宋明理学
儒教 |
---|
儒家思想 |
五常 仁 - 義 - 礼 - 智 - 信 |
孝 - 忠 |
中庸 |
儒学者 |
儒学者一覧 |
経書 |
十三経 『四書』-『五経』 |
儒教の歴史 |
孔子 |
七十子-儒家八派 |
諸子百家 孟子-荀子 |
焚書坑儒 五経博士 |
経学 |
訓詁学 |
玄学 |
宋明理学 朱子学-陽明学 |
漢学:考証学 |
今文学派 |
新儒家 |
関連項目 |
三孔 |
書院-国子監 |
科挙-釈奠 |
宋明理学(そうみんりがく)は、中国の宋代から明代にかけて流行した思想を指す言葉で、朱子学と陽明学のこと[1]。宋以後の思想史の中で最も重要な位置を占める[1]。宋代・明代の儒学を代表するテーマが「理」であることからその名がつき、単に「理学」とも呼ばれる。
その新しい思想傾向を強調して「新儒教」とも称され[2]、英語ではNeo-Confucianismと訳される(現代の新儒家(現代新儒学)とは別物である)。また、宋明理学のうち、北宋・南宋の学術は特に宋学と呼ばれる[3]。
概要[編集]
その起源は中唐の韓愈や柳宗元らに求められる。それまでの経典解釈学的な儒学(漢唐訓詁学)は批判され、人間の道徳性や天と人を貫くことわり(理)を追求することこそ学問であるとされた。このことは文学史上の古文復興運動と連動しており、文章は修辞などによる華麗さを追求するものではなく、道を表現するための道具であるとされた。
宋代にはさまざまな流派が興ったが、やがて程顥・程頤(二程子)を祖とする道学が主流となった。天理人欲、理一分殊、性即理などを述べた。
道学の流れを汲み、他の流派の言説をも取り入れつつ、後世に大きな影響力のある学問体系を構築したのは南宋の朱熹である。朱熹の学派は道学の主流となり、このため程朱学派の名がある。朱熹は存在論として理と気を述べ、理気二元論を主張している。彼らの学問は性即理を主張したので性理学と呼ばれる。
一方、朱熹と同時代の陸九淵や明代中葉の王守仁(王陽明)のグループは心即理を主張したので、心学と呼ばれる。心学は明代中期に隆盛した。
理気論は宋代は理気二元論、明代は気一元論へと変化していった。
主要学派[編集]
朱熹以前[編集]
朱熹以後[編集]
参考文献[編集]
- 島田虔次 著「思想史3」、島田虔次ら 編『アジア歴史研究入門』 3巻、同朋舎出版、1983年、249-286頁。ISBN 4810403688。
- 西順蔵 著「宋学」、日原利国 編『中国思想辞典』研文出版、1984年、261-262頁。ISBN 487636043X。
脚注[編集]
성리학
유교 |
---|
유도 |
인(仁) - 의(義) - 예 (禮) - 지혜(智) - 신(信) 의 다섯 가지 요소 |
효 - 충 |
절도 |
유학자 |
유학자 목록 |
경서 |
13경 『4서』-『5경』 |
유교의 역사 |
공자 |
칠십자 - 팔학파 |
맹자 - Xunzi _ |
焚書坑儒 五경 박사 |
경학 |
주해 |
형이상학 |
송명리학 주자학 - 양명학 |
한학 : 고증학 |
지금 문학파 |
신유교 |
관련 항목 |
세 개의 구멍 |
아카데미 - 임페리얼 칼리지 |
과거 - 석유 |
송명리학 (소민리가쿠)은, 중국의 송대 에서 명대 에 걸쳐 유행한 사상을 가리키는 말로, 주자학 과 양명학 [ 1] . 송 이후의 사상사 중에서 가장 중요한 위치를 차지한다 [1] . 송요·명대의 유학을 대표하는 테마가 「리」이기 때문에 그 이름이 붙어, 단순히 「이학」이라고도 불린다.
그 새로운 사상 경향을 강조하여 「신유교」라고도 불리고 [2] , 영어로는 Neo-Confucianism 라고 번역된다(현대의 신유가 (현대 신유학)와는 별개이다). 또, 송명리학 중, 북송 · 남송 의 학술은 특히 송학 이라고 불린다 [3] .
개요 [ 편집 ]
그 기원은 중당 의 한계 와 야나기무네 원들에게 요구된다. 그때까지의 경전 해석학 적인 유학( 한당훈사학 )은 비판되어 인간의 도덕성과 하늘과 사람을 관철하는 것을 추구하는 것이야말로 학문이라고 여겨졌다. 이것은 문학사상의 고문부흥운동 과 연동하고 있어 문장은 수사 등에 의한 화려함을 추구하는 것이 아니라 길을 표현하기 위한 도구로 여겨졌다 .
송대에는 다양한 유파가 흥분했지만, 이윽고程顥·程頤( 이정자 )를 조로하는 도학이 주류가 되었다. 천리인욕 , 이치분수 , 성 즉리 등을 말했다.
도학의 흐름을 펌핑하고, 다른 유파의 언설을 도입하면서, 후세에 큰 영향력이 있는 학문 체계를 구축한 것은 남송 의 주희 이다 . 주희의 학파는 도학의 주류가 되고, 이 때문에 정도 주학파 의 이름이 있다. 주희는 존재론 으로 이와 신경 을 쓰고 이기 이원론 을 주장하고 있다. 그들의 학문은 성 즉리를 주장했기 때문에 성리학 이라고 불린다.
한편 주희와 동시대의 육구연 과 명대 중엽의 왕수인 (왕양명) 그룹은 심 즉리를 주장했기 때문에 심학 이라고 불린다. 심학은 명대 중기에 융성했다.
이기론은 송대는 이기 이원론, 명대는 기일 원론으로 변화했다.
주요 학파 [ 편집 ]
Zhu Xi 이전 [ 편집 ]
- Mr. Song Chusan (성리학 씨) - Hu Yuan・Sun Fu・Shi Jie
- Jing Gong의 새로운 학습 - Wang Anshi
- Luo Xue ( 도교 ) - Cheng Hao・Cheng Yi
- Shu Studies - Su Shi・Su Zhe
- 관학 - 장재
주희 이후 [ 편집 ]
- Zhu Zixue (Min Xue・Cheng Zhu Xue・Cheng Zhu School・Sex Neo 유교・Sex Neo 유파・유교 학교) - Zhu Xi
- 심리학 (Lu Wang Xinxue, Lu Wang School, Xin School)
- 사공학 (공리학·사공학파·공리학파)
- Jinhua School (Wu School・Lv School) - Lu Zuqian
- 마음 의 철학
참고 문헌 [ 편집 ]
- 시마다 학기 저 「사상사 3」, 시마다 학차 등 편 「아시아 역사 연구 입문」 3권, 동초사 출판, 1983년, 249-286쪽. ISBN 4810403688。
- Nishi Junkuro의 "노래 연구", Nihon Toshikuni 편집 "중국 사상 사전", 연구 기사 출판, 1984, pp. 261-262. ISBN 487636043X .
각주 [ 편집 ]
성리학
유교 (儒敎) |
---|
성리학(性理學) 12세기에 남송의 주희(朱熹)가 집대성한 유교의 주류 학파이다. 성리학의 어원은 주희가 주창한 성즉리(性卽理)를 축약한 명칭이다.
성리학은 집대성한 주자(주희)의 이름을 따서 주자학(朱子學)이라고도 하고, 송나라 시대 유학이란 뜻에서 송학(宋學), 송나라와 명나라에 걸친 학문이라고 해서 송명이학(宋明理學)이라고도 하며, 송나라 시대 이전 유학의 가르침을 집대성한 새로운 기풍의 유학이라는 뜻에서 신유학(新儒學), 정호(程顥)와 정이(程頥)에서 주희로 이어지는 학통이라는 뜻에서 정주학(程朱學), 정주 성리학(程朱性理學), 정주 이학(程朱理學)으로도 불리고, 이학(理學) 또는 도학(道學)이라고도 한다. 특히 중화권에서는 송명리학(宋明理學), 서구권에서는 신유학이라고 주로 칭한다.
학문 목적은 위기지학(爲己之學, 자기(수양, 수기)를 위한 학문)이다.
주자 이전에[편집]
대략 진종조(眞宗朝)로부터 인종조(仁宗朝, 998~1063)에 걸친 시기에 송나라의 학문 문화가 새로운 경향을 가지고 일어나기 시작했다. 범중엄이나 정학(正學)의 4선생으로 호칭된 호원(胡瑗), 손복(孫復), 석개(石介), 진양(陳襄) 등은 각기 특색있는 학풍이나 주장을 가지고 서로 잇따라 나와 성리학의 선하(先河)를 이루었다.
범중엄은 그 명절(名節)과 고매한 식견으로 시대의 선구자로서 계몽적 역할을 수행하였다. 특히 서하 경영에 정치적 수완을 보여 중앙정부의 중요한 지위를 차지하였다. 학문적으로는 6경에 통하였으며 더욱이 역에 정통하였고 장횡거에게 《중용》을 주어 유학의 문에 들어가게 한 이야기는 유명하다.
호원(胡瑗, 993-1059)은 안정 선생(安定 先生)이라고 호칭되며 교육가로서 많은 제자를 양성하였는데, 정이천(程伊川)도 그 문하에서 배운 준재(俊才)이다. 그의 <주역구의(周易口義)>는 역(易)을 이론적으로 해명하고 한대 유가(儒家)와 같이 상수론(象數論)을 혼합하지 않았다. 이천(伊川)의 역전(易傳)에 그 영향이 보인다.
손복(孫復, 992-1057)은 태산선생(泰山先生)으로 호칭되었다. 진사 시험에 합격하지 못해 태산(泰山)에 은퇴하여 강학(講學)에 힘을 쏟았으며 <춘추존왕발미(春秋尊王發微)>를 저술하였다. 그는 이 저술에서 종래의 주석에 구애받지 않고 자유스러운 자기의 해석을 전개하고 있지만 그중에도 다시 <춘추>의 본지(本旨)를 정명정분(正名定分)에 있다고 하고 또 <춘추>에 실린 사실을 전부 도의에 위배된 것뿐이라고 하였다. 손복 및 그 제자인 석개(石介, 1005-1045)는 춘추론을 통하여 중국(宋王朝)의 정통성과 고전사상의 정통적 부활 및 양(楊)·묵(墨)·불(佛)·노(老) 사상의 배격을 주장하여 송조 국가체제의 정신적 지주를 수립하려고 하였다.
진양(陳襄, 1017-1080))은 <대학> <중용>에 의거 실천도덕론을 전개하여 <성명기(誠明記)>와 함께 송대 도덕의 궁리진성(窮理盡性)·격물치지설(格物致知說)의 방향을 잡아 놓았다. 그의 지방정치에 있어서의 권농정책(勸農政策)이나 향촌민(鄕村民)의 교도에 이용한 <고령선생권유문(古靈先生勸誘文)>은 남송의 주자에 이르러서 크게 채택되어 그 모범이 되었다.[1]
주자의 집대성[편집]
주자의 학문은 북송에서 일어난 신경향의 학술을 전면적으로 받아들여 이를 체계적으로 집대성한 것이다. 또 사서[2]를 특별히 중요시하여 주석을 하였고, 《대학》의 〈성의〉(誠意)장의 주해는 죽기 3일 전까지 계속해서 수정했다.[3]
이기론(理氣論)[편집]
이기론에서는 정이천의 2원론(二元論)을 계승하여 다시 더욱 상세·엄밀하게 체계화하였다. 형이상적, 형이하적 논리 구별을 분명하게 하였다. 또 주돈이의 태극론(太極論)도 받아서 태극(太極)은 오직 1개의 이(理)의 자(字)라고 규정하여, ‘이(理)=태극(太極)=도(道, 형이상)’와 ‘기(氣)=음양5행(陰陽五行, 형이하)’인 것은 형이하(形而下)의 음양2기(陰陽二氣)의 교감에 의해 생성되는 개체와 상즉불리(相卽不離)인 것이라고 말하였다.[3]
도덕론(道德論)[편집]
도덕론에서 이천이 명(命)·성(性)·이(理)·심(心)을 동일하게 보았기 때문에 ‘성즉리(性卽理)’, ‘심즉리(心卽理)’라고 한 데 대하여, 주자는 ‘성즉리(性卽理)’만을 취하고 심(心)은 형이하적(形而下的)인 것, 즉 음양2기(陰陽二氣)의 작용이라고 생각하였다. 따라서 사람의 성(性)은 이(理)이고 지선(至善)한 것이며 사람의 본연의 것이라고 하였다. 심(心)은 이(理)가 있는 곳, 이가 작용하는 장소이다. 또한 심(心)의 발동은 이(理)에 의하여 있게 되는데, 그 이야말로 사람에게 본래의 성(性)이라고 규정하였다. 그러나 사람의 본연의 성(性)이 지선(至善)하지만 현실에는 악도 존재하고 악인도 있다. 그것은 기품[4]에 과불급(過不及)이 있기 때문이라고 한다. 그런데 ‘이(理)=태극(太極)’이라고 하는 형이상적인 것은 항상 사사물물(事事物物) 속에 있다. 사사물물이 없으면 따라서 이(理)는 없다. 즉 1물(一物)에 ‘1리(一理)=1태극(一太極)’이 있는 것이다. 논리적 과정을 말하면 이(理)가 있어야 물(物)이 있는 것이지만 그렇다고 하여 물(物)이 없는 이(理)는 없다. 이런 까닭으로 이기(理氣)에 선후는 없다고 한다. 또 주자에 의하면 1물(一物)에 1태극(一太極)이 있는데, 이 이(理)는 즉 만물의 이(理)이다. 달이 호수나 냇물에 비쳐도 달은 원래 하나의 것이다. 일반자(一般者)·형이상자(形而上者)는 항상 개체에 내재하여 개체를 통하여 일반자는 실현된다고 하는 것이다. 이러한 논리가 도덕론에 적용되면 사람은 자기의 본연의 성(性)(理)을 회복하는 것이 인간으로서의 덕을 완성하는 것이며, 개별적 인간은 실천에 의하여서만 일반자로서의 ‘도(道)~이(理)-성(性)’을 구현할 수가 있다고 하는 것이다.[3]
수양론(修養論)[편집]
수양론은 우선 격물치지(格物致知)이며 궁리진성(窮理盡性)인 것이다. 주자에 의하면 사사물물의 이를 궁구한다고 하는 것은 결과적으로는 나를 궁구하는 것이며 나를 다하는 것이지만, 그러나 ‘물(物)의 이(理)’와 ‘심(心)의 이(理)’와의 통일적인 파악에는 아직 불충분한 점이 있었다. 육상산이나 명나라 왕양명이 그 정곡을 찔러 비판했다. 조선에서는 기존의 고려 말, 정몽주의 <의리론>을 그의 제자 하연은 이를 더욱 심화하여 조선 절의파 사대부의 사상을 <수양론>으로 발전시켜 계승한 대표적인 성리학자가 되었다.[5]
후대에 미친 영향[편집]
주자학이 송대 이후 끼친 영향은 지극히 크다. 주자학은 주자의 생전에 있어 지방관적, 재야적(在野的) 입장에서의 사상을 구축했음에도 불구하고 원(元)·명(明)을 거쳐 청조에 이르기까지 관학적(官學的)인 아카데미즘의 주류를 형성하였다. 주자학은 조선이나 일본에도 중대한 영향을 끼쳤다.
한국의 성리학 수용[편집]
한국에서는 고려시대에 안향이 《주자전서》(朱子全書)를 들여와 연구한 데서 비롯되었으며,[6][7] 성리학을 본격적으로 연구하고 그 체계를 파악해 크게 일가를 이룬 이는 백이정이라 할 수 있다. 조선시대에 이르러 하연·이언적·이황·김인후·기대승·이이 등 뛰어난 학자들이 배출되면서, 인간의 이성을 강조하여 정신적인 면과 도덕적인 면을 중시하는 주리설과 인간의 감성을 중시하고 현실 문제에 관심을 가지는 주기설 등이 나오게 되었다. 주리설은 영남지방에서 발전하여 '영남학파'라고 하는데, 이언적·이황·류성룡·김성일로 이어졌으며, 주기설은 기호지방에서 발전하여 '기호학파'라고 하는데 서경덕·김인후·기대승·성혼·이이에 이르러 완성되었고 김장생 등에게 이어졌다.[8]
일본의 성리학 수용[편집]
주요 성리학자[편집]
- 중국
- 한국
- 여성 학자
같이 보기[편집]
각주[편집]
- ↑ 《글로벌 세계대백과사전》, 〈동양사상 - 동양의 사상 - 중국의 사상 - 송·명의 사상 - 송학의 발흥〉
- ↑ 《대학》·《중용》·《논어》·《맹자》
- ↑ 가나 다 《글로벌 세계대백과사전》, 〈동양사상 - 동양의 사상 - 중국의 사상 - 송·명의 사상 - 주자학〉
- ↑ 사람도 기(氣)의 집합에 의하여 이루어져 있고, 그 기가 모이는 방법, 기를 받는 방식은 개별적인 것이라고 주자는 생각하였다.
- ↑ 「한국인물사열전」, 이상각
- ↑ [네이버 지식백과] 조선 성리학 [朝鮮性理學] (철학사전, 2009., 임석진 外 다수 공저 )......주자학으로서의 성리학은 우리나라에 고려 말 충렬왕(忠烈王) 때 원나라로부터 안향(安珦)에 의해 전래되었다. 안향은 1289년(충렬왕 15년)에 원나라에 들어가 『주자전서』(朱子全書)를 베끼고, 공자ㆍ주자의 상(像)을 그려 가지고 왔다...(중략)....고려 말의 성리학은 성균관을 중심으로 안향ㆍ백이정(白正)ㆍ권부(權溥)ㆍ이색(李穡)ㆍ정몽주(鄭夢周)ㆍ길재(吉再) 등에 의해서 계승되었다.
- ↑ [네이버 지식백과] 안향(안자) [安珦(安子)] (한국민족문화대백과, 한국학중앙연구원)......1289년 2월 정동행성(征東行省)의 원외랑(員外郎)에 제수되었으며, 얼마 뒤 좌우사낭중(左右司郎中)이 되고, 또 고려유학제거(高麗儒學提擧)가 되었다. 그 해 11월 왕과 공주(원나라 공주로서 당시 고려의 왕후)를 호종하여 원나라에 가서 주자서(朱子書)를 손수 베끼고 공자와 주자의 화상(畵像)을 그려 가지고 이듬 해 돌아왔다.
- ↑ 《글로벌 세계대백과사전》, 〈시사 - 현대사회와 시사 - 사회·환경·학술·문화 - 학술·문화 - 성리학〉
참고 문헌[편집]
- 「한국인물사열전」, 이상각
Neo-Confucianism
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (August 2012) |
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Confucianism |
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Neo-Confucianism | |||
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Chinese name | |||
Traditional Chinese | 宋明理學 | ||
Simplified Chinese | 宋明理学 | ||
Literal meaning | "Song-Ming [dynasty] rational idealism" | ||
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Vietnamese name | |||
Vietnamese | Lý học | ||
Chữ Hán | 理學 | ||
Korean name | |||
Hangul | 성리학 | ||
Hanja | 性理學 | ||
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Japanese name | |||
Kanji | 宋明理学 | ||
Kana | そうみんりがく | ||
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Neo-Confucianism (Chinese: 宋明理學; pinyin: Sòng-Míng lǐxué, often shortened to lǐxué 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) in the Tang dynasty, and became prominent during the Song and Ming dynasties under the formulations of Zhu Xi (1130–1200). After the Mongol conquest of China in the thirteenth century, Chinese scholars and officials restored and preserved neo-Confucianism as a way to safeguard the cultural heritage of China.[1]
Neo-Confucianism could have been an attempt to create a more rationalist and secular form of Confucianism by rejecting superstitious and mystical elements of Taoism and Buddhism that had influenced Confucianism during and after the Han dynasty.[2] Although the neo-Confucianists were critical of Taoism and Buddhism, the two did have an influence on the philosophy, and the neo-Confucianists borrowed terms and concepts. However, unlike the Buddhists and Taoists, who saw metaphysics as a catalyst for spiritual development, religious enlightenment, and immortality, the neo-Confucianists used metaphysics as a guide for developing a rationalist ethical philosophy.[3][4] Traditional Confucian beliefs such as gender roles were also included, leading to the devaluing of women in Korea.
Origins[edit]
Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Tang dynasty; the Confucianist scholars Han Yu and Li Ao are seen as forebears of the neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty.[3] The Song dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073) is seen as the first true "pioneer" of neo-Confucianism, using Taoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.[4] Neo-Confucianism was both a revival of classical Confucianism updated to align with the social values of the Song dynasty and a reaction to the challenges of Buddhist and Taoist philosophy and religion which emerged during the Zhou and Han dynasties.[5] Although the neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Taoist and Buddhist terminology and concepts.[3]
One of the most important exponents of neo-Confucianism was Zhu Xi (1130–1200), his teachings were so influential that they were integrated into civil-service examination from approximately 1314 until 1905.[6] He was a rather prolific writer, maintaining and defending his Confucian beliefs of social harmony and proper personal conduct. One of his most remembered was the book Family Rituals, where he provided detailed advice on how to conduct weddings, funerals, family ceremonies, and the veneration of ancestors. Buddhist thought soon attracted him, and he began to argue in Confucian style for the Buddhist observance of high moral standards. He also believed that it was important to practical affairs that one should engage in both academic and philosophical pursuits, although his writings are concentrated more on issues of theoretical (as opposed to practical) significance. It is reputed that he wrote many essays attempting to explain how his ideas were not Buddhist or Taoist and included some heated denunciations of Buddhism and Taoism. After the Xining era (1068–1077), Wang Yangming (1472–1529) is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker. Wang's interpretation of Confucianism denied the rationalist dualism of Zhu's orthodox philosophy.
There were many competing views within the neo-Confucian community, but overall, a system emerged that resembled both Buddhist and Taoist (Daoist) thought of the time and some of the ideas expressed in the I Ching (Book of Changes) as well as other yin yang theories associated with the Taiji symbol (Taijitu). A well known neo-Confucian motif is paintings of Confucius, Buddha, and Lao Tzu all drinking out of the same vinegar jar, paintings associated with the slogan "The three teachings are one!"
While neo-Confucianism incorporated Buddhist and Taoist ideas, many neo-Confucianists strongly opposed Buddhism and Taoism. Indeed, they rejected the Buddhist and Taoist religions. One of Han Yu's most famous essays decries the worship of Buddhist relics. Nonetheless, neo-Confucian writings adapted Buddhist thoughts and beliefs to the Confucian interest. In China, neo-Confucianism was an officially recognized creed from its development during the Song dynasty until the early twentieth century, and lands in the sphere of Song China (Vietnam, Korea, and Japan) were all deeply influenced by neo-Confucianism for more than half a millennium.
Philosophy[edit]
Neo-Confucianism is a social and ethical philosophy using metaphysical ideas, some borrowed from Taoism, as its framework. The philosophy can be characterized as humanistic and rationalistic, with the belief that the universe could be understood through human reason, and that it was up to humanity to create a harmonious relationship between the universe and the individual.[7]
The rationalism of neo-Confucianism is in contrast to the mysticism of the previously dominant Chan Buddhism. Unlike the Buddhists, the neo-Confucians believed that reality existed, and could be understood by humankind, even if the interpretations of reality were slightly different depending on the school of neo-Confucianism.[7]
The importance of li in Neo-Confucianism gave the movement its Chinese name, literally "The study of Li".
Schools[edit]
Neo-Confucianism was a heterogeneous philosophical tradition, and is generally categorized into two different schools.
Two-school model vs. three-school model[edit]
In medieval China, the mainstream of neo-Confucian thought, dubbed the "Tao school", had long categorized a thinker named Lu Jiuyuan among the unorthodox, non-Confucian writers. However, in the 15th century, the esteemed philosopher Wang Yangming took sides with Lu and critiqued some of the foundations of the Tao school, albeit not rejecting the school entirely.[9] Objections arose to Yangming's philosophy within his lifetime, and shortly after his death, Chen Jian (1497–1567) grouped Wang together with Lu as unorthodox writers, dividing neo-Confucianism into two schools.[10] As a result, neo-Confucianism today is generally categorized into two different schools of thought. The school that remained dominant throughout the medieval and early modern periods is called the Cheng–Zhu school for the esteem it places in Cheng Yi, Cheng Hao, and Zhu Xi. The less dominant, opposing school was the Lu–Wang school, based on its esteem for Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming.
In contrast to this two-branch model, the New Confucian Mou Zongsan argues that there existed a third branch of learning, the Hu-Liu school, based on the teachings of Hu Hong (Hu Wufeng, 1106–1161) and Liu Zongzhou (Liu Jishan, 1578–1645). The significance of this third branch, according to Mou, was that they represented the direct lineage of the pioneers of neo-Confucianism, Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai and Cheng Hao. Moreover, this third Hu-Liu school and the second Lu–Wang school, combined, form the true mainstream of neo-Confucianism instead of the Cheng–Zhu school. The mainstream represented a return to the teachings of Confucius, Mengzi, the Doctrine of the Mean and the Commentaries of the Book of Changes. The Cheng–Zhu school was therefore only a minority branch based on the Great Learning and mistakenly emphasized intellectual studies over the study of sagehood.[11]
Cheng–Zhu school[edit]
Zhu Xi's formulation of the neo-Confucian world view is as follows. He believed that the Tao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: dào; lit. 'way') of Tian (Chinese: 天; pinyin: tiān; lit. 'heaven') is expressed in principle or li (Chinese: 理; pinyin: lǐ), but that it is sheathed in matter or qi (Chinese: 氣; pinyin: qì). In this, his system is based on Buddhist systems of the time that divided things into principle (again, li), and function (Chinese: 事; pinyin: shì). In the neo-Confucian formulation, li in itself is pure and almost-perfect, but with the addition of qi, base emotions and conflicts arise. Human nature is originally good, the neo-Confucians argued (following Mencius), but not pure unless action is taken to purify it. The imperative is then to purify one's li. However, in contrast to Buddhists and Taoists, neo-Confucians did not believe in an external world unconnected with the world of matter. In addition, neo-Confucians in general rejected the idea of reincarnation and the associated idea of karma.
Different neo-Confucians had differing ideas for how to do so. Zhu Xi believed in gewu (Chinese: 格物; pinyin: géwù), the Investigation of Things, essentially an academic form of observational science, based on the idea that li lies within the world.
Lu–Wang school[edit]
Wang Yangming (Wang Shouren), probably the second most influential neo-Confucian, came to another conclusion: namely, that if li is in all things, and li is in one's heart-mind, there is no better place to seek than within oneself. His preferred method of doing so was jingzuo (Chinese: 靜坐; pinyin: jìngzuò; lit. 'quiet sitting'), a practice that strongly resembles Chan (Zen) meditation, or zuochan (Japanese: 座禅; Chinese: 坐禪; pinyin: zuòchán; lit. 'seated meditation'). Wang Yangming developed the idea of innate knowing, arguing that every person knows from birth the difference between good and evil. Such knowledge is intuitive and not rational. These revolutionizing ideas of Wang Yangming would later inspire prominent Japanese thinkers like Motoori Norinaga, who argued that because of the Shinto deities, Japanese people alone had the intuitive ability to distinguish good and evil without complex rationalization. Wang Yangming's school of thought (Ōyōmei-gaku in Japanese) also provided, in part, an ideological basis for some samurai who sought to pursue action based on intuition rather than scholasticism. As such, it also provided an intellectual foundation for the radical political actions of low ranking samurai in the decades prior to the Meiji Restoration (1868), in which the Tokugawa shogunate (1600–1868) was overthrown.
In Korea[edit]
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In Joseon Korea, neo-Confucianism was established as the state ideology. The Yuan occupation of the Korean Peninsula introduced Zhu Xi's school of neo-Confucianism to Korea.[12][13] Neo-Confucianism was introduced to Korea by An Hyang during the Goryeo dynasty.[citation needed] At the time that he introduced neo-Confucianism, the Goryeo dynasty was in the last century of its existence and influenced by the Mongol Yuan dynasty.[citation needed]
Many Korean scholars visited China during the Yuan era and An was among them. In 1286, he read a book of Zhu Xi in Yanjing and was so moved by it that he transcribed the book in its entirety and came back to Korea with it. It greatly inspired Korean intellectuals at the time and many, predominantly from the middle class and disillusioned with the excesses of organized religion (namely Buddhism) and the old nobility, embraced neo-Confucianism. The newly rising neo-Confucian intellectuals were leading groups aimed at the overthrow of the old (and increasingly foreign-influenced) Goryeo dynasty.
After the fall of Goryeo and the establishment of the Joseon dynasty by Yi Song-gye in 1392, neo-Confucianism was installed as the state ideology. Buddhism, and organized religion in general, was considered poisonous to the neo-Confucian order. Buddhism was accordingly restricted and occasionally persecuted by Joseon. As neo-Confucianism encouraged education, a number of neo-Confucian schools (서원 seowon and 향교 hyanggyo) were founded throughout the country, producing many scholars including Jo Gwang-jo (조광조, 趙光祖; 1482–1520), Yi Hwang (이황, 李滉; pen name Toegye 퇴계, 退溪; 1501–1570) and Yi I (이이, 李珥; 1536–1584).
In the early 16th century, Jo attempted to transform Joseon into an ideal neo-Confucian society with a series of radical reforms until he was executed in 1520. Despite this, neo-Confucianism soon assumed an even greater role in the Joseon dynasty. Soon neo-Confucian scholars, no longer content to only read and remember the Chinese original precepts, began to develop new neo-Confucian theories. Yi Hwang and Yi I were the most prominent of these new theorists.
Yi Hwang's most prominent disciples were Kim Seong-il (金誠一, 1538–1593), Yu Seong-ryong (柳成龍 1542–1607) and Jeong Gu (한강 정구, 寒岡 鄭逑, 1543–1620), known as the "three heroes". They were followed by a second generation of scholars who included Jang Hyungwang (張顯光, 1554–1637) and Jang Heung-Hyo (敬堂 張興孝, 1564–1633), and by a third generation (including Heo Mok, Yun Hyu, Yun Seon-do and Song Si-yeol) who brought the school into the 18th century [14]
But neo-Confucianism became so dogmatic in a relatively rapid time that it prevented much needed socioeconomic development and change, and led to internal divisions and criticism of many new theories regardless of their popular appeal. For instance, Wang Yangming's theories, which were popular in the Chinese Ming dynasty, were considered heresy and severely condemned by Korean neo-Confucianists. Furthermore, any annotations on Confucian canon different from Zhu Xi were excluded. Under Joseon, the newly emerging ruling class called Sarim (사림, 士林) also split into political factions according to their diversity of neo-Confucian views on politics. There were two large factions and many subfactions.
During the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), many Korean neo-Confucian books and scholars were taken to Japan and influenced Japanese scholars such as Fujiwara Seika and affected the development of Japanese neo-Confucianism.
In Japan[edit]
In Vietnam[edit]
In 1070, emperor Lý Thánh Tông opened first Confucius university in Hanoi named Văn Miếu. The Lý, Trần court expanded the Confucianism influences in Vietnamese Mandarin through year examinations, continued the model of Tang dynasty until being annexed by the Ming invaders in 1407. In 1460, emperor Lê Thánh Tông of Lê dynasty adopted Neo-Confucianism as Đại Việt's basic values.
Bureaucratic examinations[edit]
Neo-Confucianism became the interpretation of Confucianism whose mastery was necessary to pass the bureaucratic examinations by the Ming, and continued in this way through the Qing dynasty until the end of the Imperial examination system in 1905. However, many scholars such as Benjamin Elman have questioned the degree to which their role as the orthodox interpretation in state examinations reflects the degree to which both the bureaucrats and Chinese gentry actually believed those interpretations, and point out that there were very active schools such as Han learning which offered competing interpretations of Confucianism.
The competing school of Confucianism was called the Evidential School or Han Learning and argued that neo-Confucianism had caused the teachings of Confucianism to be hopelessly contaminated with Buddhist thinking. This school also criticized neo-Confucianism for being overly concerned with empty philosophical speculation that was unconnected with reality.
Confucian canon[edit]
The Confucian canon as it exists today was essentially compiled by Zhu Xi. Zhu codified the canon of Four Books (the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects of Confucius, and the Mencius) which in the subsequent Ming and Qing dynasties were made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examination.
New Confucianism[edit]
In the 1920s, New Confucianism, also known as modern neo-Confucianism, started developing and absorbed the Western learning to seek a way to modernize Chinese culture based on the traditional Confucianism. It centers on four topics: The modern transformation of Chinese culture; Humanistic spirit of Chinese culture; Religious connotation in Chinese culture; and Intuitive way of thinking, to go beyond the logic and to wipe out the concept of exclusion analysis. Adhering to the traditional Confucianism and the neo-confucianism, the modern neo-Confucianism contributes the nation's emerging from the predicament faced by the ancient Chinese traditional culture in the process of modernization; furthermore, it also promotes the world culture of industrial civilization rather than the traditional personal senses.[citation needed]
Prominent neo-Confucian scholars[edit]
China[edit]
- Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao
- Lu Xiangshan also known as Lu Jiuyuan (1139–1193)
- Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072)
- Shao Yong (1011–1077)
- Su Shi, also known as Su Dongpo (1037–1101)
- Wang Yangming also known as Wang Shouren
- Wu Cheng (1249–1333)
- Ye Shi (1150–1223)
- Zhang Shi (1133–1180)
- Zhang Zai
- Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073)
- Zhu Xi (1130–1200)
- Cheng Duanli (1271–1345)
Korea[edit]
- An Hyang (1243–1306)
- U Tak (1263–1342)
- Yi Saek (1328–1396)
- Jeong Mong-ju (1337–1392)
- Jeong Dojeon (1342–1398)
- Gil Jae (1353–1419)
- Ha Ryun
- Gwon Geun
- Jeong Inji (1396–1478)
- Kim Suk-ja
- Kim Jong-jik (1431–1492)
- Nam Hyo-on
- Kim Goil-pil
- Jo Gwang-jo (1482–1519)
- Seo Gyeongdeok
- Yi Eon-jeok
- Yi Hwang (Pen name Toegye) (1501–1570)
- Jo Sik (1501–1572)
- Ryu Seongryong
- Yi Hang
- Kim Inhu
- Ki Daeseung (1527–1572)
- Song Ik-pil (1534–1599)
- Seong Hon (1535–1598)
- Yi I (Pen name Yulgok) (1536–1584)
- Kim Jangsaeng (1548–1631)
- Song Si-yeol (1607–1689)
- Yi Gan (1677–1727)
- Yi Ik (1681–1763)
- Han Wonjin (1682–1751)
- Hong Daeyong (1731–1783)
- Park Jiwon (1737–1805)
- Park Jega (1750–1815)
- Jeong Yak-yong (1762–1836)
Japan[edit]
- Fujiwara Seika (1561–1619)
- Hayashi Razan (1583–1657)
- Nakae Tōju (1608–1648)
- Yamazaki Ansai (1619–1682)
- Kumazawa Banzan (1619–1691)
- Yamaga Sokō (1622–1685)
- Itō Jinsai (1627–1705)
- Kaibara Ekken (also known as Ekiken) (1630–1714)
- Arai Hakuseki (1657–1725)
- Ogyū Sorai (1666–1728)
- Nakai Chikuzan (1730–1804)
- Ōshio Heihachirō (1793–1837)
Vietnam[edit]
- Lê Văn Thịnh (1050–1096)
- Bùi Quốc Khái (1141–1234)
- Trần Thái Tông (1218–1277)
- Trương Hán Siêu (1274–1354)
- Chu Văn An (1292–1370)
- Lê Quát (1319–1386)
- Nguyễn Trãi (1380–1442)
- Ngô Sĩ Liên (1400–1498)
- Lê Thánh Tông (1442–1497)
- Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm (1491–1585)
- Lê Quý Đôn (1726–1784)
- Nguyễn Khuyến (1835–1909)
- Phan Đình Phùng (1847–1896)
- Minh Mạng (1791–1841)
- Tự Đức (1829–1883)
Citations[edit]
- ^ Taylor, Jay (2011). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China. Harvard University Press. p. 13.
- ^ Blocker, H. Gene; Starling, Christopher L. (2001). Japanese Philosophy. SUNY Press. p. 64.
- ^ ab c Huang 1999, p. 5.
- ^ ab Chan 1963, p. 460.
- ^ Levinson & Christensen 2002, pp. 302–307.
- ^ Levinson & Christensen 2002, pp. 305–307.
- ^ ab Craig 1998, p. 552.
- ^ Chan 1946, p. 268
- ^ Wilson, Thomas A. (1995). Genealogy of the Way: The Construction and Uses of the Confucian Tradition in Late Imperial China. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press. pp. 168–169. ISBN 978-0804724258.
- ^ de Bary 1989, pp. 94–95.
- ^ Yao, Xinzhong (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 259. ISBN 978-0-521-64430-3.
- ^ Paragraph 12 in Emanuel Pastreich "The Reception of Chinese Literature in Korea"
- ^ Mair 2001, chapter 53.
- ^ 【李甦平】 Lisu Ping, 论韩国儒学的特点和精神 "On the characteristics and spirit of Korean Confucianism", 《孔子研究》2008年1期 (Confucius Studies 2008.1). See also List of Korean philosophers.
General sources[edit]
- Chan, Wing-tsit (1963), A Sourcebook of Chinese Philosophy, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-07137-4
- Chan, Wing-tsit, trans. Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.
- Chan, Wing-tsit (1946). China. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
- Craig, Edward (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 7. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3.
- Daehwan, Noh. "The Eclectic Development of Neo-Confucianism and Statecraft from the 18th to the 19th Century". Korea Journal (Winter 2003).
- de Bary, William Theodore; Chaffee, John W., eds. (1989). Neo-confucian Education: The Formative Stage. University of California Press. pp. 455–. ISBN 978-0-520-06393-8.
- de Bary, William Theodore; et al., eds. (2008). Sources of East Asian Tradition. New York: Columbia University Press. (Vol. 1 ISBN 978-0-231-14305-9) (Vol. 2 ISBN 978-0-231-14323-3)
- de Bary, William Theodore (1989). The Message of the Mind in Neo-Confucianism. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231068085.
- Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook. New York: Free, 1993. Print.
- Henderson, John B. (1998). The Construction of Orthodoxy and Heresy: Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and Early Christian Patterns. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791437599.
- Huang, Siu-chi (1999). Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods. Westport: Greenwood Press.
- Levinson, David; Christensen, Karen, eds. (2002). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Vol. 4. Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 302–307.
- Mair, Victor H., ed. (2001). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10984-9. (Amazon Kindle edition).
- Tu Weiming. Neo-Confucian Thought in Action: Wang Yang-ming’s Youth (1472–1509). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976.
- Tu Weiming. Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. New York: State University of New York Press, 1985.
External links[edit]
- "Neo-Confucian Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Writings of the Orthodox School from the Song dynasty (in English and Chinese)