Chapter Five
Types of Biblical Poetry
TO CALL SOMETHING POETRY is to identify the special idiom in which it is written.
Virtually any literary genre can be written in poetry. In the Bible we find such di-
verse forms as poetic narrative (the Book of Job), poetic satire (much of Old
Testament prophecy), and poetic discourse (parts of the Sermon on the Mount).
Mainly, though, poetry implies various types of short poems, and it is the purpose
of this chapter to describe the leading biblical examples.
LYRIC POETRY
A Definition of Lyric
What most people mean by “poem” is a lyric poem. A lyric can be defined as a
short poem, often intended to be sung, that expresses the thoughts and especially
the feelings of a speaker. Breaking that definition into its individual parts yields
the following anatomy of lyric as a genre.
Lyrics Are Brief
To begin, lyrics are brief. They express a feeling or insight at the moment of great-
est intensity, and we all know that such moments cannot be prolonged indefi-
nitely. The fact that lyrics are often sung likewise accounts for their characteristic
brevity. Because of this brevity, lyrics are self-contained, even when they appear in
collections like the Old Testament Book of Psalms. As part of this self-
containedness, lyrics usually have a single controlling topic or theme (which may
be an emotion rather than an idea). This unifying theme is stated early in the
poem and exercises a formative influence on the poem’s development. Unless a
reader identifies the unifying theme, a lyric will remain a series of fragments, and
nothing can be more disastrous to the unified impact that is a hallmark of lyric.
Theme and Variation
The best means of grasping the unity of a lyric is to recognize that it is built on the
principle of theme and variation. On the one hand, there is a unifying idea or emo-
tion that controls the entire poem. The details by which this theme is developed
are the variations. This principle places a twofold obligation on the reader: to
determine the theme that covers everything in the poem, and to discover how
each part contributes to that theme. Some of the Old Testament Psalms are, in
fact, very miscellaneous and consist of a series of loosely related ideas. But most
of them become unified wholes if a reader exercises patience and creativity in
looking for a unifying theme.
Lyrics Are Personal and Subjective
A lyric is also personal and subjective. Lyric poets present their own thoughts and
feelings directly, not through a story about characters viewed from the outside.
The speaker in a lyric speaks in the first person, using the “I” or “we” pronoun. As
readers we usually overhear the speaker, who may address anyone—God, himself,
the stars, a group, enemies—but who rarely conveys the impression of speaking
to the reader.
Lyrics Are Reflective or Emotional
Whereas stories present a series of events, a lyric presents either a sequence of
ideas or a series of emotions. In other words, lyrics are either reflective/meditative
or emotional. Emotion, especially, is often considered the differentiating element
of lyric. We should not go to a lyric looking for a story; we will find only occasional
snatches of narrative to explain the poet’s emotion or to elaborate such feelings as
praise or despair. Because lyrics are often emotional, and because even reflective
lyrics tend to be mood poems, a good question to ask of a lyric poem is, “How
does this poem make me feel?”
How Poets Express Emotion
It is not easy to put emotion into words, and the means of doing so are rather lim-
ited. They include use of exclamation, hyperbole, emotive words, vivid description
of the stimulus for the emotion (thereby evoking a similar feeling in the reader),
projecting a feeling onto external nature, or describing parallels to the speaker’s
situation (as when the psalmist in Psalm 102 compares his loneliness to an owl
and “a bird alone on a housetop”).
Lyrics Are Concentrated
Lyrics are concentrated and compressed. They are moments of intensity, very dif-
ferent from a drawn-out story with highs and lows of feeling. Stories have occa-
sional moments of epiphany (heightened insight or feeling), but lyrics are mo-
ments of epiphany, without the surrounding narrative context. They are intense
and packed with meanings. We must therefore emphatically not expect a lyric to
cover the whole territory on a given topic. Lyric captures a moment and does not
give a reasoned philosophy on a subject. It would be foolish to take such state-
ments as “whatever he does prospers” (Ps. 1:3) or “no harm will befall you” (Ps.
91:10) out of their lyric context and treat them as absolutes.
Lyrics Are Abrupt in Movement
Because lyrics are heightened speech, they often contain abrupt shifts and lack the
smooth transitions of narrative. C. S. Lewis speaks of “the emotional rather than
logical connections” in lyrics.¹ Such abrupt jumps of course demand tremendous
alertness and even interpretive creativity on the part of the reader.
The Voice of Response
Lyric is preeminently a poet’s response to a stimulus. In the lyric poetry of the Bible
the poets are always busy responding to something that has moved them—God,
their enemies, a personal crisis, nature, victory, defeat, a beloved, and so on. One
of the most helpful things to do with a lyric is to identify the exact stimulus to
which the poet is responding.
Three-Part Structure: 1. Statement of Theme
The overwhelming majority of lyrics are built on the rule of three-part structure.
They begin with a statement of theme, which is also the idea or emotion or situ-
ation to which the poet is responding. Ways of stating the theme are varied: a de-
scription (Ps. 121:1), a situation that is hinted at (Ps. 2:1), an invocation (Ps. 3:1),
an address to an implied human audience (Ps. 107:1), an idea (Ps. 19:1). Regard-
less of how the theme is stated, it alerts the reader to what will control the entire
poem.
2. Development of the Theme
The main part of any lyric is the development of the controlling theme. There are
four ways of doing this, and many poems combine them:
1.Repetition, in which the controlling emotion or idea is simply restated in dif-
ferent words or images (Ps. 32:1–5).
2.The listing or catalog technique, in which the poet names and perhaps re-
sponds to various aspects of the theme (Ps. 23 or any of the praise
psalms).
3.The principle of association, in which the poet branches out from the initial
emotion or idea to related ones. A common pattern in the Psalms is move-
ment from God’s character to his acts, or vice versa. In Psalm 19, the poet
moves from God’s revelation of himself in nature to his revelation in the
moral law.
4.Contrast, in which the poet is led to consider the opposite emotion or phe-
nomenon as he develops the main theme (Ps. 1).
3. Resolution
In the last, brief part of a lyric, the emotion or meditation is resolved into a con-
cluding thought, feeling, or attitude. Lyrics do not simply end; they are rounded
off with a note of finality. In the Psalms this is often a brief prayer or wish.
Explicating a Lyric
The key to a good discussion or explication of a lyric is to have an orderly and dis-
cernible procedure, so a reader or listener knows what is going on. The best plan
of attack is to move from the large to the small, according to the following four-
fold procedure.
1.Identifying the topic, theme (what the poem says about the topic), under-
lying situation or occasion (if one is implied). This part of the explication
should produce an understanding of what unifies the poem.
2.Laying out the structure of the poem, including the following consid-
erations (using whichever ones are appropriate for a given poem):
•Identifying whether the primary controlling element is expository (a sequence
of ideas or emotions), descriptive (of either character or scene), or dramatic
(an address to an implied listener).
•Dividing the poem into its topical units from beginning to end, thus show-
ing the sequential flow of the poem.
•Identifying underlying contrasts that organize the poem.
•Determining whether a given unit develops the theme through repetition,
catalog, association, or contrast.
•Applying the framework of theme and variation.
3.Progressing through the poem unit by unit and analyzing the poetic “tex-
ture” (in contrast to the “structure” already discussed). This means identi-
fying and exploring the meanings of the figures of speech and poetic devices
discussed in the previous chapter of this book. We should isolate whatever
unit lends itself to separate consideration; it might be an individual image
or figure of speech, a line, a verse, or a group of verses.
4.Techniques of versification (in biblical poetry, parallelism) or patterning
that make up part of the artistry and seem worthy of comment. For exam-
ple, the imagery in Psalm 1 is organized around an envelope pattern in
which the metaphors of the assembly and the path appear early and late,
with harvest imagery occurring in the middle. After we have said all that we
wish to say about the structure and meaning of a biblical lyric, there tends
to remain a residue of artistic beauty that simply deserves comment and
admiration.
Most Short Poems Are Types of Lyric
It is by now apparent that when we speak of “a poem,” we usually mean a lyric
poem. In fact, most of the additional categories I am about to describe are sub-
types of lyric. The further traits of each of these subtypes may provide a supple-
mental framework for organizing an analysis of them. But even in such cases it is
necessary to make use of the lyric considerations that I have noted. A lament
psalm or praise psalm, for example, does not bypass the general features of lyric
but rather builds on them.
TYPES OF PSALMS
Let me say at the outset that biblical scholars have identified so many types of
psalms, and made so many arbitrary and subtle distinctions, that the whole enter-
prise is in danger of collapsing under its own weight.² I say this because sooner or
later it may be liberating to realize that we are under no obligation to use a compli-
cated system of classification. All of the Psalms are lyrics, and we can do an excel-
lent job with any psalm by using what we know about poetic language and lyric
form. We should also note that classification of the Psalms rests largely on ele-
ments of content or subject matter, not on literary form as such.
Lament Psalms
The largest category of psalms is the lament psalm, which can be either private or
communal. A lament psalm consists of the following five elements, which (note
well) may appear in any order and which can occur more than once in a given psalm.
1.An invocation or introductory cry to God, which is sometimes expanded by the
addition of epithets (titles) and often already includes an element of peti-
tion.
2.The lament or complaint: a definition of the distress; a description of the cri-
sis; the stimulus that accounts for the entire lament. Most lament poems
are “occasional poems,” arising from a particular occasion in the poet’s life,
which is usually hinted at in the complaint section.
3.Petition or supplication.
4.Statement of confidence in God.
5.Vow to praise God, or simply praise of God.
Psalms 10, 35, 38, 51, 74, and 77 are typical lament psalms.³
Psalm 54 as a Lament Psalm
Psalm 54 (RSV) illustrates the form of the lament psalm in succinct fashion. It re-
verses the normal order of events by beginning with the petition or supplication:
Save me, O God, by thy name,
and vindicate me by thy might.
This is followed by the cry to God to hear the prayer (the element that usually
comes first):
Hear my prayer, O God;
give ear to the words of my mouth.
The lament or complaint, as so often in the Psalms, defines the crisis in terms of
threat from personal enemies:
For insolent men have risen against me,
ruthless men seek my life;
they do not set God before them.
The poet then asserts his confidence in God:
Behold, God is my helper;
the LORD is the upholder of my life.
He will requite my enemies with evil;
in thy faithfulness put an end to them.
The poet ends with a vow to praise God:
With a freewill offering I will sacrifice to thee;
I will give thanks to thy name, O LORD, for
it is good.
For thou hast delivered me from every trouble,
and my eye has looked in triumph on my
enemies.
Praise Psalms
The second major grouping of psalms is the psalms of praise. The English word “to
praise” originally meant “to appraise; to set a price on.” From this came the idea
that to praise means “to commend the worth of.” The psalms of praise, theo-
centric in emphasis, direct praise to God. Such poems are the voice of response
to the worthiness of God.
Elements of Praise
The elements of praise (not to be confused with the form of praise psalms dis-
cussed below) are what give these poems their distinctive traits. One of these ele-
ments is the elevation and exaltation of the person being praised. A second one is
the directing of the speaker’s whole being away from himself or herself toward the
object of praise. Psalms of praise are filled with the speaker’s feelings, but we do
not look at the speaker. Instead, we share his feelings as a way of experiencing the
worthiness of God. In the words of C. S. Lewis, “The poet is not a man who asks
me to look at him; he is a man who says ‘look at that’ and points.’ ”⁴ Another
ingredient of much praise is testimony. Praise, in other words, has a communal
dimension to it, and it often occurs in a worship setting.
Declarative and Descriptive Praise
There are two main types of praise in the Psalms. Declarative or narrative praise ex-
tols God’s activity on a particular occasion. Its main thrust is that God has done
such and such on a specific occasion. Descriptive praise describes God’s qualities
or the acts that he does perpetually. Its thrust is that God is this or that, or that he
habitually does these things. Descriptive praise, in other words, is not occasional
in the way that declarative praise is. Both types can be either private or communal.
The Form of the Praise Psalm
The psalm of praise has a fixed form, just as the lament has. There are three parts.
1.The introduction to praise regularly consists of one or more of the following
elements: (a) a call or exhortation to sing to the Lord, to praise, to exalt; (b)
the naming of the person or group to whom the exhortation is directed; (c)
mention of the mode of praise. Psalm 149:1–3 is an introduction possessing
all three elements.
2.Development of the praise ordinarily begins with a motivational section or
phrase in which the poet gives the reason for the call to praise. The most
important part of any psalm of praise is what follows, namely, the catalog
(listing) of the praiseworthy acts or qualities of God.
3.The conclusion or resolution of the praise ends the poem on a note of finality.
It often takes the form of a brief prayer or wish.
This three-part structure is obviously a specific manifestation of the three-part
lyric structure noted earlier in this chapter.
The Catalog of Praise
The most crucial element in a praise psalm is the catalog of praiseworthy acts or
qualities of God. Accordingly, a necessary part of explicating such a poem is to di-
vide the catalog into its topical units. Such a division will show the remarkable
range in most psalms of praise. It might also uncover the presence of declarative
praise and descriptive praise in the same catalog. Typical psalms of praise include
Psalms 18, 30, 65, 66, 96, 97, 103, 107, 124, 136, and 139.⁵
Worship Psalms
Worship psalms, also known as songs of Zion, are an important category. They do
not have a fixed form like lament and praise psalms, but they are readily identified
by the presence of references to worship in Jerusalem. Many of these poems also
allude to the pilgrimages that were a regular part of Old Testament religious expe-
rience (in fact, the heading “A Song of Ascents” for Psalms 120–134 shows that
these pilgrim songs were sung or recited on the trips to Jerusalem). Worship
psalms are among the most beautiful in the Psalter and are well represented by
Psalms 27, 42–43, 48, 84, 121, 122, 125, 137.
Nature Poems
Nature poems are also a high point of the Psalms. Although nature finds its way
indirectly into dozens of psalms, there are five psalms that we can call nature
poems—Psalms 8, 19, 29, 104, and 148. They all share common traits: they take
some aspect of nature as their subject; they praise nature for its beauty, power,
provision, and so forth; and they describe nature in evocative word-pictures that
awaken our own experiences of nature. Needless to say, the poet in each of these
poems does not treat nature as the highest good but allows nature to become the
occasion for praising God, the creator of nature.
SUMMARY
The psalms of lament and the psalms of praise are the two primary lyric types in
the Psalter. A host of smaller categories fill out the Psalms. In addition to the cate-
gories of worship psalms and nature poems discussed above, there are descrip-
tive-medi-tative poems (such as Psalm 1 on the godly person or Psalm 119 on the
law of God), royal psalms that deal with the king, penitential psalms (prayers for
forgiveness), and imprecatory psalms (psalms calling misfortune on one’s ene-
mies). Psalms such as 23 lack the opening call to praise of the praise psalms, but
in every other way belong to that type.
LOVE LYRICS
The Bible contains some of the most beautiful love poetry in the world. It ap-
pears mainly in the Song of Solomon. The best way to understand this frequently
misinterpreted book is simply to compare it with the love poetry that one can find
in a standard anthology of English poetry.
Types of Love Poems in the Song of Solomon
My present purpose will be served by simply categorizing the types of love poems
in the Song of Solomon. The largest category is pastoral love poems, in which the
setting is an idealized rural world and the characters are described metaphorically
as shepherds and shepherdesses. Such poetry describes in rural images and
metaphors the delights of the love relationship. In the pastoral invitation to love
the lover invites the beloved to share the life of happy, fulfilled love by metaphor-
ically picturing that life of shared love as a walk in nature (Song of Sol. 2:10–15;
7:10–13).
A blazon is a love poem that praises the beauty and virtue of the beloved, usu-
ally by comparing features of the beloved to objects of nature (e.g., 2:3). In an em-
blematic blazon, the lover lists the features of the beloved and compares them to
objects or emblems in nature (4:1–7; 5:10–16; 6:4–10; 7:1–9). The key to inter-
preting such poems is to realize that they are symbolic rather than pictorial; literally
pictured, these comparisons are ludicrous. An epithalamion is a poem celebrating
a wedding (Song of Sol. 2:3–5:1; and Ps. 45).⁶
ENCOMIUM
Definition of an Encomium
One of the most appealing of all lyric forms in the Bible is the encomium. An en-
comium is a lyric (whether in poetry or prose) that praises either an abstract qual-
ity or a general character type. The conventional formulas in an encomium are
these:
1.An introduction to the topic that will be praised.
2.The distinguished and ancient ancestry of the subject.
3.The praiseworthy acts and/or attributes of the subject.
4.The indispensable or superior nature of the subject.
5.A conclusion urging the reader to emulate the subject.
Encomia in the Bible
A few biblical encomia are in prose rather than poetry, but the prose is so tightly
packed with imagery and so highly patterned that it is virtually poetic in effect.
Psalms 1, 15, 112, and 128 all praise the godly person (a general character type).
Proverbs 31:10–31 is an acrostic poem that paints a composite portrait of the ideal
wife. John 1:1–18 and Colossians 1:15–20 praise Christ with the conventional en-
comiastic motifs. Hebrews 11 (and 12:1–2) and 1 Corinthians 13 (and 14:1) praise
the abstract qualities of faith and love respectively. The portrait of the Suffering
Servant in Isaiah 52:13–53:12 is a reversal or parody of the conventional formulas.⁷
Further Reading
Hermann Gunkel’s seminal monograph The Psalms: A Form-Critical
Introduction, trans. Thomas M. Homer (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1967), remains a
good brief introduction to types of Psalms. Arthur Weiser, The Psalms: A
Commentary, trans. Herbert Hartwell (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962), written
from a liberal theological perspective, is particularly thorough on analyzing the
types of Psalms.
Full explications of specimens of all the types discussed in this chapter appear
in my book The Literature of the Bible, pp. 121–230. C. S. Lewis, Reflections on the
Psalms (New York: Macmillan, 1958), is a thematic study of the Psalms that shows
great sensitivity to the lyric and poetic form in which those themes are presented.
¹Reflections on the Psalms (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1958), 3.
²The strengths and limitations of these classifications are well represented by
the books of Claus Westermann, including the following: The Praise of God in the
Psalms, trans. Keith R. Crim (Richmond: John Knox, 1965); and The Psalms: Struc-
ture, Content, and Message, trans. Ralph D. Gehrke (Minneapolis: Augsburg,
1980).
³They are explicated in my book The Literature of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Zon-
dervan, 1974), 138–44.
⁴E. M. W. Tillyard and C. S. Lewis, The Personal Heresy (London: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1939), 11.
⁵They are explicated in Ryken, Literature of the Bible, 146–64.
⁶For explications of the poems in the Song of Solomon, see Ryken, Literature of
the Bible, 217–30 and 234–35.
⁷Detailed explications of these passages appear in Ryken, Literature of the Bible,
201–14.
