SUFISM AND TAOISM: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts
First published 1983 by Iwanami Shoten, Publishers, Tokyo
This edition is published by The University of California Press, 1984,
Rev. ed. of: A comparative study of the key philosophical concepts in Sufism and Taoism. 1966-67.
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VIII The Gateway of Myriad Wonders
We have leamt in the preceding chapter that the name 'Way' is,
after all, but a makeshift, a forced expression for what is properly
not to be named. The word 'Way' is a symbol conveniently
chosen for referring to Something which is, strictly speaking,
beyond even symbolic indication. With this basic understanding,
however, we may use - as Lao-tzu himself does - the term
in describing the metaphysical world-view of Lao-tzü and
Chuang-tzu.
lt will be clear that, of the three primary aspects of the Absolute,
which Lao-tzu distinguishes: the Mystery (hsüan ), Non-Being (wu),
and Being (yu), the first alone is the one to which the word 'Way'
properly and directly applies. The rest, that is, Non-Being, Being,
and even the 'ten thousand things' that effuse from the latter, are, all
of them without exception, the Way, but not primarily. They are the
Way in the sense that they represent various stages of the Mystery of
Mysteries as it goes on determining itself. In other words, each one
of them is the Way in a secondary, derivative, and limited sense,
although in the· case of Non-Being, which is nothing but pure
Negativity, 'limitation' or 'determination' is so weak and slight
that it is almost the same as 'non-limitation'.
It is true, however, that even the stage of Non-Being is not the
ultimate and absolute stage of the Way, as long as the concept of
'Non-Being' is understood in opposition to, and in contradistinction
from, that of 'Being'. In order to reach the ultimate and absolu te
stage of the Way in this direction, we have to negate, as Chuang-tzu
does, the concept itself of Non-Being and the very distinction
between Non-Being and Being, and conceptually posit No-[Non-
Being], more exactly, No-[No Non-Being]. This we have leamt in
the first part of the preceding chapter.
In the present chapter we shall no longer be primarily concemed
with this absolute aspect of the Way, but rather with that aspect in
which it tums toward the empirical or phenomenal world. Our
major concern will be with the problem of the creative activity of the
Way. This being the case, our description here will begin with the
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders 399
stage which stands slightly lower, so to speak, than that of the
Mystery of Mysteries.
1 have just used the phrase: 'the stage which stands slightly lower
than that of the Mystery of Mysteries'. But it is the last and ultimate
stage which we can hope to reach if we, starting from the world of
phenomenal things, go up stage after stage in search of the Abso-
lute. For, as we have seen above, the Mystery perse bas nothing to
do with the phenomenal world. And this makes us understand
immediately that when Lao-tzu says:
The Way is the Granary 1 of the ten thousand things, 2
he refers by the word Way to the 'stage which is slightly lower' than
the Mystery of Mysteries. lt is precisely at this stage that the Way is
to be considered the Granary of the ten thousand things. lt is at this
stage that it begins to manifest its creativity. The word 'granary'
clearly gives the image of the Absolute as the very ontological
source of ail things in the sense that all things are contained therein
in the state of potentiality. Lao-tzu refers to this aspect of the
Absolute as 'the eternal (or absolute) Non-Being' or the 'Name-
less'. lt is to be noted that the 'Nameless' is said to be the 'Beginning
of Heaven and Earth' .3 The Absolute at the stage of 'Nameless' or
'Non-Being' is actually not yet Heaven and Earth. But it is destined
to be Heaven and Earth. That is to say, it is potentially already
Heaven and Earth. And the expression: 'Heaven and Earth' is here
clearly synonymous with the more philosophical term, 'Being'.
At this juncture, Lao-tzu introduces into bis system another impor-
tant term, 'One'. In the first part of the present study we saw how the
concept of 'one' in the forms of al)adiyah and wal)idiyah plays a
decisive rôle in the thought of Ibn 'Arabi concerning the 'self-
manifestations' (tajalliyat) of the Absolute. No less an important
rôle does the concept of 'one' play in the thought of Lao-tzu.
For Lao-tzü, the One is something closest to the Way; it is almost
the Way in the sense of the Mystery of Mysteries. But it is not
exactly the Way as the Mystery. Rather, it is an aspect of the latter.
lt represents the stage at which the Way bas already begun to move
positively toward Being.
Avery interesting explanation of the whole situation is found in a
passage of the Chuang-tzu, in a chapter entitled 'On Heaven and
Earth'. The chapter is one of the 'Exterior Chapters' (wai p'ien),4
and may not be from the pen of Chuang-tzü himself. But this does
not detract from the importance of the idea itself expressed in the
passage. lt reads as follows:
Before the creation of the world,5 there is only No-[Non-Beingr
400 Sufism and Taoism
(Then) there appears the Nameless. The latter is that from which the
One arises.
Now the One is there, but there is no form yet (i.e., none of the
existential forms is manifest at this stage). But each (of the ten
thousand things) cornes into existence by acquiring it (i.e., the One,
by participation). In this particular respect, the One is called Virtue. 7
Thus (the One at the stage of being itself) does not manifest any form
whatsoever. And yet it contains already (the potentiality of) being
divided (into the ten thousand things).
Notwithstanding that, (since it is not yet actually divided) it has no
break. This (potentiality of being divided and diversified into myriad
things) is called the Command.8
This important passage makes it definitely clear that the One is not
exactly the same as the Way qua the Mystery. For in the former
there is observable a sort of existential potentiality, whereas the
latter allows of no potentiality, not even a shadow of possibility. It is
the absolute Absolute.
At the stage of One, the Way is found to be already somehow
'determined', though it is not yet fully 'determined' or 'limited'. It is,
according to the explanation given by Chuang-tzu, a metaphysical
stage that cornes after the Nameless (or Non-Being) which, again,
cornes after the original No-[Non-Being]. And as such, it is a half-
way stage between pure Non-Being and pure Being. It stands at the
end of Non-Being and at the initial point of Being.
The One is, thus, not yet actually Being, but it is potentially
Being. It is a metaphysically homogeneous single plane which is not
yet externally articulated; it is a unity which is going to diversify
itself, and in which the creative activity of the Way will be fully
ma nif ested.
The whole process by which this creative activity of the Way is
manifested in the production of the world and the ten thousand
things is described by Lao-tzu in the following way.
The Way begets 'one'; 'one' begets 'two'; 'two' begets 'three'; and
'three' begets the ten thousand things.
The ten thousand things carry on their backs the Yin energy9 and
embrace in their arms the Yang energy10 and the two (i.e., Yin and
Yang) are kept in harmonious unity by the (third) energy emerging
out of (the blending and interaction of) them. 11
From the Way as the metaphysical Absolu te - or more strictly, from
the metaphysical Absolute at the stage of Non-Being - there
emerges the One. The One is, as we have just seen, the metaphysical
Unity of all things, the primordial Unity in which all things lie
hidden in astate of 'chaos' without being as yet actualized as the ten
thousand things.
From this Unity there emerges 'two', that is, the cosmic duality of
,,
'
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders 401
Heaven and Earth. The former symbolizes the principle of Yang,
the latter that of Yin. At this stage, the Way manifests itself as Being
and the Named. The Named, as we have learnt from a passage
quoted earlier, 12 'is the Mother of the ten thousand things'. Before
the 'two' can begin to work as the 'Mother of ten thousand things',
however, they have to beget the third principle, the 'vital force of
harmony' formed by the interaction and mixture of the Yin and the
Yang energy. The expression: 'two begets three' refers to this phase
of the creation of the world.
The combination of these three principles results in the produc-
tion of the ten thousand things. Thus it cornes about that everything
existent, without exception, bas three constituent elements: ( 1) the
Yin which it 'carries on its back' - a symbolic expression for the Yin
being negative, passive 'shadowy' and 'dark' -(2) the Yang which it
'embraces in its arms' - a symbolic expression for the Yang being
positive, bright and 'sunny' - and (3) the vital force which harmon-
izes these two elements into an existential unity.
It is to be remarked that Heaven and Earth, that is, the Way at the
stage of Being, or the Named, is considered the 'Mother of the ten
thousand things'. There is a firm natural tie between the 'Mother'
and ber 'children'. This would seem to suggest that the 'ten
thousand things' are most intimately related with Heaven and
Earth. The former as the 'children' of the latter provide the most
exact image of the Way quâ the Named.
AU things un der Heaven have a Beginning, which is to be regarded as
the Mother of all things.
If one knows the 'mother', one knows the 'child'. And if, after having
k!Jown the' child' one goes back to the' mother' and holds fast to her,
one will never fall into a mistake until the very end of one's life. 13
These words describe in a symbolic way the intimate ontological
relationship between the Way at the stage of the Named, or Being,
and the phenomenal world. The phenomenal things are to be
regarded as the 'children' of the Named. That is to say, they are not
to be regarded as mere objective products of the latter; they are its
own flesh and blood. There is a relationship of consanguinity be-
tween them.
And sin ce the N amed, or' Heaven and Earth', is nothing else than
a stage in the self-evolvement of the Way itself, the same relation-
ship must be said to hold between the Way and the phenomenal
things. After all, the phenomenal things themselves are also a stage
in the self-evolvement of the Way.
1 have just used the expression: 'the self-evolvement of the Way'.
But we know only too well that any movement on the part of the
Way toward the world of phenomena begins at the stage of the One.
402 Sufism and Taoism
The One represents the initial point of the self-evolvement of the
Way. AU things in the phenomenal world partake of the One. By
being partaken of in this way, the One forms the ontological core of
everything. The Way perse, that is, qua the Mystery, is beyond that
stage. Thus Lao-tzu often mentions the One when be speaks about
the phenomenal things partaking of the Way. In a looser sense, the
word 'Way' may also be used in that sense, and Lao-tzu does use it
in reference to that particular aspect of the Way. But in the most
rigorous usage, the' One' is the most appropria te term in contexts of
this sort.
Heaven, by acquiring the One, is serene.
Earth, by acquiring the One, is solid.
The Spirit, by acquiring the One, exercise mysterious powers.
The valleys, by acquiring the One, are full.
The ten thousand things, by acquiring the One, are alive.
The lords and kings, by acquiring the One, are the standard of the
world.
It is the One that makes these things what they are.
If Heaven were not serene by the One, it would break apart.
If Earth were not solid by the One, it would collapse. 14
If the Spirits were not able to exercise mysterious powers by the One,
they would cease to be active. 15
If the valleys were not full by the One, they would run dry.
If the ten thousand things were not kept alive by the One, they would
perish.
If the lords and kings were not noble and lofty by the One, they would
be overthrown. 16
The first half of the passage expresses the idea that everything in the,
world is what it is by virtue of the One which 'it acquires', i.e.,
partakes of. Viewed from the si de of the phenomenal things, what
actually happens is the 'acquisition' of the One, while from the side
of the Way, it is the creative activity of the Way as the One.
The second half of the passage develops this idea and emphasizes
the actual presence of the Way in the form of the One in each of the
things that exist in the world, ranging from the highest to the lowest.
The One is present in everything as its ontological ground. It acts in
everything as its ontological energy. lt develops its activity in every-
thing in accordance with the latter' s particular ontological struc-
ture; thus, the sky is limpid and clear, the earth solidly settled, the
valley full of water; etc. If it were not for this activity of the One,
nothing in the world would keep its existence as it should.
The Way in this sense is an indwelling principle of all things. lt
pervades the whole phenomenal world and its ontological activity
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders 403
affects everything. Nothing lies outside the reach of this universal
immanence of the Way.
The Net of Heaven has only wide meshes. They are wide, yet nothing
slips through them. 17
The 'immanence' of the Way in the phenomenal world must not be
taken in the sense that something completely alien cornes from
outside into the phenomenal world and alights on the things. To put
it in a different way, the phenomenal things are not moved by force
by something which is not of their own. On the contrary, the Way is
'immanent' in the sense that the things of the phenomenal world are
so many different forms assumed by the Way itself. And this must
be what Lao-tzu really means when he says that the Way is the
'Mother of the ten thousand things'. There is, in this respect, no
ontological discrepancy between the Way and the things that exist
in the world.
Thus, to say that the phenomenal things are as they actually are
by virtue of the activity of the Way is to say that they are what they
are by virtue of their own natures. Lao-tzu speaks in this sense of
'the natures - or Nature - of the ten thousand things' .18 It is
significant that the original word here translated as 'nature', tzu
jan, 19 means literally 'of-itself it-is-so'. Nothing is forced by any-
thing to be what it is. Everything 'is-so of-itself'. And this is possible
only because there is, as 1 have just said, no ontological discrepancy
between the immanent Way and the things of which it is the vital
principle. The very driving force by which a thing is born, grows up,
flourishes, and then goes back to its own origin - this existentill
force which everything possesses as its own 'nature' - is in reality
nothing other than the Way as it actualizes itself in a limited way in
everything.
The Way, in acting in this manner, does not force anything. This is
the very basis on which stands the celebrated Taoist principle of
'Non-Doing' (wu wei)2°. And since it does not force anything, each
of the ten thousand things 'is-so of-itself'. Accordingly the 'sacred
man' who, as we shall see la ter, is the most perfect image of the Way,
does not force anything.
Thus the 'sacred man' ... only helps the 'being-so-of-itself' (i.e.,
spontaneous being) of the ten thousand things. He refrains from
interfering with it by his own action. 21
To be cairn and soundless - that is the 'natural' (or 'being-so-of-
itself'). This is why a hurricane does not last all morning, and a
rainstorm does not last all day. Who is it that causes wind and rain?
Heaven and Earth. Thus, if even Heaven and Earth cannot perpetu-
ate (excessive states of affairs), much less can man (hope to succeed
in maintaining an 'unnatural' state )!22
404 Sufism and Taoism
This idea of the 'nature' or 'being-so-of-itself' of the existent things
leads us immediately to another major concept: Virtue (tê). 23 In fact
the tê is nothing other than the 'nature' of a thing viewed as some-
thing the thing has 'acquired'. The tê is the Way as it 'naturally' acts
in a thing in the form of its immanent ontological core. Thus a
Virtue is exactly the same as Nature, the only difference between
them being that in the case of the former concept, the Way is
considered as an' acquisition' of the thing, whereas in the case of the
latter the Way is considered in terms of its being a vital force which
makes the thing 'be-so of-itself'.
Everything, as we saw above, partakes of the Way (at the stage of
the One). And by partaking of the Way, it 'acquires' its own existen-
tial core. As Wang Pi says; 24 'The Way is the ultimate source of
ail things, whereas the Virtue is what all things acquire (of the
Way)'. And whatever a thing is, whatever a thing becomes, is due to
the 'natural' activity of its own Virtue.
It is characteristic of the metaphysical system of Lao-tzii that
what is here considered the 'natural' activity or Virtue of a thing is
nothing othenhan the very activity of the Way. The Way exercises
its creative activity within the thing in the capacity of the latter's
own existential principle, so that the activity of the Way is in itself
the activity of the thing. We encounter here something comparable
with Ibn 'Arabï's concept of the 'Breath or the Merciful' (al-nafas
al-ral)manï), or more generally, the concept of Divine Mercy
(rahmah), 25 which, issuing forth from the unfathomable depth of
the Absolute, spreads itself over the whole extent of possible Being
and brings into actual existence all the phenomenal things of the
world. It is interesting to note in this connection that in the Book of
Kuan-tzu - spuriously attributed to Kuan Chung, the famous
statesman of the 7th century B.C. - we find this significant state-
ment: 'Virtue (tê) is the Way's act of giving in charity' ,26 that is,
Virtue is the act of Mercy manifested by the Way toward all things.
And this act of Mercy is concretely observable, as Kuo Mo Jo says,
in the form of the 'bringing up, or fostering, the ten thousand
things'.
This conception completely squares with what Lao-tzii remarks
about the activity of Virtue in the following passage.
The Way gives birth to (the ten thousand things), the Virtue fosters
them, things furnish them with definite forms, 27 and the natural
impetus completes their development.
This is why none of the ten thousand things does not venerate the
Way and honor the Virtue. The. Way is venerated and its Virtue
honored not because this is commanded by somebody, but they are
naturally so. 28
Thus the Way gives them birth. The Virtue fosters them, makes them
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders 405
grow, feeds them, perfects them, solidifies 29 them, stabilizes them,30
rears them, and shelters them.
In this way, the Way gives birth (to the ten thousand things), and
daims no possession. It does great things, yet does not boast of it.
It makes (things) grow, and yet exercises no authority upon them.
This is what 1 would call the Mysterious Virtue. 31
We saw earlier how Lao-tzu 'provisionally' and 'by force' gives
'names' to the Way, that is, describes it by various attributes. In a
similar way, he distinguishes in Virtue several attributes or qual-
ities. And, accordingly, he refers to Virtue by different 'names', as if
he recognized the existence of various kinds of Virtue. The 'Mys-
terious Virtue' (hsüan tê) which we have just corne across is one of
them. Other 'names' are found in the following passage.
The 'high' Virtue (shang tê) looks like a valley, 32 as the purest white
seems spoiled.
The 'wide' Virtue (kuang tê) looks insufficient.
The 'firm' Virtue (chien tê) looks feeble.
The 'simple' Virtue (chih tê) 33 looks deteriorated.
Ail these 'names', however, do not designate different 'kinds' of
Virtue, no less than the different 'names' of the Way indicate the
existence of different kinds of Way. They simply refer to different
'aspects' which we can 'forcibly' distinguish in that which is properly
and in itself indetetminable. In this sense, and only in this sense, is
Virtue 'high', 'wide', 'firmly-established', 'simple', etc.
There is one point, however, which deserves special mention.
That is the distinction made in the Tao Tê Ching between 'high'
Virtue and 'low' Virtue. The distinction arises from the fact that
Virtue, representing as it does concrete forms assumed by the Way
as it actualizes itself in the phenomenal world, is liable to be affected
by 'unnatural', i.e., intentional, activity on the part of phenomenal
beings. Qui te ironically, Man, who is by nature so made as to be able
to become the most perfect embodiment of Virtue - and hence of
the Way - is the sole creature that is capable of obstructing the full
activity of Virtue. For nothing other than Man acts 'with intention'.
Things are naturally as they are, and each of them works in accord-
ance with its own 'nature'. Whatever they do is done without the
slightest intention on their part to do it. Man, on the contrary, may
'lower' his naturally given Virtue by his very intention to be a
perfect embodiment of the Way and to make his Virtue 'high' .35
A man of 'high' Virtue is not conscious of his Virtue.
That is why he has Virtue.
A man of 'low' Virtue tries hard not to lose his Virtue.
That is why he is deprived of Virtue. 36
406 Sufism and Taoism
The 'high' Virtue consists in Virtue being actualized completely and
perfectly in man when the latter is not even conscious of his Virtue.
Consciousness obstructs the natural actualization of the Way. And
in such a case, Virtue, which is nothing but the concrete actualiza-
tion of the Way, becomes imperfect and 'low'. For when a man is
conscious of Virtue, he naturally strives hard 'never to abandon' it.
And this very conscious effort hinders the free self-manifestation of
the Way in the form of Virtue.
Virtue in such a case is considered 'low', i.e., degenerate and
imperfect, because, instead of being perfectly united with the Way
as it should, it is somehow kept away from the Way, so that there is
observable a kind of discrepancy between the two.
A man of Great Virtue in his behavior follows exclusively (the
Command) of the Way .37
The 'low' Virtue, following as it does the command of human
intention as well as the Command of the Way, and not exclusively
the latter, is no longer Virtue as the most direct actualization of the
Way.
The foregoing discussion most naturally leads us to the problem of
Non-Doing (wu wei).
The Way is eternally active. lts activity consists in creating the ten
thousand things and then - in the particular form of Virtue - in
fostering them and bringing them up to the limit of their inner
possibility. This creative activity of the Way is really great. How-
ever, the Way does not achieve this great work with the 'intention'
of doing it. ·
Heaven is long lasting and Earth is long enduring. The reason why
Heaven and Earth are long lasting and long enduring is that they do
not strive to go on living. Therefore they are able to be everlasting.38
In his passage the Way is referred to as 'Heaven and Earth', that is,
the Way at the stage of Heaven and Earth. We already know the
metaphysical implication of this expression. The expression is here
in the proper place because it is precisely at this stage that the
creative activity of the Way is manifested. In the following passage,
Lao-tzu refers 'Heaven and Earth' back to their ultimate metaphys-
ical origin.
The Valley-Spirit is immortal. It is called the Mysterious Female. 39
The gateway of the Mysterious Female is called the Root of Heaven
and Earth. (The Way in these various forms) is barely visible, yet it
never ceases to exist. Unceasingly it works, yet never becomes
exhausted.40
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders 407
The Mysterious Female, Lao-tzii says, is unceasingly creative, yet it
never becomes exhausted because it 'does not do anything', i.e.,
consciously or intentionally. When we try hard to do something with
the definite intention of doing it, we may achieve that very thing
which we expect to achieve, but nothing else. The field of human
action is, therefore, always limited and determined in varying
degrees by consciousness and intention. The activity of the Way is of
a totally different nature from human action. For the Way acts only
by 'not acting' .
The Way is permanently inactive, yet it leaves nothing undone.41
Since, th us, the Way is not conscious of its own creative activity, it is
not conscious of the results of its activity either. The concept of the
Mysterious Virtue, to which reference was made a few pages back,
is based on this very idea. The Way, in this particular aspect, is
infinitely gracious to ail things. Its activity is extremely beneficial to
them. And yet it does not count the benefits and favors which it
never ceases to confer upon the things. Everything is done so
'naturally' - that is, without any intention on the part of the Way of
doing good to the things - that what is received by the things as
benefits and favors does not in any way constitute, from the point of
view of the Way itself, benefits and favors.
(The Way) gives birth (to the ten thousand things) and brings them
up.
It gives them birth, and y.et does not daim them to be its own
possession.
It works, yet does not boast of it. It makes (things) grow, and yet
exercises no authority upon them. This is what 1 would call the
Mysterious Virtue.42
The principle of Non-Doing -the principle of leaving everything to
its 'nature', and of doing nothing consciously and intentionally -
assumes special importance in the world-view of Lao-tzii in connec-
tion with the problem of the ideal way of life in this world. We shall
corne back to this concept in a la ter chapter. Here I shall be content
with quoting one more passage from the Tao Tê Ching, in which
Lao-tzu talks about Non-Doing in reference to both the Way and
the 'sacred man' atone and the same time. In this particular passage
the 'sacred man' is represented as having made himself so com-
pletely identical with the Way that whatever applies to the latter
applies to the former.
Therefore the 'sacred man' keeps to the principle of Non-Doing, and
practises the teaching of No-Words.
The ten thousand things arise (through its, or his, activity), and yet he
(or it) does not talk about it boastfully. He (or it) gives life (to the
408 Sufism and Taoism
things), and yet he (or it) does not claim them to be his (or its) own.
He (or it) works, and yet he (or it) does not boast of his (or its)
own work. He (or it) accomplishes his (or its) task, and yet he (or it)
does not stick to his (or its) own merit. He (or it) does not stick to his
(or its) own merit; therefore it never deserts him (or it).43
Thus the Way never makes a boast of its own activity. Whatever it
does, it does 'naturally', without the slightest intention of 'doing' it.
One may express the same idea by saying that the Way is totally
indifferent to both its creative activity and the concrete results it
produces. The Way does not care about the world it has created. In
one sense this might be understood as the Way giving complete
freedom to all things. But in another we might also say that the Way
lacks affection for its own creatures. They are simply left uncared- for and neglected.
With a touch of sarcasm Lao-tzu speaks of the Way having no
'benevolence' (or 'humaneness' ,jên). Thejên, as 1 have pointed out
earlier, was for Confucius and his disciples the highest of all for ethical values.
Heaven and Earth lack 'benevolence'. They treat ten thousand things
as straw dogs. 44
Likewise, the 'sacred man' lacks 'benevolence'. He treats the people
as straw dogs. 45
What Lao-tzu wants to assert by this paradoxical expression is that
the Great Way, because it is great, does not resort, as Confucians
do, to the virtue of jên in its activity. For the jên, in his eye, implies
an artificial, unnatural effort on the part of the agent. The Way does
not interfere with the natural course of things. Nor does it need to
interfere with it, because the natural course of things is the activity
of the Way itself. Lao-tzu would seem to be suggesting here that the
Confucianjên is not the realjên; and that the realjên consists rather
in the agent's being seemingly ruthless and jên-less.
There is another important point which Lao-tzu emphasizes very
much in describing the creative activity of the Way. That is the
'emptiness' or 'voidness' of the Way.
We have often referred to the conception of the Way as
'Nothing'. There 'Nothing' meant the absolu te transcendence of the
Way. The Way is considered 'Nothing' because it is beyond human
cognition. Just as a light far too brilliant for human eyes is the same
as darkness or lack of light, the Way is 'Nothing' or 'Non-Being'
precisely because it is plenitude of Being. The concept of' Nothing'
which is in question in the present context is of a different nature. It
concerns the 'infinite' creativity of the Way. The Way, Lao-tzu says,
can be infinitely and endlessly creative because it contains within
rr
If
I'
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders 409
itself nothing substantial. It can produce all things because it has
nothing definite and determined inside it. The Kuan-tzu clearly
reftects this idea when it says: 'Empty and formless - that is what is
called the Way' ,46 and 'The Heavenly Way is empty and formless' .47
For this idea Lao-tzu finds in the daily experience of the people
several interesting symbols. An empty vessel, for example:
The Way is an empty vessel.48 No matter how often you may use it,
you can never49 fi.Il it up. 50
It is a sort of magical vessel which, being forever empty, can never
be filled up, and which, therefore, can contain an infinity of things.
Looked at from the opposite side, this would mean that the 'vessel'
is infinitely full because it is apparently empty. Thus we corne back
exactly to the same situation which we encountered above in the
first of the two meanings of 'Nothing' with regard to the nature of
tbe Way. The Way, we saw there, is Nothing because it is too full of
Being - rather, it is Being itself - and because, as such, it is abso-
lutely beyond the reach of human cognition. Here again we find
ourselves in the presence of something which looks' empty' because
it is too full. The Way, in other words, is 'empty'; but it is not empty
in the ordinary sense of a thing being purely negatively and pas-
sively void. It is a positive metaphysical emptiness which is
plenitude itself.
Great fullness seems empty. But (its being, in reality, fullness is
proved by the fact that) wheli actually used, it will never be
exhausted. 51
The Way, in this particular aspect, is also compared to a bellows. It
is a great Cosmic Bellows whose productive activity is never
exhausted.
The space between Heaven and Earth is indeed like a bellows. It is
empty, but it is inexhaustible. The more it works the more cornes
out. 52
Lao-tzii in the following passage has recourse to more concrete
and homely illustrations to show the supreme productivity of
'emptiness'.
(Take for example the structure of a wheel). Thirty spokes share one
hub (i.e., thirty spokes are joined together round the center of the
wheel). But precisely in the empty space (in the axle-hole) is the
utility of the wheel.
One kneads clay to make a vessel. But precisely in the empty space
within is the utility of the vessel.
One cuts out doors and windows to make a room. But precisely in the
empty space within is the utility of the house. Thus it is clear that if
Being benefits us, it is due to the working of Non-Being.53
410 Sufism and Taoism
It is, I think, for this reason that the symbol of 'valley' plays such a
prominent part in the Tao Tê Ching. The valley is by nature hollow
and empty. And precisely because it is hollow and empty, can it be
full. Add to this the fact that the valley always occupies a 'low' place
- another important trait of anything which is really high, whether
human or non-human. The valley is thus an approprîate symbol for
the Way understood as the absolute principle of etemal creative-
ness, which is the plenitude of Being because it is 'empty', or
'Nothing'.
We have already quoted two passages in which Lao-tzu uses this
symbol in talking about the inexhaustible creative activity of the
Way.
The Valley-Spirit is immortal.54
The 'high' Virtue looks like a valley.55
The underlying idea is made more explicitly clear in another place
where Lao-tzu discusses the problem of anything being capable of
becoming truly perfect because it is (apparently) imperfect.
It is what is hollow that is (really) full. 56
Being 'hollow' and 'low' suggests the idea of 'female'. This idea too
has already been met with in the foregoing pages. In fact, the
emphasis on the feminine element in the creative aspect of the Way
may be pointed out as one of the characteristic features of Lao-tzu.
It goes without saying that, in addition to the idea of 'hollowness'
and 'lowliness', the 'female' is the most appropriate symbol of
fecundity.
The Way, for instance, is the Mother of the ten thousand things.
The Nameless is the beginning of Heaven and Earth. The Named is
the Mother of the ten thousand things.57
Ali things under heaven have a Beginning which is to be regarded as
the Mother of the world.
If one knows the 'mother', one thereby knows the 'child'. If, after
having known the 'child', one holds fast to the 'mother', one will
escape error, even to the end of one's life.58
The metaphysical implication of the Way being the Mother of ail
things and the things being her 'children' has been elucidated earlier
in the present chapter.
We have also quoted in this chapter in connection with another
problem a passage where mention is made of the 'Mysterious
Female'.
The Valley-Spirit is immortal. It is called the Mysterious Female. The
gateway of the Mysterious Female is called the Root of Heaven and
Earth. 59
.
.
·.
).'
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders 411
In the expression: Mysterious Female (hsüan p'in), we encounter
again the word hsüan60 which, as we sae above, is used by Lao-tzu in
reference to the Way as the unknown-unknowable metaphysical
Absolute, that is, the Way as it lies even beyond Being and Non-
Being.
The Mystery of Mysteries it really is! And it is the Gateway of myriad
Wonders. 61
It is remarkable, further, that in both passages the endless and
inexhaustible creativeness of the Way is symbolized by the 'gate-
way' (mên). 62 And this clearly indicates that the 'gateway of the
Mysterious Female' is exactly the same thing as the 'gateway of
myriad Wonders'. The Absolute in its active aspect is symbolically
imaged as having a 'gateway', or an opening, from which the ten
thousand things are sent out to the world of Being. The image of the
'female' animal makes the symbol the more appropriate to the idea
because of its natural suggestion of fecundity and motherhood.
As I pointed out earlier, the image of the 'female' in the world-
view of Lao-tzu is suggestive, furthermore, of weakness, humble-
ness, meekness, stillness, and the like. But, by the paradoxical way
of thinking which is peculiar to Lao-tzu, to say that the 'female' is
weak, meek, low, etc. is precisely another way of saying that she is
infinitely strong, powerful, and superior.
The female always overcomes the male by being quiet. Being quiet,
she (always) takes the lower position. (And by taking the lower
position, she ends by obtaining the higher position) 63
As is clear from these words, the weakness of the 'female' here
spoken of is not the purely negative weakness of a weakling. It is a
very peculiar kind of weakness which is obtained only by overcom-
ing powerfulness. It is a weakness which contains in itself an infini te
possibility of power and strength. This point is brought into the
focus of our attention by what Lao-tzu says in the following passage,
in which he talks about the basic attitude of the 'sacred man'. Since,
as we know, the 'sacred man' is for Lao-tzu the perfect per-
sonification of the Way itself, what is said of the former is wholly
applicable to the latter. It is to be noticed that here again the image
of the 'female' is directly associated with that of the 'valley'.
He who knows the 'male', yet keeps to the rôle of the 'female', will
become the 'valley' of the whole world.
Once he has become the 'valley' of the whole world, the eternal
Virtue64 will never desert him65
And it is evidently in this sense that the following statement is to be
understood:
111
:1111
I
l 1
! 1
412 Sufism and Taoism
'Being weak' is how the Way works. 66
We have been in what precedes trying to describe the ontological
process - as conceived by Lao-tzu - of the ten thousand things
coming out of the 'gateway' of the' Absolute. 'The Way begets One;
One begets Two; Two begets Three. And Three begets the ten
thousand things' .67 The ten thousand things, that is, the world and
ail the things that exist therein, represent the extreme limit of the
ontological evolution of the Way. Phenomenal things, in other
words, make their appearance at the last stage of the Descent of the
Way. From the point of view of phenomenal things, their very
emergence is the perfection of their own individual natures. For it is
here that the Way manifests itself - in the original sense of the
Greek verb phainesthai - in the most concrete forms.
This, however, is not the end of the ontological process of Being.
As in the case of the world-view of Ibn the Descent is
followed by the reversai of the creative movement, thatïs, Ascent.
The ten thousand things, upon reaching the last stage of the
descending course, ftourish for a while in an exuberance of colors
and forms, and then begin to take an ascending course back toward
their original pre-phenomenal form, that is, the formless Form of
the One, and thence further to 'Nothing', and finally they disappear
into the darkness of the Mystery of Mysteries. Lao-tzu expresses
this idea by the key term: fu, 68 or Return.
The ten thousand things ail arise together. But as 1 watch them, they
'return' again (to their Origin).
Ail things69 grow up exuberantly, but (when the time cornes) every
one of them 'returns' to its 'root'.
The Return to the Root is what is called Stillness. lt means returning
to the (Heavenly) Command (or the original ontological allotment of
each). 70
The Return to the Heavenly Command is what is called the Unchang-
ing.11
And to know the Unchanging is what is called Illumination.72
The plants grow in spring and summer in full exuberance and
luxuriance. This is due to the fact that the vital energy that lies in
potentia in their roots becomes activated, goes upward through the
stems, and at the stage of perfection becomes completely actualized
in the form of leaves, ftowers, and fruits. But with the advent of the
cold season, the same vital energy goes down toward the roots and
ends by hiding itself in its origin.73
Lao-tzu calls this final state Stillness74 or Tranquillity. We have
noticed above that 'stillness' is one of his favorite concepts. And it is
easy to see that this concept in its structure conforms to the general
pattern of thinking which is typical of Lao-tzu. For the 'stillness' as
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders 413
understood in terms of the present context is not the stillness of
death or complete lifelessness. The vital energy hidden in the dark-
ness of the root is actually motionless, but the root is by no means
dead. It is, rather, a stillness pregnant with infinite vitality. Exter-
nally no movement is perceptible, yet internally the incessant
movement of eternal Life is carried on in preparation for the coming
spring.
Thus the creative activity of the Way forms a cyclic process. And
being a cyclic process, it has no end. It is an eternal activity having
neither an initial point nor a final point.
We have also to keep in mind in understanding this idea another
typical pattern of Lao-tzu's thinking, which we have encountered
several times. I am referring to the fact that Lao-tzu often describes
a metaphysical truth in a temporal form. That is to say, his descrip-
tion of a metaphysical truth in terms of time (and space) does not
necessarily indicate that it is, in his view, a temporal process.
The emanation of the ten thousand things out of the womb of the
Way and their Return to their original source is described in the Tao
Tê Ching in a temporal form. And what is th us described is in fact a
temporal process.
Returning is how the Way moves.
Being weak is how the Way works.
The ten thousand things under Heaven are born out of Being. And
Being is born out of Non-Being.75
But in giving a description of the process in such a form, Lao-tzü is
trying to describe at the same time an eternal, supra-temporal fact
that lies over and above the temporal process. And looked at from
this second point of view, the Return of the phenomenal things back
to their origin is not something that happens in time and space.
Lao-tzu is making a metaphysical statement, referring simply to the
'immanence' of the Way. Ali the phenomenal things, from this point
of view, are but so many forms in which the Way manifests itself
concretely - phainesthai. The things are literally phainomena. And
since it is the Way itself that 'uncovers itself' or 'reveals itself' in
these things, it is 'immanent' in each of them as its metaphysical
ground. And each of the things contains in itself its own source of
existence. This is the metaphysical meaning of the Return. As we
have seen above, the Way in this particular form is called by Lao-tzu
tê or Virtue.
Notes
1. ao J!! (See btftftlt.!i IJ!!, i!&J IJ!!, a&.
414 Sujism and Taoism
2. Tao Tê Ching, LXII.
3. ibid., I, quoted and explained toward the end of the preceding chapter.
4. For the significance of this classification, see Chapter 1.
5. Here again Chuang-tzu describes the situation in chronological order, in the form
of historical development. But what he really intends to describe thereby is clearly a
metaphysical fact having nothing to do with the 'history' of things. The situation
referred to by the expression: 'before the creation of the world', accordingly, does
not belong to the past; it directly concerns the present, as it did concern the past and
as it will continue to concern the future forever.
6. In interpreting this opening sentence of the passage 1 follow Lin Yün Ming
(of the Ch'ing Dynasty, ad /oc.: l•f;J,l•f;J. j1jft.Z.Mîf;Jtl?.. 1!!H!UL
who punctuates it:
The ordinary reading represented by Kuo Hsiang articula tes the sentence
in a different way: 1!!fifl which may be translated as: 'Before the
creation of the world there was Non-Being. There was (then) no Being, no Name'.
7. tê, This is, as we shall see, one of the key terms of Lao-tzu. The word tê literally
means 'acquisition' or'what is acquired', that is, the One as 'acquired' by each of the
existent things. This part of the semantic structure of the word is admirably clarified
by the explanation which Chuang-tzu bas just given in this passage.
8. ming, âP", 'command' or 'order'; to be compared with the Islamic concept of amr
'(Divine) Command'. The corresponding concept in Chinese is often expressed by
the compound t'ien ming, meaning' Heavenly Command'. The underlying idea is that
everything in the world of Being is what it actually is in accordance with the
Command of the One. Ali things participa te in the One and' acquire it', but each of
them 'acquires it in its own peculiar way. And this is the reason why nothing is exactly
the same in the whole world, although ail uniformly owe their existence to the One.
Ali this would naturally lead to the problem of 'predestination', which will be
elucidated in a later context.
9. i.e., the Cosmic element which is 'shadowy', dark, negative, and passive.
10. i.e., the 'sunny', light, positive element.
11. Tao Tê Ching, XLII.
12. Tao Tê Ching, 1.
13. ibid., Lli.
14. fi, which is the same as IR ( l'Jllti!li: lfiaHUf. M. !UEH!?.J).
15. li;, which, according to the Shuo Wên, means to 'take a rest' (lit .@.tl?.J).
16. Tao tê Ching, XXXIX.
17. op. cit., LXXIII.
18. ibid., LXIV.
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders
19. t'.l?&.
20. The concept will be explained in more detail presently.
21. op. cit., LXIV.
22. ibid., XXIII.
23. See above, note 7.
415
24. :::UP.l (3rd. century A.D.); ad LI: See also bis
words: -m-1f ad XXXVIII.
25. See Part One, Chapter IX.
26. ( 'lf-f, ·CAt:rm, J::: ). For the interpretation of the last word, 1f (shê), see
Kuo Mo Jo's remark in the Peking edition of the Kuan-tzu 1965, vol. I,
pp. 642-644. He says: ""fJti'\
Way acts, but its figure is invisible. lt gives in charity, but its Virtue is invisible')
27. i.e., being fostered by Virtue, they grow up and become 'things' each having a
definite form.
28. 13?&.
29. •=•*6 or •=fJf meaning to 'crystallize' into a definite
form.
30. ifi, to l/MftJ).
31. op. cit., LI.
32. 'Valley' is a favorite symbol of Lao-tzu, which he uses in describing the
nature of the Way and the nature of the 'sacred man'.
33. The standard Wang Pi edition reads: Following Liu Shih P' ei
who argues:
I read:
34. op. cit., XLI.
35. The idea here described is comparable with what Ibn' Arabi observes about Man
being situated in a certain sense on the lowest level on the scale of Being. Inanimate
things have no 'ego'. That makes them obedient to God's comrnandrnents uncondi-
tionally; that is to say, they are exposed naked to God's activity upon thern, there
being no hindrance between thern. The second position is given to the plants, and the
third to the animais. Man, because of bis ReasoQ, occupies in this respect the lowest
place in the whole hierarchy of Being.
36. op. cit., XXXVIII.
37. ibid., XXI.
38. ibid., VII.
1:1•11
111111
416 Sufism and Taoism
39. The symbol, meaning of the 'Valley' and 'Female' will be elucidated presently.
40. op. cit., VI.
41. op. cit., XXXVII.
42. ibid., X. The same sentences are found as part of LI which I have already quoted.
43. ibid., II.
44. Straw dogs specially prepared as offerings at religious ceremonies. Before the
ceremonies, they were treated with utmost reverence. But once the occasion was
over, they were thrown away as waste material and trampled upon by the passers-by.
45. op. cit., V.
46. mlzmJ. The second word of this sentence according to the commonly
accepted reading is 1RÇ ( r Ji11RÇ1RÇM J etc.). That this is wrong has been established by the
editors of the Peking edition (See above, Note, 26), vol. II, pp. 635-636.
47. ibid.
48. ml'iti. As Yü Yüeh rightly observes, the character l'if! stands for.:!:. which, accord-
ing to the Shuo Wên, means the emptiness of a vesse!. (il({W VIII: lüQ>t lillffil,
fil, ...... r* riti9J\'i'f'Fl1JJ).
49. must be emended to ;;_-meaning'for anextremely long time', i.e., 'forever' -
on the basis of the reading of a Tang inscription (htfi:•fi<r.: see again Yü
Yüeh, ibid.
50. op. cit., IV.
51. ibid., XLV, l*Etfüif!J. Concerning the character l'if!, see above, Note 49.
52. ibid., V.
53. ibid., XI.
54. op. cit., VI.
55. ibid., XLI.
56. ibid., XXII.
57. ibid., I, quoted above.
58. ibid., LU, quoted above.
59. ibid., VI.
60. Â.
61. op. cit., 1. See above, p. 113.
r
The Gateway of Myriad Wonders 417
62.
63. op. cit., LXI.
64. Note again the use of the word ch'ang whose meaning in this context has
been explained earlier; see Chapter VII, Note 9. The ch'ang tê, in accordance with
what we have established above is synonymous with 'high' Virtue. See in particular
Tao Tê Ching, XLI, in which the 'high' Virtue is associated with the image of a
'valley': 'The high Virtue looks like a valley'.
65. op. cit., XXVIII.
66. ibid., XL.
67. ibid., XLII.
68. {l.
69. Here the ten thousand things that grow up with an amazing vitality are compared
to plants that vie with one another in manifesting their vital energy in spring and
summer.
70. ming, 1fP For a provisional explanation of t'ien ming (Heavenly Com-
mand), see above, Note 8.
71. ch'ang, 'M'.
72. ming IY:l. The epistemological structure of the experience of Illumination has
been fully elucidated in Chapters VI and V in accordance with what is said concern-
ing it in the Book of Chuang-tzu. The passage here quoted is from the Tao Tê Ching,
XVI.
73. This part of my explanation is an almost literai translation of the comment upon
the passage by Wu Ch'êng (of the Yüan Dynasty, ): 1§§,
1:.*mï , ;fiBllJ, f?\HIJ1:.-!3l:&ii,
. i&B{liPJ.
74. ching, 1fP.
75. op. cit., XL.
