ajahn Chah's 'View of the View'", in Broad View, Boundless Heart by Ajahn Amaro.[3] Archived 2010-12-02 at the Wayback Machine
^ Ray, Reginald A. (Ed.)(2004). In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Shambala. ISBN 1-57062-849-1 (pbk.: alk. paper) p.76.

Sources[edit]

Schumann, Hans Wolfgang (1997), Boeddhisme, Asoka
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997), One Tool Among Many. The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice
Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL
Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, Routledge

External links[edit]

The Nine Mental Abidings c.q. Stages of Tranquility

사마타

仏教用語; サマタ, シャマタ
パーリ語	Samatha
サンスクリット語	śamatha
中国語	奢摩他; (拼音: Samatha)
日本語	止; (ローマ字: shi)
	テンプレートを表示

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.

사마타(奢摩他, Samatha)는 고요함을 개발하는 불교의 명상법이다. 위빠사나가 관조, 관찰을 하는 명상법인 반면에, 사마타는 고요함, 적멸, 사마디(삼매)를 목표로 하는 명상이다. 계정혜삼학의 정에 해당하며, 지관에서 지를 의미한다. 정이나 지는 인도어 사마타를 한역한 것이다.

해설[편집]

사마타(samatha, 止)는 팔리어로서, sama는 고요함, 평정, 평화의 의미이다. tha는 지키다, 머물다, 어떤 상태로 남겨지다는 동사이다. 한역에서는 이것을 멈추다는 의미의 지(止)로 번역했다.

법상종으로 유명한 신라의 원측(圓測: 613~696)은 해심밀경소에서, 사마타를 마음이 어떤 한 대상에 머물도록 하는(令住) 것이라고 정의했다.

2005년 10월 방한한 미얀마의 파욱 아친나 스님은, "불안한 외발수레(위빠사나)를 끌지 말고, 안전한 두 바퀴 수레를 몰아야 한다"며너, 위빠사나 수행의 전제조건으로서 사마타를 닦아야 한다고 설명했다. "사마타를 닦는 이유는 선정을 얻기 위한 것이고, 이를 통해 지혜란 빛을 볼 수 있다. 선정의 힘으로 빛이 나온다. 그 빛을 갖고 위빠사나 수행으로 가는 것"이라고 한다.^[1]

선한 삼매에 머물러서 온갖 법을 관찰하는 것을 선한 지혜의 모양이라 하고, 삼매의 모양과 지혜의 모양이 다른 줄로 보지 않는 것을, 버리는 모양[捨相]이라 이름한다. 색의 모양[色相]을 취하고, 색의 항상하거나 무상한 모양을 관찰하지 아니하면 삼매라 이름하고, 색의 항상하거나 무상한 모양을 관찰하면, 지혜라 이름하고 삼매와 지혜가 평등하게 온갖 법을 관찰하면 이것을 버리는 모양이라 이름한다.

사마타(奢摩他)는 능히 없앤다[能滅] 이름하나니 온갖 번뇌를 없애는 연고며, 또
사마타는 능히 조복한다 이름하나니 모든 근의 악하고 선하지 못한 것을 조복하는 연고며, 또
사마타는 고요하다 이름하나니 3업을 고요하게 하는 연고며, 또
사마타는 멀리 여읜다 이름하나니 중생으로 하여금 5욕락을 멀리 여의게 하는 연고며, 또
사마타는 능히 맑힌다 이름하나니 탐욕·성내는 일·어리석음의 흐린 법을 맑히는 연고니라.

이런 뜻으로 선정의 모양[定相]이라 이름한다.

비바사나(毘婆舍那)는

바르게 본다[正見] 이름하며, 또
분명히 본다[了見] 이름하며, 또
능히 본다[能見] 이름하며,
두루 본다[遍見]·차례로 본다[次第見]·딴 모양으로 본다[別相見] 이름하나니,
이것을 지혜라고 한다.

우필차(憂畢叉)는

평등이라 이름하며,
다투지 않는다[不諍] 이름하며,
관찰하지 않는다[不觀] 이름하며,
행하지 않는다[不行] 이름하며,
이것을 사(捨)라 한라.(열반경)

팔정도[편집]

팔정도 수행을 모두 완성하면 부처가 된다고 하는데, 팔정도 중에서 정견, 정념을 위빠사나 명상, 정사유, 정어, 정업, 정명, 정정진, 정정을 사마타 명상이라고 한다.(사제론)

따라서, 펄정도의 8가지를 모두 각각 완성하면 부처가 된다는 말은, 다른 말로, 사마타 명상과 위빠사나 명상을 둘 다 완성하면, 둘의 어디에도 치우치지 않은 중도를 이루어 부처가 된다고 표현한다.

십우도[편집]

중국의 십우도는 오늘날 대부분의 한국 불교 사찰에 사찰벽화로 그려져 있다. 티베트 불교에서는 시네뻬리(Zhi gnas dpe ris)라고 한다. 시네(zhi gnas)는 사마타, 뻬리(dpe ris)는 도안의 뜻이다.

9차제정[편집]

보리심의 광명으로 무명의 어두움을 비추고 지혜의 구슬이 곧 4변(辯)을 내어 모두 발휘하며, 삼명(明)을 증득하여 삼독(毒)이 영원히 멸하고 8고(苦)가 모두 없어져 팔성도(聖道)를 얻는다. 아홉 가지 고뇌[九惱]가 그쳐 9차제정(次第定)을 얻고 10악(惡)을 물리쳐 10일체입(一切入)을 얻으며, 모든 힘이 구족되어 금강보살과 같아지며, 신통이 자재하여 장애가 없어지고 장차 금강 같은 무너지지 않는 몸을 얻기에 불꽃이 일어나는 실지를 얻었다고 한다. 이것이 성취의 법이다.(소바호동자청문경)

9차제정이란 차례로 이어서 닦는 9종의 선정이다. 초선정(初禪定), 2선정(禪定), 3선정(禪定), 4선정(禪定), 공처정(空處定), 식처정(識處定), 무소유처정(無所有處定), 비상비비상처정(非想非非想處定), 멸수상정(滅受想定)이다.

사마타 명상을 선정(禪定)이라고 하는데,

선정(禪定)의 최고경지는 멸진정이다.

멸수상정(滅受想定)이라고도 한다.

석가모니는 29세에 출가하여 1년은 당대 최고의 명상스승을 찾아다녔고, 4년은 세명의 스승에게서 힌두교 요가 명상을 배웠다. 그리고 마지막 1년은 모두 틀렸다고 하여,

독자적인 위빠사나 명상을 개발해서, 보리수 나무 아래에서 수행하여 중도를 성취하였다.

첫째 스승은 고행을 가르쳤고, 둘째 스승은 무소유처정을 가르쳤다. 셋째 스승은 비상비비상처정을 가르쳤다. 비상비비상처정은 힌두교 요가에서 최고의 선정 경지이다. 그러나 석가모니는 비상비비상처정이 공에 치우쳤다고 하여, 위빠사나 명상을 개발해 1년간 참선하여, 중도를 성취했으며, 이 때의 선정 경지를 멸진정이라고 한다.

같이 보기[편집]

각주[편집]

↑ 사마타-위빠사나 수행, 외국 고승에게 묻다, 현대불교신문, 2005.11.23

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サマタ瞑想

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』

サマタ瞑想^[1]（サマタめいそう、巴: samathabhāvanā^{[注釈 2]}）は、こころを特定の対象に結びつけて集中力を養う瞑想である^[2]。サマタ（巴: samatha）、シャマタ（梵: śamatha）、奢摩他^[3]とは、ひとつの対象に心を落ち着かせることを意味する仏教用語であり、止^[4]^[3]と漢訳される^[5]。

上座仏教のサマタ瞑想[編集]

上座部仏教では業処と呼ばれる瞑想対象が40種類ある。現在、欧米で広まっているヴィパッサナー瞑想（観行）の一類である、上座部仏教のマハーシの文脈における瞑想では、準備段階としてサマタ（止）の一種である慈悲の瞑想が行なわれる。最も一般によく使われるサマタは呼吸を対照する安那般那念（別名アーナーパーナ・サティ）である。

元来の上座部仏教では、ヴィパッサナー瞑想の前の段階として集中力を強化するためにサマタ瞑想が行われるが、現代ではサマタ瞑想を簡略化して初めからヴィパッサナー瞑想に入る方式が広く行われている^[6]。

仏典の止の概念[編集]

パーリ語のサマタ（samatha）、サンスクリットのシャマタ（śamatha, 奢摩他、漢訳: 止^[4]）は、仏教の用語で、ひとつの対象に心を落ち着かせることであり、止（し）と翻訳される^[5]。仏教では、止 (samatha) が深まると三昧 (samādhi) という状態から禅那 (jhāna) という境地に至るとされた^[7]。定とも漢訳される三昧は、何らかの対象に集中している状態^[8]、または対象に集中することによって生じる集中力を指す^[9]。禅那は段階的に、4つの色界禅（初禅から第四禅）、4つの無色界禅、滅尽定に区分される^[10]。

「止」の原語であるサマタないしシャマタは、仏典においてのみ使われており、インドの一般の文献には見られない^[11]。仏教が成立した初期の頃には、『ウパニシャッド』やジャイナ教と同じく、dhyāna（禅定）や、yoga といった表現が用いられた^[11]。止の原語である samatha や śamatha は『ウパニシャッド』では使われず、それに近い śama や śānti であればヒンドゥー教での中心的な概念となっている^[11]。samatha という言葉は仏教の成立後しばらく後に用いられるようになったと考えられる^[11]。漢訳では一般には止であり、奢摩他と音写されることもある^[11]。六息念の sthāpanā や sthāna も止と訳されるが、意味は同一ではない^[12]。

初期の経典『小部』では止観のように観の字は併記されず、止や心寂止がよく登場するため、特に心寂止という言葉は、観よりも早く成立したと考えられる^[13]。説一切有部などの後代には、止観という言葉が生まれている^[11]。この時代の初期・中期（2-3世紀ごろ）の「六足・初智」や『大毘婆沙論』では、止と観のバランスが重要であると強調されている（定も参照）^[14]。後の（4-5世紀）^[14]、『倶舎論』の「賢聖品」において、止は不浄と数息の2つの修行法を指し、そこで定を達成する^[15]。この時代になって初めてこのような具体的な修行法が定められている^[14]。『順正理論』では、観で煩悩を断じるときに止を伴う必要があるとされている^[15]。

仏教一般における止行[編集]

詳細は「止観」を参照

「止」は静かな澄み切った心の状態であり^[16]、こうした上で対象を正しく観察するということが観（かん、巴: vipassanā）であり、不離の関係にあり併せて止観という^[5]。このため、観とで、鳥の双翼あるいは、車の車輪のようにたとえられる^[4]。対象に集中するという瞑想は、仏教以外の修行でも共通する修行であり特別なことではないが、他の修行を実践するための土台となる^[16]。

大乗仏教では止に対する5つの障害があるとし、心が重い懈怠（けだい）、注意深さのない失念、心が対象をとらえず沈む惛沈（こんじん）と対象にとどまらず散ってしまう掉挙（じょうこ）、惛沈・掉挙に結びついていることそれ自体、不要な時にこれら障害を対抗する実践を行っていることである^[16]。懈怠に対しては信仰と決断力と努力と心の巧妙さ（信、欲、勤、軽安）であり、失念に対抗するのは念であり、惛沈・掉挙には正知であり、探求心と心の落ち着きが残りに対抗する^[16]。

禅定[編集]

詳細は「禅定」を参照

「四禅」、「定」、および「三昧」も参照

精神が集中し、色界と無色界の各4つの段階（地）をもつ禅定が達成される^[16]。

注釈[編集]

^ この著書『アビダンマ講義シリーズ第七巻』では、「サマタ（samatha）」を瞑想であると紹介した後に「サマタ瞑想」と呼び始めている。一方で『アビダンマ講義シリーズ第二巻』では、「サマタ（サマーディ）瞑想」逆に「サマーディ（サマタ）瞑想」といった表記が混在している。また、同著者の『沙門果経』（サンガ、2015年 ISBN 978-4-86564-013-7 ）では、「サマーディ瞑想」と呼んでいる。この通り、同一著者において呼称は統一されていない。なお、サマーディとは原語であり、漢訳で定と記され、止によって達する状態のことであり、別の概念である。
^ samatha （止）と bhāvanā （修習,バーヴァナー）の複合語。

出典[編集]

^ アルボムッレ・スマナサーラ『ブッダの実践心理学アビダンマ講義シリーズ第七巻』藤本晃訳、サンガ、2012年11月、9頁。^{[注釈 1]}
^ マハーシ・サヤドー『ヴィパッサナー瞑想』星飛雄馬訳、サンガ〈サンガ文庫〉、2017年、148頁。
^ ^a ^b 水野弘元『仏教要語の基礎知識』春秋社、新版2006年、220頁。
^ ^a ^b ^c 総合仏教大辞典編集委員会「止観」『総合佛教大辞典』法蔵館、2005年、518-519頁。ISBN 4-8318-7070-6。
^ ^a ^b ^c 中村元「止」『佛教語大辞典』東京書籍、1975年、506頁。
^ 青野貴芳「ミャンマーの三系統のヴィパッサナー瞑想を整理する」『別冊サンガジャパン(1)』サンガ、2014年、63頁。
^ 箕輪顕量「上座仏教の瞑想概観」『別冊サンガジャパン(1)』サンガ、2014年、18頁。
^ 箕輪顕量「上座仏教の瞑想概観」『別冊サンガジャパン(1)』サンガ、2014年、18頁。
^ マハーシ・サヤドー『ヴィパッサナー瞑想』星飛雄馬訳、サンガ〈サンガ文庫〉、2017年、150頁。
^ 箕輪顕量「上座仏教の瞑想概観」『別冊サンガジャパン(1)』サンガ、2014年、18頁。
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f 中村元「原始仏教における止観」『印度學佛教學研究』第23巻第1号、1974年、 24-29頁、 doi:10.4259/ibk.23.24。
^ 洪鴻榮「止・観の語源 : 安那波那念におけるsamatha・vipasyanaとsthapana・upalaksanaについて」『印度學佛教學研究』第50巻第2号、2002年、 889-886頁、 doi:10.4259/ibk.50.889。
^ KongkarattanarukPhrapongsak「阿含・Nikayaにおける止観の成立と展開」『印度學佛教學研究』第57巻第2号、2009年3月20日、 903-900頁、 doi:10.4259/ibk.57.2_903。
^ ^a ^b ^c KongkarattanarukPhrapongsak「説一切有部文献における止観」『印度學佛教學研究』第59巻第1号、2010年12月20日、 381-378頁、 doi:10.4259/ibk.59.1_381。
^ ^a ^b 洪鴻栄「倶舎論における止観」 (pdf) 『印度學佛教學研究』第51巻第1号、2002年12月20日、 369-372頁、 doi:10.4259/ibk.51.372。
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ダライ・ラマ14世テンジン・ギャツォ『ダライ・ラマ智慧の眼をひらく』菅沼晃訳、春秋社、2001年、106-135、。ISBN 978-4-393-13335-4。全面的な再改訳版。（初版『大乗仏教入門』1980年、改訳『智慧の眼』1988年）The Opening of the Wisdom-Eye: And the History of the Advancement of Buddhadharma in Tibet, 1966, rep, 1977。上座部仏教における注釈も備える。

2020/10/25

Samatha - Wikipedia 사마타 サマタ瞑想

Samatha