Mindfulness - Wikipedia

Mindfulness - Wikipedia

Mindfulness is the psychological process of purposely bringing one's attention to experiences occurring in the present moment without judgment,[1][2][note 1][3][4] which one develops through the practice of meditation and through other training.[2][5][6] Mindfulness derives from sati, a significant element of Buddhist traditions,[7][8] and based on Zen, Vipassanā, and Tibetan meditation techniques.[9][10][note 2] Though definitions and techniques of mindfulness are wide-ranging,[16] Buddhist traditions explain what constitutes mindfulness such as how past, present and future moments arise and cease as momentary sense impressions and mental phenomena.[7][17][18] Individuals who have contributed to the popularity of mindfulness in the modern Western context include Thích Nhất Hạnh (1926– ), Herbert Benson (1935– ), Jon Kabat-Zinn (1944– ), and Richard J. Davidson (1951– ).[19][20][21]


Clinical psychology and psychiatry since the 1970s have developed a number of therapeutic applications based on mindfulness for helping people experiencing a variety of psychological conditions.[21] Mindfulness practice has been employed to reduce depression,[22][23][24] to reduce stress,[23][25][26] anxiety,[22][23][26] and in the treatment of drug addiction.[27][28][29] Programs based on mindfulness models have been adopted within schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans' centers, and other environments, and mindfulness programs have been applied for additional outcomes such as for healthy aging, weight management, athletic performance, helping children with special needs, and as an intervention during the perinatal period.


Clinical studies have documented both physical- and mental-health benefits of mindfulness in different patient categories as well as in healthy adults and children.[3][30][31] Research studies have shown a positive relationship between trait mindfulness (see below) and psychological health.[32][33] The practice of mindfulness appears to provide therapeutic benefits to people with psychiatric disorders,[34][35][36] including moderate benefits to those with psychosis.[37][38][39] Studies also indicate that rumination and worry contribute to a variety of mental disorders,[40][41][42] and that mindfulness-based interventions can reduce both rumination and worry.[42][43][44] Further, the practice of mindfulness may be a preventive strategy to halt the development of mental-health problems.[45][46]


There is also evidence that suggest engaging in mindfulness meditation may influence physical health. For example, the psychological habit of repeatedly dwelling on stressful thoughts (i.e., rumination) appears to intensify the physiological effects of the stressor (as a result of the continual activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis) with the potential to lead to physical health related clinical manifestations.[47][48][49] Studies indicate that mindfulness meditation, which brings about reductions in rumination, may alter these biological clinical pathways.[47][42][50] Further, research indicates that mindfulness may favourably influence the immune system as well as inflammation,[3][51][52] which can consequently impact physical health, especially considering that inflammation has been linked to the development of several chronic health conditions.[53][54] Other studies support these findings.[55][56][50] Additionally, mindfulness appears to bring about lowered activity of the default mode network of the brain, and thereby contribute towards a lowered risk of developing conditions such as dementia and Alzheimer's disease.[47]


However, critics have questioned both the commercialization and the over-marketing of mindfulness for health benefits - as well as emphasizing the need for more randomized controlled studies, for more methodological details in reported studies and for the use of larger sample-sizes.[3][need quotation to verify][33][57]






Contents 


1Practice 
1.1Watching the breath, body-scan and other techniques 
1.2Timings 
1.3In Buddhist context; moral precepts 
2Translations 
2.1Sati and smṛti 
2.2Translation 
2.3Alternative translations 
3Definitions 
3.1Psychology 
3.1.1Trait, state and practice 
3.1.1.1Trait-like constructs 
3.1.1.2State-like phenomenon 
3.1.2Mindfulness-practice 
3.2Definitions arising in modern teaching of meditation 
3.3Other usages 
4Models and frameworks for mindfulness practices 
4.1Two-component model 
4.2The five-aggregate model 
4.3Cultivating self-knowledge and wisdom 
5Historical development 
5.1Buddhism 
5.1.1Early Buddhism 
5.1.2Zazen 
5.1.3Contemporary vipassana-meditation 
5.1.3.1Anapanasati, satipaṭṭhāna, and vipassana 
5.1.3.2Samprajaña, apramāda and atappa 
5.1.4Monitoring mental processes 
5.2Transcendentalism 
5.3Jon Kabat-Zinn and MBSR 
5.4Popularization, "mindfulness movement" 
6Applications 
6.1Therapy programs 
6.1.1Mindfulness-based stress reduction 
6.1.2Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy 
6.1.3Mindfulness-based pain management 
6.1.4Acceptance and commitment therapy 
6.1.5Dialectical behavior therapy 
6.1.6Mode deactivation therapy 
6.1.7Other programs 
6.2Schools 
6.3Education 
6.4Business 
6.5Law 
6.6Prison-programs 
6.7Government 
7Scientific research 
7.1Effects and efficacy of mindfulness practice 
7.2Neurological studies 
7.3Associations of mindfulness with other variables 
7.4Effects on mindfulness 
8Concerns and criticism 
8.1Scholarly research 
8.2Shortcomings 
8.3Risks 
9See also 
10Notes 
11References 
12Further reading 
12.1Printed sources 
12.2Web-sources 
13Further reading 
Practice[edit]


Mindfulness practice involves the process of developing the skill of bringing one's attention to whatever is happening in the present moment.[2][7][58]
Watching the breath, body-scan and other techniques[edit]


There are several exercises designed to develop mindfulness meditation, which are aided by guided meditations "to get the hang of it".[59][9][note 3] 
One method is to sit in a straight-backed chair or sit cross-legged on the floor or a cushion, close one's eyes and bring attention to either the sensations of breathing in the proximity of one's nostrils or to the movements of the abdomen when breathing in and out.[web 1][60][1] In this meditation practice, one does not try to control one's breathing, but attempts to simply be aware of one's natural breathing process/rhythm.[2] When engaged in this practice, the mind will often run off to other thoughts and associations, and if this happens, one passively notices that the mind has wandered, and in an accepting, non-judgmental way, returns to focusing on breathing. 
In body-scan meditation the attention is directed at various areas of the body and noting body sensations that happen in the present moment.[1][2][61][62][63] 
One could also focus on sounds, sensations, thoughts, feelings and actions that happen in the present.[2][58] In this regard, a famous exercise, introduced by Kabat-Zinn in his MBSR program,[64] is the mindful tasting of a raisin,[65] in which a raisin is being tasted and eaten mindfully.[66][note 4] By enabling reconnection with internal hunger and satiety cues, mindful eating has been suggested to be a means of maintaining healthy and conscious eating patterns.[67] 
Other approaches include practising yoga asanas while attending to movements and body sensations, and walking meditation.[1][2] 
Timings[edit]


Meditators are recommended to start with short periods of 10 minutes or so of meditation practice per day. As one practices regularly, it becomes easier to keep the attention focused on breathing.[2][68]
In Buddhist context; moral precepts[edit]


In a Buddhist context the keeping of moral precepts is an essential preparatory stage for mindfulness or meditation.[69][70] Vipassana also includes contemplation and reflection on phenomena as dukkha, anatta and anicca, and reflections on causation and other Buddhist teachings.[71][72]
Translations[edit]


Mindfulness meditation is part of Buddhist psychological traditions and the developing scholarship within empirical psychology.[7][73][74]
Sati and smṛti[edit]


Main article: Sati (Buddhism)


The Buddhist term translated into English as "mindfulness" originates in the Pali term sati and in its Sanskrit counterpart smṛti. It is often translated as "bare attention", but in the Buddhist tradition it has a broader meaning and application, and the meaning of these terms has been the topic of extensive debate and discussion.[75]


According to Bryan Levman, "the word sati incorporates the meaning of 'memory' and 'remembrance' in much of its usage in both the suttas and the [traditional Buddhist] commentary, and ... without the memory component, the notion of mindfulness cannot be properly understood or applied, as mindfulness requires memory for its effectiveness".[76]


According to Robert Sharf, smṛti originally meant "to remember", "to recollect", "to bear in mind", as in the Vedic tradition of remembering the sacred texts. The term sati also means "to remember". In the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta the term sati means to remember the dharmas, whereby the true nature of phenomena can be seen.[75] Sharf refers to the Milindapañha, which explained that the arising of sati calls to mind the wholesome dhammas such as the four foundations of mindfulness, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening-factors, the noble eightfold path, and the attainment of insight.[77] According to Rupert Gethin,


[sati] should be understood as what allows awareness of the full range and extent of dhammas; sati is an awareness of things in relation to things, and hence an awareness of their relative value. Applied to the satipaṭṭhānas, presumably what this means is that sati is what causes the practitioner of yoga to "remember" that any feeling he may experience exists in relation to a whole variety or world of feelings that may be skillful or unskillful, with faults or faultless, relatively inferior or refined, dark or pure."[78][note 5]


Sharf further notes that this has little to do with "bare attention", the popular contemporary interpretation of sati, "since it entails, among other things, the proper discrimination of the moral valence of phenomena as they arise."[78]


Georges Dreyfus has also expressed unease with the definition of mindfulness as "bare attention" or "nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness", stressing that mindfulness in a Buddhist context also means "remembering", which indicates that the function of mindfulness also includes the retention of information.[79][note 6] Robert H. Sharf notes that Buddhist practice is aimed at the attainment of "correct view", not just "bare attention".[web 2][note 7] Jay L. Garfield, quoting Shantideva and other sources, stresses that mindfulness is constituted by the union of two functions, calling to mind and vigilantly retaining in mind. He demonstrates that there is a direct connection between the practice of mindfulness and the cultivation of morality—at least in the context of Buddhism, from which modern interpretations of mindfulness are stemming.[80]
Translation[edit]


The Pali-language scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids (1843–1922) first translated sati in 1881 as English mindfulness in sammā-sati "Right Mindfulness; the active, watchful mind".[81] Noting that Daniel John Gogerly (1845) initially rendered sammā-sati as "correct meditation",[82] Davids explained:


sati is literally 'memory' but is used with reference to the constantly repeated phrase 'mindful and thoughtful' (sato sampajâno); and means that activity of mind and constant presence of mind which is one of the duties most frequently inculcated on the good Buddhist."[83]
Alternative translations[edit]


John D. Dunne asserts that the translation of sati and smṛti as mindfulness is confusing. A number of Buddhist scholars have started trying to establish "retention" as the preferred alternative.[84] Bhikkhu Bodhi also points to the meaning of sati as "memory".[85][note 8] The terms sati/smṛti have been translated as:

Attention (Jack Kornfield) 
Awareness 
Concentrated attention (Mahasi Sayadaw) 
Inspection (Herbert V. Günther) 
Mindful attention 
Mindfulness 
Recollecting mindfulness (Alexander Berzin) 
Recollection (Erik Pema Kunsang, Buddhadasa) 
Reflective awareness (Buddhadasa) 
Remindfulness (James H. Austin)[86] 
Retention 
Self-recollection (Jack Kornfield) 
Definitions[edit]
Psychology[edit]


A.M. Hayes and G. Feldman have highlighted that mindfulness can be seen as a strategy that stands in contrast to a strategy of avoidance of emotion on the one hand and to the strategy of emotional over engagement on the other hand.[87] Mindfulness can also be viewed as a means to develop self-knowledge and wisdom.[7]
Trait, state and practice[edit]


According to Brown, Ryan, and Creswell, definitions of mindfulness are typically selectively interpreted based on who is studying it and how it is applied. Some have viewed mindfulness as a mental state, while others have viewed it as a set of skills and techniques.[74] A distinction can also be made between the state of mindfulness and the trait of mindfulness.[88]


According to David S. Black, whereas "mindfulness" originally was associated with esoteric beliefs and religion, and "a capacity attainable only by certain people",[89] scientific researchers have translated the term into measurable terms, providing a valid operational definition of mindfulness.[90][note 9] Black mentions three possible domains:[90] 
A trait, a dispositional characteristic (a relatively long lasting trait),[90] a person's tendency to more frequently enter into and more easily abide in mindful states;[91] 
A state, an outcome (a state of awareness resulting from mindfulness training),[90] being in a state of present-moment awareness;[91] 
A practice (mindfulness meditation practice itself).[note 10] 
Trait-like constructs[edit]


According to Brown, mindfulness is:


A quality of consciousness manifest in, but not isomorphic with, the activities through which it is enhanced."[74]


Several mindfulness measures have been developed which are based on self-reporting of trait-like constructs:[96] 
Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) 
Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) 
Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS) 
Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale (CAMS) 
Mindfulness Questionnaire (MQ) 
Revised Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale (CAMS-R) 
Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale (PHLMS) 
State-like phenomenon[edit]


According to Bishop, et alia, mindfulness is, "A kind of nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness in which each thought, feeling, or sensation that arises in the attentional field is acknowledged and accepted as it is."[97] 
The Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS) measures mindfulness as a state-like phenomenon, that is evoked and maintained by regular practice.[96] 
The State Mindfulness Scale (SMS) is a 21-item survey with an overall state mindfulness scale, and 2 sub-scales (state mindfulness of mind, and state mindfulness of body).[98] 
Mindfulness-practice[edit]


Mindfulness as a practice is described as: 
"Mindfulness is a way of paying attention that originated in Eastern meditation practices"[99] 
"Paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally"[1][note 1] 
"Bringing one’s complete attention to the present experience on a moment-to-moment basis"[1] 


According to Steven F. Hick, mindfulness practice involves both formal and informal meditation practices, and nonmeditation-based exercises.[100] Formal mindfulness, or meditation, is the practice of sustaining attention on body, breath or sensations, or whatever arises in each moment.[100] Informal mindfulness is the application of mindful attention in everyday life.[100] Nonmeditation-based exercises are specifically used in dialectical behavior therapy and in acceptance and commitment therapy. [100]
Definitions arising in modern teaching of meditation[edit]


Since the 1970s, most books on meditation use definitions of mindfulness similar to Jon Kabat-Zinn's definition as "present moment awareness". However, recently a number of teachers of meditation have proposed quite different definitions of mindfulness. Shinzen Young says a person is mindful when they have mindful awareness, and defines that to be when "concentration power, sensory clarity, and equanimity [are] working together."[101] John Yates (Culadasa) defines mindfulness to be "the optimal interaction between attention and peripheral awareness", where he distinguishes attention and peripheral awareness as two distinct modes in which one may be conscious of things.[102]
Other usages[edit]


The English term mindfulness already existed before it came to be used in a (western) Buddhist context. It was first recorded as myndfulness in 1530 (John Palsgrave translates French pensée), as mindfulnesse in 1561, and mindfulness in 1817. Morphologically earlier terms include mindful (first recorded in 1340), mindfully (1382), and the obsolete mindiness (c. 1200).[103]


According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, mindfulness may also refer to "a state of being aware".[web 3] Synonyms for this "state of being aware" are wakefulness,[104][105] attention,[web 4] alertness,[web 5] prudence,[web 5] conscientiousness,[web 5] awareness,[web 3] consciousness,[web 3] and observation.[web 3]
Models and frameworks for mindfulness practices[edit]
Two-component model[edit]


In a paper that described a consensus among clinical psychologists on an operational and testable definition, Bishop, Lau, et al. (2004)[97] proposed a two-component model of mindfulness:


The first component involves the self-regulation of attention so that it is maintained on immediate experience, thereby allowing for increased recognition of mental events in the present moment. The second component involves adopting a particular orientation toward one’s experiences in the present moment, an orientation that is characterized by curiosity, openness, and acceptance.[97]:232


In this two-component model, self-regulated attention (the first component) "involves bringing awareness to current experience - observing and attending to the changing fields of "objects" (thoughts, feelings, sensations), from moment to moment – by regulating the focus of attention". Orientation to experience (the second component) involves maintaining an attitude of curiosity about objects experienced at each moment, and about where and how the mind wanders when it drifts from the selected focus of attention. Clients are asked to avoid trying to produce a particular state (e.g. relaxation), but rather to just notice each object that arises in the stream of consciousness.[97]:233
The five-aggregate model[edit]


An ancient model of the mind, generally known as the five-aggregate model[73] enables one to understand the moment-to-moment manifestation of subjective conscious experience, and therefore can be a potentially useful theoretical resource to guide mindfulness interventions.


The five aggregates are described as follows: 
Material form: includes both the physical body and external matter where material elements are continuously moving to and from the material body. 
Feelings: can be pleasant, unpleasant or neutral. 
Perceptions: represent being aware of attributes of an object (e.g. color, shape, etc.) 
Volition: represents bodily, verbal, or psychological behavior. 
Sensory consciousness: refers to input from the five senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting or touch sensations) or a thought that happens to arise in the mind. 


This model describes how sensory consciousness results in the generation of feelings, perception or volition, and how individuals’ previously conditioned attitudes and past associations influence this generation. The five aggregates are described as constantly arising and ceasing in the present moment.[73]
Cultivating self-knowledge and wisdom[edit]


The practice of mindfulness can be utilized to gradually develop self-knowledge and wisdom.[7] In this regard, Buddhist teachings provide detailed instructions on how one can carry out an inquiry into the nature of the mind, and this guidance can help one to make sense of one's subjective experience. This could include understanding what the “present moment” is, how various thoughts, etc., arise following input from the senses, the conditioned nature of thoughts, and other realizations.[7] In Buddhist teachings, ultimate wisdom refers to gaining deep insight into all phenomena or “seeing things as they are.”[7][18]
Historical development[edit]
Buddhism[edit]


Mindfulness as a modern, Western practice is founded on Zen and modern vipassana,[9][10][note 11] and involves the training of sati, which means "moment to moment awareness of present events", but also "remembering to be aware of something".[108]
Early Buddhism[edit]


Sati is one of the seven factors of enlightenment. "Correct" or "right" mindfulness (Pali: sammā-sati, Sanskrit samyak-smṛti) is the seventh element of the noble eightfold path. Mindfulness is an antidote to delusion and is considered as a 'power' (Pali: bala) which contributes to the attainment of nirvana. This faculty becomes a power in particular when it is coupled with clear comprehension of whatever is taking place. Nirvana is a state of being in which greed, hatred and delusion (Pali: moha) have been overcome and abandoned, and are absent from the mind.


According to Paul Williams, referring to Erich Frauwallner, mindfulness provided the way in early Buddhism to liberation, "constantly watching sensory experience in order to prevent the arising of cravings which would power future experience into rebirths."[14][note 12] According to Vetter, dhyana may have been the original core practice of the Buddha, which aided the maintenance of mindfulness.[109]


According to Thomas William Rhys Davids, the doctrine of mindfulness is "perhaps the most important" after the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. T.W. Rhys Davids viewed the teachings of Gotama as a rational technique for self-actualization and rejected a few parts of it, mainly the doctrine of rebirth, as residual superstitions.[110]
Zazen[edit]


Main articles: Zazen and Shikantaza


The aim of zazen is just sitting, that is, suspending all judgmental thinking and letting words, ideas, images and thoughts pass by without getting involved in them.[111][112]
Contemporary vipassana-meditation[edit]


In modern vipassana-meditation, as propagated by the Vipassana movement, sati aids vipassana, insight into the true nature of reality, namely the three marks of existence, the impermanence of and the unsatisfactoriness of every conditioned thing that exists, and non-self.[7][17] With this insight, the practitioner becomes a so-called Sotāpanna, a "stream-enterer", the first stage on the path to liberation.[18][113][note 13]


Vipassana is practiced in tandem with samatha, and also plays a central role in other Buddhist traditions.[17][115] According to the contemporary Theravada orthodoxy, samatha is used as a preparation for vipassanā, pacifying the mind and strengthening the concentration in order to allow the work of insight, which leads to liberation.


Vipassanā-meditation has gained popularity in the west through the modern Buddhist vipassana movement, modeled after Theravāda Buddhism meditation practices,[106] which employs vipassanā and ānāpāna meditation as its primary techniques and places emphasis on the teachings of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.
Anapanasati, satipaṭṭhāna, and vipassana[edit]


Anapanasati is mindfulness of breathing. "Sati" means mindfulness; "ānāpāna" refers to inhalation and exhalation. Anapanasati means to feel the sensations caused by the movements of the breath in the body. The Anapanasati Sutta gives an exposition on this practice.[note 14]


Satipaṭṭhāna is the establishment of mindfulness in one's day-to-day life, maintaining as much as possible a calm awareness of one's body, feelings, mind, and dharmas. The practice of mindfulness supports analysis resulting in the arising of wisdom (Pali: paññā, Sanskrit: prajñā).[17]
Samprajaña, apramāda and atappa[edit]


In contemporary Theravada practice, "mindfulness" also includes samprajaña, meaning "clear comprehension" and apramāda meaning "vigilance".[116][note 15] All three terms are sometimes (confusingly) translated as "mindfulness", but they all have specific shades of meaning.


In a publicly available correspondence between Bhikkhu Bodhi and B. Alan Wallace, Bodhi has described Ven. Nyanaponika Thera's views on "right mindfulness" and sampajañña as follows:


He held that in the proper practice of right mindfulness, sati has to be integrated with sampajañña, clear comprehension, and it is only when these two work together that right mindfulness can fulfill its intended purpose.[117][note 16]
Monitoring mental processes[edit]


According to Buddhadasa, the aim of mindfulness is to stop the arising of disturbing thoughts and emotions, which arise from sense-contact.[118]


According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā (foundations of mindfulness) have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations, but to the awareness of four different aspects of raising mindfulness:[119] 
the six sense-bases which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā); 
contemplation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā); 
the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā); 
the development from the five hindrances to the seven factors of enlightenment (dhammānupassanā). 
Transcendentalism[edit]


Mindfulness practitioner Jon Kabat-Zinn refers to Thoreau as a predecessor of the interest in mindfulness, together with other eminent Transcendentalists such as Emerson and Whitman:[120]


The collective experience[note 17] of sages, yogis, and Zen masters offers a view of the world which is complementary to the predominantly reductionist and materialistic one currently dominating Western thought and institutions. But this view is neither particularly "Eastern" nor mystical. Thoreau saw the same problem with our ordinary mind state in New England in 1846 and wrote with great passion about its unfortunate consequences.[120]


The forms of Asian religion and spirituality which were introduced in the west were themselves influenced by Transcendentalism and other 19th-century manifestations of Western esotericism. Transcendentalism was closely connected to the Unitarian Church,[121][web 6] which in India collaborated with Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) and his Brahmo Samaj.[121] He found that Unitarianism came closest to true Christianity,[121] and had a strong sympathy for the Unitarians.[122] This influence worked through on Vivekananda, whose modern but idiosyncratic interpretation of Hinduism became widely popular in the west.[123] Vipassana meditation, presented as a centuries-old meditation system, was a 19th-century reinvention,[124] which gained popularity in south-east due to the accessibility of the Buddhist sutras through English translations from the Pali Text Society.[106] It was brought to western attention in the 19th century by the Theosophical Society.[106][125] Zen Buddhism first gained popularity in the west through the writings of D.T. Suzuki, who attempted to present a modern interpretation of Zen, adjusted to western tastes.[106][106]
Jon Kabat-Zinn and MBSR[edit]


Further information: Mindful Yoga


In 1979, Jon Kabat-Zinn founded the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program at the University of Massachusetts to treat the chronically ill.[126] This program sparked the application of mindfulness ideas and practices in Medicine[127]:230–1 for the treatment of a variety of conditions in both healthy and unhealthy people. MBSR and similar programs are now widely applied in schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.


Mindfulness practices were inspired mainly by teachings from the Eastern World, particularly from Buddhist traditions. Kabat-Zinn was first introduced to meditation by Philip Kapleau, a Zen missionary who came to speak at MIT where Kabat-Zinn was a student. Kabat-Zinn went on to study meditation with other Zen-Buddhist teachers such as Thích Nhất Hạnh and Seungsahn.[10] He also studied at the Insight Meditation Society and eventually taught there.[10] One of MBSR's techniques - the "body scan" - was derived from a meditation practice ("sweeping") of the Burmese U Ba Khin tradition, as taught by S. N. Goenka in his Vipassana retreats, which he began in 1976. The body scan method has since been widely adapted to secular settings, independent of religious or cultural contexts.[note 18][note 19]


Kabat-Zinn was also influenced by the book The Varieties of Religious Experience by William James, which suggested that religions pointed toward the same experience, and which 1960s counterculture figures interpreted as meaning that the same universal, experiential truth could be reached in different ways, including via non-religious activities.[128]
Popularization, "mindfulness movement"[edit]


Mindfulness is gaining a growing popularity as a practice in daily life, apart from Buddhist insight meditation and its application in clinical psychology.[68] In this context mindfulness is defined as moment-by-moment awareness of thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and surrounding environment, characterized mainly by "acceptance" - attention to thoughts and feelings without judging whether they are right or wrong. Mindfulness focuses the human brain on what is being sensed at each moment, instead of on its normal rumination on the past or the future.[129] Mindfulness may be seen as a mode of being,[130] and can be practiced outside a formal setting.[131] The terminology used by scholars of religion, scientists, journalists, and popular media writers to describe this movement of mindfulness "popularization," and the many new contexts of mindfulness practice which have cropped up, has regularly evolved over the past 20 years, with some[which?] criticisms arising.[132]
Applications[edit]


According to Jon Kabat-Zinn the practice of mindfulness may be beneficial to many people in Western society who might be unwilling to adopt Buddhist traditions or vocabulary.[133] Western researchers and clinicians who have introduced mindfulness practice into mental health treatment programs usually teach these skills independently of the religious and cultural traditions of their origins.[134] Programs based on MBSR and similar models have been widely adopted in schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.[135]
Therapy programs[edit]
Mindfulness-based stress reduction[edit]


Main article: Mindfulness-based stress reduction


Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a mindfulness-based program[136] developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center, which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, body awareness, and yoga to help people become more mindful.[2] While MBSR has its roots in spiritual teachings, the program itself is secular.[2]
Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy[edit]


Main article: Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy


Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) is a psychological therapy designed to aid in preventing the relapse of depression, specifically in individuals with Major depressive disorder (MDD).[137] It uses traditional cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) methods and adds in newer psychological strategies such as mindfulness and mindfulness meditation. Cognitive methods can include educating the participant about depression.[138] Mindfulness and mindfulness meditation focus on becoming aware of all incoming thoughts and feelings and accepting them, but not attaching or reacting to them.[139]


Like CBT, MBCT functions on the theory that when individuals who have historically had depression become distressed, they return to automatic cognitive processes that can trigger a depressive episode.[140] The goal of MBCT is to interrupt these automatic processes and teach the participants to focus less on reacting to incoming stimuli, and instead accepting and observing them without judgment.[140] This mindfulness practice allows the participant to notice when automatic processes are occurring and to alter their reaction to be more of a reflection. Research supports the effects of MBCT in people who have been depressed three or more times and demonstrates reduced relapse rates by 50%.[141]
Mindfulness-based pain management[edit]


Main article: Mindfulness-based pain management


Mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM) is a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) providing specific applications for people living with chronic pain and illness.[142][143] Adapting the core concepts and practices of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), MBPM includes a distinctive emphasis on the practice of 'loving-kindness', and has been seen as sensitive to concerns about removing mindfulness teaching from its original ethical framework within Buddhism.[142][144] It was developed by Vidyamala Burch and is delivered through the programs of Breathworks.[142][143] It has been subject to a range of clinical studies demonstrating its effectiveness.[145][146][147][148][149][150][151][142]
Acceptance and commitment therapy[edit]


Main article: Acceptance and commitment therapy


Acceptance and commitment therapy or (ACT) (typically pronounced as the word "act") is a form of clinical behavior analysis (CBA)[152] used in psychotherapy. It is a psychological intervention that uses acceptance and mindfulness strategies mixed in different ways[153] with commitment and behavior-change strategies, to increase psychological flexibility. The approach was originally called comprehensive distancing.[154] It was developed in the late 1980s[155] by Steven C. Hayes, Kelly G. Wilson, and Kirk Strosahl.[156]
Dialectical behavior therapy[edit]


Main article: Dialectical behavior therapy


Mindfulness is a "core" exercise used in dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), a psychosocial treatment Marsha M. Linehan developed for treating people with borderline personality disorder. DBT is dialectic, explains Linehan,[157] in the sense of "the reconciliation of opposites in a continual process of synthesis." As a practitioner of Buddhist meditation techniques, Linehan says:


This emphasis in DBT on a balance of acceptance and change owes much to my experiences in studying meditation and Eastern spirituality. The DBT tenets of observing, mindfulness, and avoidance of judgment are all derived from the study and practice of Zen meditations.[158]
Mode deactivation therapy[edit]


Main article: Mode deactivation therapy


Mode deactivation therapy (MDT) is a treatment methodology that is derived from the principles of cognitive-behavioral therapy and incorporates elements of Acceptance and commitment therapy, Dialectical behavior therapy, and mindfulness techniques.[159] Mindfulness techniques such as simple breathing exercises are applied to assist the client in awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of unpleasant and distressing thoughts and feelings as they occur in the present moment. Mode Deactivation Therapy was developed and is established as an effective treatment for adolescents with problem behaviors and complex trauma-related psychological problems, according to recent publications by Jack A. Apsche and Joan Swart.[160]
Other programs[edit]




 


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Since 2006, research supports promising mindfulness-based therapies for a number of medical and psychiatric conditions, notably chronic pain (McCracken et al. 2007), stress (Grossman et al. 2004), anxiety and depression (Hofmann et al. 2010), substance abuse (Melemis 2008:141-157), and recurrent suicidal behavior (Williams et al. 2006). Bell (2009) gives a brief overview of mindful approaches to therapy, particularly family therapy, starting with a discussion of mysticism and emphasizing the value of a mindful therapist. Morita therapy 


The Japanese psychiatrist Shoma Morita, who trained in Zen meditation, developed Morita therapy upon principles of mindfulness and non-attachment.[161] Adaptation Practice 


The British doctor Clive Sherlock developed Adaptation Practice in 1977. Adaptation Practice is a structured program of self-discipline.[162] Hakomi therapy 


Hakomi therapy, under development by Ron Kurtz and others, is a somatic psychology based upon Asian philosophical precepts of mindfulness and nonviolence.[163] IFS 


Internal Family Systems Model (IFS), developed by Richard C. Schwartz, emphasizes the importance of both therapist and client engaging in therapy from the Self, which is the IFS term for one's "spiritual center". The Self is curious about whatever arises in one's present experience and open and accepting toward all manifestations.[164] Mindfulness relaxation 


Mindfulness relaxation uses breathing methods, guided imagery, and other practices to relax the body and mind and help reduce stress.[165]
Schools[edit]


In 2012 Congressman Tim Ryan of Ohio published A Mindful Nation, and received a $1 million federal grant to teach mindfulness in schools in his home district.[68]


Mindful Kids Miami is a tax-exempt, 501 (c)(3), non-profit corporation established in 2011 dedicated to making age-appropriate mindfulness training available to school children in Miami-Dade County public and private schools. This is primarily accomplished by training educators and other childcare providers to incorporate mindfulness practices in the children's daily activities.[166]


In 2000, The Inner Kids Program, a mindfulness-based program developed for children, was introduced into public and private school curricula in the greater Los Angeles area.[167]


MindUP, a classroom-based program spearheaded by Goldie Hawn's Hawn Foundation, teaches students to self-regulate behavior and mindfully engage in focused concentration required for academic success. For the last decade, MindUP has trained teachers in over 1,000 schools in cities from Arizona to Washington.[168]


The Holistic Life Foundation, a non-profit organization that created an in-school mindfulness program called Mindful Moment, is currently serving almost 350 students daily at Robert W. Coleman Elementary School and approximately 1300 students at Patterson Park High School in Baltimore, Maryland. At Patterson High School, the Mindful Moment program engages the school's faculty along with the students during a 15-minute mindfulness practice at the beginning and end of each school day.[169]


Mindful Life Project, a non-profit 501(c)3 based out of Richmond, California, teaches mindfulness to elementary school students in underserved schools in the South Richmond school district. Utilizing curriculum, “Rise-Up” is a regular school day intervention program serving 430 students weekly, while “Mindful Community” is currently implemented at six South Richmond partner schools. These in-school mindfulness programs have been endorsed by Richmond Mayor Gayle McLaughlin, who has recommended additional funding to expand the program in order to serve all Richmond youth.[citation needed]
Education[edit]


Mindfulness practices are becoming more common within educational institutions including Elementary and Secondary schools. This has been referred to as part of a 'contemplative turn' in education that has emerged since the turn of the millennium.[170] The applications of mindfulness in schools are aimed at calming and relaxation of students as well as for students and educators to build compassion and empathy for others.[171] An additional benefit to Mindfulness in education is for the practice to reduce anxiety and stress in students.[172] Based on a broad meta-analytical review, scholars argued that the application of mindfulness practice enhances the goals of education in the 21st century, which include adapting to a rapidly changing world and being a caring and committed citizen. Within educational systems, the application of mindfulness practices shows an improvement of students' attention and focus, emotional regulation, creativity, and problem solving skills.[173] As discussed by Ergas and Todd, the development of this field since the turn of the millennium has brought diverse possibilities as well as complexities, given the origins of mindfulness within Buddhism and the processes of its secularization and measurement based on science.[135]


Renshaw and Cook state, “As scientific interest in the utility of Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) in schools grew steadily, popular interest in mindfulness in schools seemed to grow exponentially”.[174] Despite research on mindfulness being comparatively unexamined, especially with young students, the practice has seen a spike in use within the educational arena. “A relatively recent addition to discourse around preventing school expulsion and failure, mindfulness is gaining popularity for its potential to improve students’ social, emotional, behavioral, and learning-related cognitive control, thereby improving academic outcomes”.[175] Researchers and educators are interested in how mindfulness can provide optimal conditions for a students’ personal development and academic success. Current research on mindfulness in education is limited but can provide insight into the potential benefits for students, and areas of improvement for future studies.[31][176]


Mindfulness in the classroom is being touted as a promising new intervention tool for young students. According to Choudhury and Moses, “Although still marginal and in some cases controversial, secular programs of mindfulness have been implemented with ambitious goals of improving attentional focus of pupils, social-emotional learning in “at-risk” children and youth, not least, to intervene in problems of poverty and incarceration”.[177] Emerging research is concerned with studying teachers and programs using mindfulness practices with students and is discovering tension arising from the moral reframing of eastern practices in western school settings. As cited by Renshaw and Cook, “Unlike most other approaches to contemporary school-based intervention, which are squarely grounded in behavioral, cognitive-behavioral, and ecological systems theories, MBIs have their origins in Eastern religious traditions”.[174] Some school administrators are concerned about implementing such practices, and parents have been reported to take their children out of mindfulness programs because of their personal religious beliefs. Yet, MBIs continue to be accepted by the mainstream in both primary and secondary schools because, “Mindfulness practices, particularly in relation to children who might otherwise be considered broken or unredeemable, fill a critical niche – one that allows its advocates to imagine a world where people can change, become more compassionate, resilient, reflective, and aware; a world with a viable future”.[177] As mindfulness in education continues to develop, ethical consequences will remain a controversial issue because the generic description for the “benefits” and “results” of MBIs are largely concerned with individual and inward-focused achievement, rather than the original Buddhist ideal of global human connection.


Available research reveals a relationship between mindfulness and attention. Semple, Lee, Rosa, & Miller argue, “Anxiety can impair attention and promote emotionally reactive behaviors that interfere with the development of good study skills, so it seems reasonable that increased mindfulness would be associated with less anxiety”.[178] They conducted a randomized trial of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Children (MBCT-C) that found promise in managing anxiety for elementary school-aged children, and suggests that those who completed the program displayed fewer attention problems. In addition, Flook shows how an eight-week mindfulness awareness program was evaluated in a random and controlled school setting and measured the effects of awareness practices on executive functions in elementary school children. Their findings concluded, “Participation in the mindfulness awareness program was associated with improvements in behavioral regulation, metacognition, and overall executive functions”.[179] In the study by Flook, parents and teachers completed questionnaires which propose that participation in mindfulness programs is associated with improvements in child behavioral regulation. These perspectives are a valuable source of data given that caregivers and educators interact with the children daily and across a variety of settings. According to Eklund, Omalley, and Meyer, “School-based practitioners should find promise in the evidence supporting mindfulness-based practices with children, parents, and educators”.[175] Lastly, a third study by Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz, and Walach concluded, “Analysis suggest that mindfulness-based interventions for children and youths are able to increase cognitive capacity of attending and learning by nearly one standard deviation and yield”.[173] Application of Mindfulness-Based Interventions continue to increase in popularity and practice.[citation needed]


Mindfulness-Based Interventions are rising across western culture, but its effectiveness in school programs is still being determined. Research contends, “Mindfulness-based approaches for adults are effective at enhancing mental health, but few controlled trials have evaluated their effectiveness among young people”.[180] Although much of the available studies find a high number of mindfulness acceptability among students and teachers, more research needs to be conducted on its effects on well-being and mental health for students. In a firmly controlled experiment, Johnson, Burke, Brinkman, and Wade evaluated “the impact of an existing and widely available school-based mindfulness program". According to their research, "no improvements were demonstrated on any outcome measured either immediately post-intervention or at three-month follow-up”.[181] Many questions remain on which practices best implement effective and reliable mindfulness programs at schools, and further research is needed to identify the optimal methods and measurement tools for mindfulness in education.[citation needed]
Business[edit]


Mindfulness training appears to be getting popular in the business world, and many large corporations have been incorporating mindfulness practices into their culture.[182][183][184] For example, companies such as Google, Apple, Procter & Gamble, General Mills, Mayo Clinic, and the U.S. Army offer mindfulness coaching, meditation breaks and other resources to their employees to improve workplace functioning.[182][185]


The introduction of mindfulness in corporate settings still remains in early stages and its potential long-term impact requires further assessment. Mindfulness has been found to result in better employee well-being,[186] lower levels of frustration, lower absenteeism and burnout as well as an improved overall work environment.[185] Since high levels of mindfulness correlate with ethical decision-making and increased personal awareness and emotional regulation, mindfulness training has been suggested as a way to promote ethical intentions and behavior for business students.[187]
Law[edit]


Legal and law enforcement organizations are also showing interest in mindfulness:[188] 
Harvard Law School's Program on Negotiation hosted a workshop on "Mindfulness in the Law & Alternative Dispute Resolution."[189] 
Many law firms offer mindfulness classes.[184] 
Prison-programs[edit]


Mindfulness has been taught in prisons, reducing hostility and mood disturbance among inmates, and improving their self-esteem.[190] Additional studies indicate that mindfulness interventions can result in significant reductions in anger, reductions in substance use, increased relaxation capacity, self-regulation and optimism.[191][192]
Government[edit]


Many government organizations offer mindfulness training.[193] Coping Strategies is an example of a program utilized by United States Armed Forces personnel. The British Parliament organized a mindfulness-session for its members in 2014, led by Ruby Wax.[web 7]
Scientific research[edit]


Main articles: Research on meditation, Neural mechanisms of mindfulness meditation, and Brain activity and meditation
Effects and efficacy of mindfulness practice[edit]


Mindfulness has gained increasing empirical attention since 1970[21][135] and has been studied often as an intervention for stress reduction.[25][28][194] Meta analyses indicate its beneficial effects for healthy adults,[23][195][196] for adolescents and children,[173][31] as well as for different health-related outcomes including weight management,[197][198][199] psychiatric conditions,[200][201][202] heart disease,[55][50] sleep disorders,[203][204] cancer care,[205][206] and other health-related conditions.[207][208][209][210] An often-cited meta-analysis on meditation research published in JAMA in 2014,[211] found insufficient evidence of any effect of meditation programs on positive mood, attention, substance use, eating habits, sleep, and weight, but found that there is moderate evidence that meditation reduces anxiety, depression, and pain. However, this study included a highly heterogeneous group of meditation styles (i.e., it did not focus exclusively on mindfulness meditation), which is a significant limitation of this study.


Thousands of studies on meditation have been conducted, though the methodological quality of some of the studies is poor. Recent reviews have pointed out many of these issues.[3][32][212] Nonetheless, mindfulness meditation is a popular subject for research, and many present potential benefits for a wide array of conditions and outcomes. For example, the practice of mindfulness has also been used to achieve optimal athletic performance,[213] as a beneficial intervention for children with special needs and their caregivers,[214][215][216] as a viable treatment option for people with insomnia[217][218] an effective intervention for healthy aging,[219][220][221] as a strategy for managing dermatological conditions[222] and as a useful intervention during pregnancy and the perinatal period.[223][224][225] Recent studies have also demonstrated that mindfulness meditation significantly attenuates physical pain through multiple, unique mechanisms.[226] Meditation also may allow one to modulate pain. When exposed to pain from heating, the brain scans of the mindfulness meditation participants (by use of functional magnetic resonance imaging) showed their brains notice the pain equally, however it does not get converted to a perceived pain signal. As such they experienced up to 40–50% less pain.[227]


Further, mindfulness meditation also appears to lead to increased telomere length,[56] which is an important finding considering that short telomeres can be a risk factor for the development of several chronic health conditions.[228] Research has also investigated mindful movements and mindful exercises for different patient populations.[229][230] Mindfulness-based approaches are a major subject of increasing research interest, 52 papers were published in 2003, rising to 477 by 2012.[68] Nearly 100 randomized controlled trials had been published by early 2014.[231]
Neurological studies[edit]


Research studies have also focused on the effects of mindfulness on the brain using neuroimaging techniques, physiological measures and behavioral tests.[3][194][232] Research on the neural perspective of how mindfulness meditation works suggests that it exerts its effects in components of attention regulation, body awareness and emotional regulation.[233] When considering aspects such as sense of responsibility, authenticity, compassion, self-acceptance and character, studies have shown that mindfulness meditation contributes to a more coherent and healthy sense of self and identity.[234][235] Neuroimaging techniques suggest that mindfulness practices such as mindfulness meditation are associated with “changes in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, temporo-parietal junction, fronto-limbic network and default mode network structures."[233][236] Further, mindfulness meditation may prevent or delay the onset of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease.[237] Additionally, mindfulness-induced emotional and behavioral changes have been found to be related to functional and structural changes in the brain.[236][238] It has also been suggested that the default mode network of the brain can be used as a potential biomarker for monitoring the therapeutic benefits of meditation.[239] Recent research also suggest that the practice of mindfulness could influence genetic expression leading to a reduced risk of inflammation-related diseases and favourable changes in biomarkers.[240][241]


Grey matter concentrations in brain regions that regulate emotion, self-referential processing, learning and memory processes have shown changes in density following MBSR.[242][239] Additionally, MBSR practice has been associated with improvement of the immune system[3][51] which could explain the correlation between stress reduction and increased quality of life.[243] Part of these changes are a result of the thickening of the prefrontal cortex (executive functioning) and hippocampus (learning and memorisation ability), the shrinking of the amygdala (emotion and stress response) and the strengthening of the connections between brain cells.[244][245][246] Long-term meditators have larger amounts of gyrification (“folding” of the cortex, which may allow the brain to process information faster) than people who do not meditate. Further, a direct correlation was found between the amount of gyrification and the number of meditation years, possibly providing further proof of the brain's neuroplasticity, or ability to adapt to environmental changes.[244]
Associations of mindfulness with other variables[edit]


Mindfulness (as a trait, distinguished from mindfulness practice) has been linked to many outcomes. In an overview,[33] Keng, Smoski, and Robins summarize: “Trait mindfulness has been associated with higher levels of life satisfaction, agreeableness, conscientiousness, vitality, self esteem, empathy, sense of autonomy, competence, optimism, and pleasant affect. Studies have also demonstrated significant negative correlations between mindfulness and depression, neuroticism, absentmindedness, dissociation, rumination, cognitive reactivity, social anxiety, difficulties in emotion regulation, experiential avoidance, alexithymia, intensity of delusional experience in the context of psychosis, and general psychological symptoms.” (References to underlying studies omitted from quotation.)
Effects on mindfulness[edit]


The mechanisms that make people less or more mindful have researched less than the effects of mindfulness programmes, so we do not know much about what are the relevant components of mindfulness practice. For example, meta-analyses have shown that mindfulness practice does increase mindfulness when compared to active control groups,.[31][196] This may be because we do not know how to measure mindfulness. It could also be that mindfulness is dose-dependent and increases with more experience [247] ,.[248] To counter that, Bergomi et al.[249] found that “results provide evidence for the associations between self-reported mindfulness and meditation practice and suggest that mindfulness is particularly associated with continued practice in the present, rather than with accumulated practice over years.”


Some research into other mechanisms has been done. One study[250] conceptualised such mechanisms in terms of competition for attention. In a test of that framework, mindfulness was found to be associated (as predicted) with having an activated intention to be mindful, with feeling good, and with not being hurried or very busy. Regarding the relationship between feeling good and being mindful, a different study[251] found that causality probably works both ways: feeling good increases mindfulness, and mindfulness increases feeling good.
Concerns and criticism[edit]
Scholarly research[edit]


Many of the above cited review studies however also indicate the necessity for more high-quality research in this field such as conducting intervention studies using larger sample sizes, the use of more randomized controlled studies and the need for providing more methodological details in reported studies.[3][33] The majority of studies also either measure mindfulness as a trait, and in research that use mindfulness interventions in clinical practice, the lack of true randomisation poses a problem for understanding the true effectiveness of mindfulness. Experimental methods using randomised samples, though, suggest that mindfulness as a state or temporary practice can influence felt emotions such as disgust and promote abstract decision-making.[252][253][254] There are also a few review studies that have found little difference between mindfulness interventions and control groups, though they did also indicate that their intervention group was treated too shortly for the research to be conclusive.[255][256] These studies also list the need for more robust research investigations. Several issues pertaining to the assessment of mindfulness have also been identified including the current use of self-report questionnaires.[3][33][257] Potential for bias also exists to the extent that researchers in the field are also practitioners and possibly subject to pressures to publish positive or significant results.[9]


Various scholars have criticized how mindfulness has been defined or represented in recent western psychology publications.[97][258] These modern understandings depart significantly from the accounts of mindfulness in early Buddhist texts and authoritative commentaries in the Theravada and Indian Mahayana traditions.[258]:62[259] Adam Valerio has introduced the idea that conflict between academic disciplines over how mindfulness is defined, understood, and popularly presented may be indicative of a personal, institutional, or paradigmatic battle for ownership over mindfulness, one where academics, researchers, and other writers are invested as individuals in much the same way as religious communities.[132]
Shortcomings[edit]


The popularization of mindfulness as a "commodity"[260] has been criticized, being termed "McMindfulness" by some critics.[web 8][web 9][261] According to Safran, the popularity of mindfulness is the result of a marketing strategy:[260] "McMindfulness is the marketing of a constructed dream; an idealized lifestyle; an identity makeover."[260][262][263]


According to Purser and Loy, mindfulness is not being used as a means to awaken to insight in the "unwholesome roots of greed, ill will and delusion,"[web 8] but reshaped into a "banal, therapeutic, self-help technique" that has the opposite effect of reinforcing those passions.[web 8] While mindfulness is marketed as a means to reduce stress, in a Buddhist context it is part of an all-embracing ethical program to foster "wise action, social harmony, and compassion."[web 8] The privatization of mindfulness neglects the societal and organizational causes of stress and discomfort, instead propagating adaptation to these circumstances.[web 8] According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, "[A]bsent a sharp social critique, Buddhist practices could easily be used to justify and stabilize the status quo, becoming a reinforcement of consumer capitalism."[web 8] The popularity of this new brand of mindfulness has resulted in the commercialization of meditation through self-help books, guided meditation classes, and mindfulness retreats.


Mindfulness is said to be a $4bn industry. More than 60,000 books for sale on Amazon have a variant of “mindfulness” in their title, touting the benefits of Mindful Parenting, Mindful Eating, Mindful Teaching, Mindful Therapy, Mindful Leadership, Mindful Finance, a Mindful Nation, and Mindful Dog Owners, to name just a few.[264]


Buddhist commentators have criticized the movement as being presented as equivalent to Buddhist practice, while in reality it is very possibly denatured with undesirable consequences, such as being ungrounded in the traditional reflective morality and therefore, astray from traditional Buddhist ethics. Criticisms suggest it to be either de-moralized or re-moralized into clinically based ethics. The conflict is often presented in concern to the teacher's credentials and qualifications, rather than the student's actual practice. Reformed Buddhist-influenced practices are being standardized and manualized in a clearly distinct separation from Buddhism seen as a religion based in monastic temples, as expressed as mindfulness in a new psychology ethic practiced in modern meditation centers.[265]
Risks[edit]


In media reports, people have attributed unexpected effects of increasing fear and anxiety, panic or "meltdowns" after practicing, which they suggest could expose bipolar vulnerability or repressed PTSD symptoms.[266] However, according to published peer-reviewed academic articles, these negative effects of meditation are rare for mindfulness meditation,[3][267][268] and appear to happen due to a poor understanding of what actually constitutes mindfulness/meditation practices.[7][267]
See also[edit]

Philosophy portal 
Psychology portal 

Alexander Technique 
Affect labeling 
Buddhism and psychology 
Buddhist meditation 
Choiceless awareness 
Coping (psychology) 
Coping Planning 
Dennis Lewis 
Eternal Now (New Age) 
Henepola Gunaratana 
John Garrie 
Mahasati Meditation 
Mahasi Sayadaw 
Metacognition 
Mindfulness (journal) 
Mindfulness Day 
Mindful yoga 
Nonviolent communication 
Nepsis 
Ovsiankina effect 
Phronesis 
Richard Geller 
S.N. Goenka 
Sacca 
Satya 
Satyagraha 
Samu (Zen) 
Sampajanna 
Satipatthana 
Self-compassion 
Shinzen Young 
Taqwa and dhikr, related Islamic concepts 
Transcendental Meditation 
Transcendentalism 
Mindfulness and technology 
Watchfulness (Christian) 
Mindfulness-based pain management 
Mindfulness-based stress reduction 
Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy 
Full Catastrophe Living 
Notes[edit]

^ Jump up to:a b Baer cites Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994): Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion, p.4. 
^ While translated as "mindfulness," and often interpreted as "bare attention," the term satihas broader connotations: "memory,"[11] "retention,"[12] "mindfulness, alertness, self-possession."[11] In a Buddhist context it has a wider meaning and purpose, related to vipassana, namely Sampajañña discerning what is beneficial and what is not, and calming the mind by this discernment.[13][14][15] 
^ Kabat-Zinn, in Full Catastrophe Living (Revised Edition) (2013), p. lxiv advises to use CD's with guided mindfulness practices: "Almost everybody finds it easier, when embarking for the first time on a daily meditation practice, to listen to an instructor-guided audio program and let it "carry them along" in the early stages, until they get the hang of it from the inside, rather than attempting to follow instructions from a book, however clear and detailed they may be."

Compare Rupert Gethin (2004), On the practice of Buddhist meditation, pp. 202–03, noting that the Buddhist sutras hardly explain how to meditate, and then stating that "the effective practice of meditation requires the personal instruction of a teacher." Gethin seems to echo Vetter (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, who notes that the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta describes the Buddha as instructing his first followers in turn: instructing two or three of them, while the others go out begging for food, signifying the need for personal instruction to learn ho to practice dhyana. 
^ See also Eating One Raisin: A First Taste of Mindfulness for a hand-out file 
^ Quotes from Gethin, Rupert M.L. (1992), The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiȳa Dhammā. Brill's Indological Library, 7. Leiden and New York: Brill 
^ Dreyfus concludes his examination by stating: "[T]he identification of mindfulness with bare attention ignores or, at least, underestimates the cognitive implications of mindfulness, its ability to bring together various aspects of experience so as to lead to the clear comprehension of the nature of mental and bodily states. By over-emphasizing the nonjudgmental nature of mindfulness and arguing that our problems stem from conceptuality, contemporary authors are in danger of leading to a one-sided understanding of mindfulness as a form of therapeutically helpful spacious quietness. I think that it is important not to lose sight that mindfulness is not just a therapeutic technique but is a natural capacity that plays a central role in the cognitive process. It is this aspect that seems to be ignored when mindfulness is reduced to a form of nonjudgmental present-centered form of awareness of one’s experiences.[79] 
^ Sharf: "Mahasi’s technique did not require familiarity with Buddhist doctrine (notably abhidhamma), did not require adherence to strict ethical norms (notably monasticism), and promised astonishingly quick results. This was made possible through interpreting sati as a state of "bare awareness"—the unmediated, non-judgmental perception of things "as they are," uninflected by prior psychological, social, or cultural conditioning. This notion of mindfulness is at variance with premodern Buddhist epistemologies in several respects. Traditional Buddhist practices are oriented more toward acquiring "correct view" and proper ethical discernment, rather than "no view" and a non-judgmental attitude."[web 2] 
^ "The word derives from a verb, sarati, meaning “to remember,” and occasionally in Pali sati is still explained in a way that connects it with the idea of memory. But when it is used in relation to meditation practice, we have no word in English that precisely captures what it refers to. An early translator cleverly drew upon the word mindfulness, which is not even in my dictionary. This has served its role admirably, but it does not preserve the connection with memory, sometimes needed to make sense of a passage.[85] 
^ Black: "[S]everal decades of research methodology and scientific discovery have defrayed these myths; mindfulness is now widely considered to be an inherent quality of human consciousness. That is, a capacity of attention and awareness oriented to the present moment that varies in degree within and between individuals, and can be assessed empirically and independent of religious, spiritual, or cultural beliefs.[89] 
^ "Mindfulness meditation" may refer to either the secular, western practice of mindfulness,[92] or to modern Buddhist Vipassana-meditation.[93][94][95] 
^ Vipassana as taught by teachers from the Vipassana movement is a 19th-century development, inspired by and reacting against Western modernism.[106][107] See also Buddhist modernism. 
^ Frauwallner, E. (1973), History of Indian Philosophy, trans. V.M. Bedekar, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Two volumes., pp.150 ff 
^ In Mahayana contexts, it entails insight into what is variously described as sunyata, dharmata, the inseparability of appearance and emptiness (two truths doctrine), clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness.[114] 
^ Majjhima Nikaya (MN), sutta number 118. See Thanissaro, 2006. Other discourses that describe the full four tetrads can be found in the Samyutta Nikaya's Anapana-samyutta (Ch. 54), such as SN 54.6 (Thanissaro, 2006a), SN 54.8 (Thanissaro, 2006b) and SN 54.13 (Thanissaro, 1995a). The one-tetrad exposition of anapanasati is found, for instance, in the Kayagata-sati Sutta (MN 119; Thanissaro, 1997), the Maha-satipatthana Sutta (DN 22; Thanissaro, 2000) and the Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10; Thanissaro, 1995b). 
^ [I]n Buddhist discourse, there are three terms that together map the field of mindfulness [...] [in their Sanskrit variants] smṛti (Pali: sati), samprajaña (Pali: Sampajañña) and apramāda (Pali: appamada).[116] 
^ According to this correspondence, Ven. Nyanaponika spent his last ten years living with and being cared for by Bodhi. Bodhi refers to Nyanaponika as "my closest kalyāṇamitta in my life as a monk." 
^ The resort to "experience" as the ground for religious truths is a strategy which goes back to Schleiermacher, as a defense against the growing influence of western rationality on the religious life of Europeans in the 19th century. See Sharf (1995), Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience.[107] 
^ "Historically a Buddhist practice, mindfulness can be considered a universal human capacity proposed to foster clear thinking and open-heartedness. As such, this form of meditation requires no particular religious or cultural belief system." - Mindfulness in Medicine by Ludwig and Kabat-Zinn, available at jama.ama-assn.org 
^ "Kabat-Zinn (2000) suggests that mindfulness practice may be beneficial to many people in Western society who might be unwilling to adopt Buddhist traditions or vocabulary. Thus, Western researchers and clinicians who have introduced mindfulness practice into mental health treatment programs usually teach these skills independently of the religious and cultural traditions of their origins (Kabat-Zinn, 1982;Linehan, 1993b)." - Mindfulness Training as a Clinical Intervention: A Conceptual and Empirical Review by Ruth A. Baer 
References[edit]

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Mindfulness Training as a Clinical Intervention: A Conceptual and Empirical Review, by Ruth A. Baer, available at http://www.wisebrain.org/papers/MindfulnessPsyTx.pdf 
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j Kabat-Zinn J (2013). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. New York: Bantam Dell. ISBN 978-0345539724. 
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j Creswell JD (January 2017). "Mindfulness Interventions". Annual Review of Psychology. 68: 491–516. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-042716-051139. PMID 27687118. Methodologically rigorous RCTs have demonstrated that mindfulness interventions improve outcomes in multiple domains (e.g., chronic pain, depression relapse, addiction). 
^ American Psychological Association (APA.org, 2012); Kabat-Zinn, in Purser, 2015; as cited at PositivePsychology.com, What Is Mindfulness? Definition + Benefits (Incl. Psychology). 
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^ Gotink RA, Hermans KS, Geschwind N, De Nooij R, De Groot WT, Speckens AE (December 1, 2016). "Mindfulness and mood stimulate each other in an upward spiral: a mindful walking intervention using experience sampling". Mindfulness. 7 (5): 1114–1122. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0550-8. PMC 5010615. PMID 27642373. 
^ Chan EY (2019). "Mindfulness and willingness to try insects as food: The role of disgust". Food Quality and Preference. 71: 375–383. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.08.014. 
^ Chan EY, Wang Y (September 2019). "Mindfulness changes construal level: An experimental investigation". Journal of Experimental Psychology. General. 148 (9): 1656–1664. doi:10.1037/xge0000654. PMID 31355654. 
^ Wachs K, Cordova JV (October 2007). "Mindful relating: exploring mindfulness and emotion repertoires in intimate relationships". Journal of Marital and Family Therapy. 33 (4): 464–81. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2007.00032.x. PMID 17935530. 
^ McLean G, Lawrence M, Simpson R, Mercer SW (May 2017). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction in Parkinson's disease: a systematic review". BMC Neurology. 17 (1): 92. doi:10.1186/s12883-017-0876-4. PMC 5433018. PMID 28506263. 
^ Lever Taylor B, Cavanagh K, Strauss C (2016). "The Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Interventions in the Perinatal Period: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". PLOS ONE. 11 (5): e0155720. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1155720L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0155720. PMC 4868288. PMID 27182732. 
^ Grossman P (April 2008). "On measuring mindfulness in psychosomatic and psychological research". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 64 (4): 405–8. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.001. PMID 18374739. 
^ Jump up to:a b Wallace BA (2006). The attention revolution: Unlocking the power of the focused mind. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0861712762. 
^ Chiesa A (2012). "The Difficulty of Defining Mindfulness: Current Thought and Critical Issues". Mindfulness. 4 (3): 255–68. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0123-4. 
^ Jump up to:a b c Safran 2014. 
^ Bazzano 2014. 
^ Giesler M, Veresiu E (2014). "Creating the Responsible Consumer: Moralistic Governance Regimes and Consumer Subjectivity". Journal of Consumer Research. 41(October): 849–67. doi:10.1086/677842. 
^ Safran, Jeremy D., PhD. "McMindfulness." Psychology Today. n.p., 13 June 2014. Web. 2 April 2015. <https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/straight-talk/201406/mcmindfulness>. 
^ Purser R. "The mindfulness conspiracy". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 January 2020. 
^ Shonin E (August 27, 2015). Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness (Mindfulness in Behavioral Health) (1st ed.). Springer. pp. 90–94. 
^ Foster D (2016-01-23). "Is mindfulness making us ill?". theguardian. Guardian News. Retrieved 2016-01-23. 
^ Jump up to:a b Shonin E, Gordon WV, Griffiths MD (2014). "Are there risks associated with using mindfulness in the treatment of psychopathology?" (PDF). Clinical Practice. 11 (4): 389–92. doi:10.2217/cpr.14.23. 
^ Wong SY, Chan JY, Zhang D, Lee EK, Tsoi KK (2018). "The Safety of Mindfulness-Based Interventions: a Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials". Mindfulness: 1–14. 
Further reading[edit]
Printed sources[edit]

Bazzano M (2014). After Mindfulness: New Perspectives on Psychology and Meditation. Palgrave Macmillan. 
Bell LG (2009). "Mindful Psychotherapy". Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health. 11 (1–2): 126–44. doi:10.1080/19349630902864275. 
Benhard JD, Kristeller J, Kabat-Zinn J (September 1988). "Effectiveness of relaxation and visualization techniques as an adjunct to phototherapy and photochemotherapy of psoriasis". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 19 (3): 572–4. doi:10.1016/S0190-9622(88)80329-3. PMID 3049703. 
Bishop SR, Lau M, Shapiro S, Carlson L, Anderson ND, Carmody J, Segal ZV, Abbey S, Speca M, Velting D, Devins G (2006). "Mindfulness: A Proposed Operational Definition". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 11 (3): 230–41. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.168.6212. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph077. 
Black DS (2011). "A Brief Definition of Mindfulness" (PDF). 
Boccio FJ (2004). Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath, Body and Mind. ISBN 0-86171-335-4. 
Bowen S, Chawla N, Marlatt GA (2010). Mindfulness-Based Relapse Prevention for Addictive Behaviors: A Clinician's Guide. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-987-2. 
Brahm A (2005). Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-275-5. 
Brantley J (2007). Calming Your Anxious Mind: How Mindfulness & Compassion Can Free You from Anxiety, Fear, & Panic (2nd ed.). New Harbinger. ISBN 978-1-57224-487-0. 
Buddhadasa B (2014). Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree. Wisdom publications. 
Deckersbach T, Hölzel B, Eisner L, Lazar SW, Nierenberg AA (2014). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Bipolar Disorder. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-1406-9. 
Didonna F (2008). Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness. Springer Science & Business Media. 
Dreyfus G (2013). "Is mindfulness present-centered and non-judgmental? A discussion of the cognitive dimensions of mindfulness". In Williams JM, Kabat-Zinn J (eds.). Mindfulness: Diverse Perspectives on its Meaning, Origins and Applications. Routledge. 
Gehart DR (2012). Mindfulness and Acceptance in Couple and Family Therapy. Springer Science & Business Media. 
Germer CK (2005). "Mindfulness. What Is It? What does It Matter?". In Germer CK, Siegel RD, Fulton PR (eds.). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. Guilford Press. 
Germer CK (2009). The Mindful Path to Self-Compassion: Freeing Yourself from Destructive Thoughts and Emotions. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-975-6. 
Germer CK, Siegel R, Fulton PR, eds. (2013). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy (Second ed.). Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-1137-2. 
Germer CK, Siegel R, Fulton PR (2005). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. The Guilford Press. ISBN 1-59385-139-1. (The use of mindfulness in psychology, and the history of mindfulness) 
Grossman P, Niemann L, Schmidt S, Walach H (July 2004). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits. A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 57 (1): 35–43. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(03)00573-7. PMID 15256293. 
Guenther HV, Kawamura LS (1975). Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan's "The Necklace of Clear Understanding" (Kindle ed.). Dharma Publishing. 
Gunaratana BH (2002). Mindfulness in Plain English. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-906-8. 
Hanh TN (1996). The Miracle of Mindfulness: A Manual on Meditation. Beacon Press. 
Harris MW (2009). The A to Z of Unitarian Universalism. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810863330. 
Hayes SC, Follette VM, Linehan MM, eds. (2011). Mindfulness and Acceptance: Expanding the Cognitive-Behavioral Tradition. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60918-989-1. 
Hick SF (2010). "Cultivating Therapeutic Relationships: The Role of Mindfulness.". In Hick SF, Bien T (eds.). Mindfulness and the Therapeutic Relationship. Guilford Press. 
Hofmann SG, Sawyer AT, Witt AA, Oh D (April 2010). "The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 78 (2): 169–83. doi:10.1037/a0018555. PMC 2848393. PMID 20350028. 
Hoopes A (2007). Zen Yoga: A Path to Enlightenment through Breathing, Movement and Meditation. Kodansha International. 
Ihnen A, Flynn C (2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Mindfulness. Penguin. 
Kabat-Zinn J (July 2000). "Participatory medicine". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 14 (4): 239–40. doi:10.1046/j.1468-3083.2000.00062.x. PMID 11204505. 
Kabat-Zinn, Jon (2011). Mindfulness for Beginners: Reclaiming the Present Moment--and Your Life. Sounds True. 
Kabat-Zinn, Jon (2013). Arriving at Your Own Door: 108 Lessons in Mindfulness. Hachette UK. 
Kabat-Zinn, Jon (n.d.). Wherever You Go There You Are. M indfulness Meditation (For Everyday Life) (PDF). 
Kapleau P (1989). The Three Pillars of Zen: Teaching, Practice and Enlightenment. Anchor Books. 
King WL (1992). Theravada Meditation. The Buddhist Transformation of Yoga. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 
King R (2001). Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East". Taylor & Francis e-Library. 
Kipf D (1979). The Brahmo Samaj and the shaping of the modern Indian mind. Atlantic Publishers & Distri. ISBN 978-0691031255. 
Koster F (2009). Basisprincipes Vipassana-meditatie. Mindfulness als weg naar bevrijdend inzicht. Asoka. 
Kristeller JL (2007). "Mindfulness Meditation.". In Lehrer PM, Woolfolk RL, Sime WE (eds.). Principles and Practice of Stress Management (Third ed.). Guilford Press. 
Langer EJ (1989). Mindfulness. Merloyd Lawrence. 
Linehan M (1993). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. Guilford Press. 
Marlatt GA, Kristeller J (1999). "Mindfulness and meditation". In Miller WE (ed.). Integrating spirituality in treatment: Resources for practitioners. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Books. pp. 67–84. 
McCracken LM, Gauntlett-Gilbert J, Vowles KE (September 2007). "The role of mindfulness in a contextual cognitive-behavioral analysis of chronic pain-related suffering and disability". Pain. 131 (1–2): 63–9. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.12.013. PMID 17257755. 
McCown D, Micozzi MS (2011). New World Mindfulness: From the Founding Fathers, Emerson, and Thoreau to Your Personal Practice. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. 
McMahan DL (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195183276. 
Melemis, Steven M. (2008). Make Room for Happiness: 12 Ways to Improve Your Life by Letting Go of Tension. Better Health, Self-Esteem and Relationships. Modern Therapies. ISBN 978-1-897572-17-7 
Miller JJ, Fletcher K, Kabat-Zinn J (May 1995). "Three-year follow-up and clinical implications of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention in the treatment of anxiety disorders". General Hospital Psychiatry. 17 (3): 192–200. doi:10.1016/0163-8343(95)00025-M. PMID 7649463. 
Nyanaponika (1998). Het hart van boeddhistische meditatie [The heart of Buddhist Meditation] (in Dutch). Asoka. 
Ockene JK, Ockene IS, Kabat-Zinn J, Greene HL, Frid D (1990). "Teaching risk-factor counseling skills to medical students, house staff, and fellows". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 6 (2 Suppl): 35–42. PMID 2383411. 
Ockene JK, Sorensen G, Kabat-Zinn J, Ockene IS, Donnelly G (March 1988). "Benefits and costs of lifestyle change to reduce risk of chronic disease". Preventive Medicine. 17 (2): 224–34. doi:10.1016/0091-7435(88)90065-5. PMID 3047727. 
Orsillo SM, Roemer L (2011). The Mindful Way through Anxiety: Break Free from Chronic Worry and Reclaim Your Life. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-464-8. 
Polak G (2011). Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology. UMCS. 
Pollak SM, Pedulla T, Siegel RD (2014). Sitting Together: Essential Skills for Mindfulness-Based Psychotherapy. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-1398-7. 
Safran JD (2014). "Straight Talk. Cutting through the spin on psychotherapy and mental health". Psychology Today. 
Saxe GA, Hébert JR, Carmody JF, Kabat-Zinn J, Rosenzweig PH, Jarzobski D, et al. (December 2001). "Can diet in conjunction with stress reduction affect the rate of increase in prostate specific antigen after biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer?". The Journal of Urology. 166 (6): 2202–7. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)65535-8. PMID 11696736. 
Segal ZV, Williams JM, Teasdale JD (2012). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression (Second ed.). Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-0750-4. 
Sharf, Robert (1995). "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience"(PDF). Numen. 42 (3): 228–83. doi:10.1163/1568527952598549. hdl:2027.42/43810. JSTOR 3270219. 
Sharf R (2014). "Mindfulness and Mindlessness in Early Chan". Philosophy East and West. 64(4): 933–64. doi:10.1353/pew.2014.0074. 
Siegel DJ (2007). The Mindful Brain: Reflection and Attunement in the Cultivation of Well-Being. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-70470-9. 
Siegel RD (2009). The Mindfulness Solution: Everyday Practices for Everyday Problems. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-294-1. 
Siegel, Ronald D. (2010). The Mindfulness Solution: Everyday Practices for Everyday Problems. The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-294-1 
Tanay G, Bernstein A (December 2013). "State Mindfulness Scale (SMS): development and initial validation". Psychological Assessment. 25 (4): 1286–99. doi:10.1037/a0034044. PMID 24059475. 
Teasdale JD, Segal ZV (2007). The Mindful Way Through Depression: Freeing Yourself from Chronic Unhappiness. Guilford Press. 
Teasdale JD, Williams JM, Segal ZV (2014). The Mindful Way Workbook: An 8-Week Program to Free Yourself from Depression and Emotional Distress. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-0814-3. 
Vetter T (1988). The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism. BRILL. 
Weiss A (2004). Beginning Mindfulness: Learning the Way of Awareness. New World Library. 
Williams JM, Duggan DS, Crane C, Fennell MJ (February 2006). "Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for prevention of recurrence of suicidal behavior". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 62(2): 201–10. doi:10.1002/jclp.20223. PMID 16342287. 
Williams M, Teasdale J, Segal Z, Kabat-Zinn J (2007). The Mindful Way through Depression: Freeing Yourself from Chronic Unhappiness. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-128-6. 
Williams P, Tribe A (2000). Buddhist Thought. Routledge. 
Wilson J (2014). Mindful America: Meditation and the Mutual Transformation of Buddhism and American Culture. Oxford University Press. 
Zgierska A, Rabago D, Chawla N, Kushner K, Koehler R, Marlatt A (2009). "Mindfulness meditation for substance use disorders: a systematic review". Substance Abuse. 30 (4): 266–94. doi:10.1080/08897070903250019. PMC 2800788. PMID 19904664. 
Web-sources[edit]

^ Komaroff A (March 31, 2014). "Does "mindfulness meditation" really help relieve stress and anxiety?". Ask Doctor K. Harvard Health Publications. Retrieved 22 April 2014. 
^ Jump up to:a b "» Geoffrey Samuel Transcultural Psychiatry". 
^ Jump up to:a b c d "Thesaurus results for 'Mindfulness'". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 7 January 2018. 
^ "Component Selection for 'mindfulness'". dico.isc.cnrs.fr. Retrieved 7 January 2018. 
^ Jump up to:a b c "I found great synonyms for "mindfulness" on the new Thesaurus.com!". www.thesaurus.com. Retrieved 7 January 2018. 
^ Finseth IF. "The Emergence of Transcendentalism". virginia.edu. The University of Virginia. Archived from the original on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2014. 
^ Booth R (May 7, 2014). "Politicians joined by Ruby Wax as parliament pauses for meditation" – via www.theguardian.com. 
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Purser, Ron; Order, ContributorRonald Purser is a professor of management at San Francisco State University He is an ordained teacher in the Korean Buddhist Taego; Loy, co-host of the podcast The Mindful Cranks David; Teacher, ContributorZen (July 1, 2013). "Beyond McMindfulness". HuffPost. 
^ Caring-Lobel A (July 2, 2013). "Trike Contributing Editor David Loy takes on "McMindfulness"". Tricycle: The Buddhist Review. 
Further reading[edit]



 

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Mindfulness 




 

Look up 念 in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 




 

The Wikibook Dialectical Behavioral Therapy has a page on the topic of: Core Mindfulness Skills 




 

Look up Mindfulness in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. 




 

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Origins 
McMahan DL (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195183276. 
Braun EB (2016). The Birth of Insight. Meditation, Modern Buddhism, and the Burmese Monk Ledi Sayadaw. The University Of Chicago Press. 
Wilson J (2014). Mindful America: Meditation and the Mutual Transformation of Buddhism and American Culture. Oxford University Press. Buddhism 
Nyanaponika. The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: Satipaṭṭhāna : a Handbook of Mental Training Based on the Buddha's Way of Mindfulness, with an Anthology of Relevant Texts Translated from the Pali and Sanskrit. 
Hart W (2011). The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation As Taught by S.N. Goenka. Pariyatti. Psychology 
Didonna F (2008), Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness, Springer Science & Business Media 
Ie A, Ngnoumen CT, Langer EJ (2014). The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Mindfulness (Two Volumes). John Wiley & Sons. Popular 
Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. Hyperion Books. 2005. ISBN 1401307787. Critical 
Levman B (2017). "Putting smṛti back into sati (Putting remembrance back into mindfulness)". Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. 13: 121–49. ISSN 2047-1076. 
Sharf R (1995). "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" (PDF). Numen. 42 (3): 228–83. doi:10.1163/1568527952598549. hdl:2027.42/43810. JSTOR 3270219. 
Carrette JR, King R (2005). Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion. Psychology Press. 
Kabat-Zinn J, Williams M (2013). Mindfulness – Diverse perspectives on its meanings, origins and applications. Routledge. 
Thompson, Evan (2020). Why I am Not a Buddhist. Yale University Press.

하나님 여호와의 이름을 망령되게 부르지 말라 - 오강남

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Kang-nam Oh

“하나님 여호와의 이름을 망령되게 부르지 말라” - 오강남

우리가 잘 아는 바대로 유대교와 기독교에서 신봉하는 십계명 셋째 계명은 “너는 네 하나님 여호와의 이름을 망령되게 부르지 말라. 여호와는 그의 이름을 망령되게 부르는 자를 죄 없다 하지 아니하리라.”(출20:7)

새번역에는 “너희는 주 너희 하나님의 이름을 함부로 부르지 못한다. 주는 자기의 이름을 함부로 부르는 자를 죄 없다고 하지 않는다.”

이 계명 때문에 유대인들은 “하느님”이라는 이름을 함부로 부르지 않는다. 얼마 전에도 잠깐 언급했지만, 그래서 다른 복음서에서는 ‘하느님의 나라’라고 되어 있는데, 유대인들을 위한 복음서였던 마태복음에서만은 ‘하느님’이라는 말 대신에 ‘하늘나라’라는 말로 대체했다. 따라서 ‘하늘나라’는 ‘하느님의 나라’는 말 대신에 쓰인 말이지 하늘에 있는 나라라는 뜻이 아니다. 하느님의 나라는 하느님의 통치원리가 작동하는 나라라는 뜻이다.

유대인들은 자기들의 성경에 하느님이라는 낱말 ‘YHWH’(Tetragrammaton)가 나오면 하느님의 이름을 함부로 부르지 않는다는 원칙에 따라 이 낱말을 발음하는 대신 '나의 주님‘이라는 단어 'Adonai'이라고 했다. 본래 히브리어 글자에는 모음이 없어서 계속 이 이름을 부르지 않다가 그 이름의 본래 모음이 무엇인지까지 잊어버렸다. 편법으로 YHWH자음에다가 ‘adonai’에서 모음을 따가지고 와 Iehouah 혹은 Jehovah라 불렀는데, 한국에서는 그것을 ‘여호와’라 발음했다. 현대 학자들은 그 낱말의 본래 발음은 Yahweh(야훼)이었으리라 추정한다.

시편23편 “YHWH는 나의 목자시니 부족함이 없으리로다”라고 한 것을 개역 성경에는 “여호와는 나의 목자시니”라고 했지만 공동번역에서는 “야훼는 나의 목자시니”라 하고, 새번역에는 유대인과 기타 여러 나라의 번역 방식에 맞추어 “주님은 나의 목자시니”라고 했다.

지금도 캐나다 대학 유대인 학생들이 페이퍼를 제출할 대 보면 하느님이라는 말을 쓸 때마다God대신에 G-d라고 쓰고 있다. 하느님의 이름을 함부로 쓰지 않겠다는 의사 표시다.

내가 왜 이렇게 장황하게 유대인의 하느님 이름을 해설하고 있는가? “하느님 여호와의 이름을 망령되이 이르지 말라”고 하는 것이 이런 뜻만일까 하는데 생각이 미쳐서이다.

며칠 전 화창한 봄 날씨라, Port Moody에 있는 집에서 걸어갈 수 있는 거리의 Rocky Point라는 바닷가 공원에 나갔다. 벤치에 비스듬히 누워 그림자를 드리우고 있는 큰 나무들을 쳐다보고 있었다. 나뭇잎이 산들바람에 산들산들 나부끼는 것을 보면서 갑자기 저 높은 잔가지와 잎들까지 어떻게 수분이 올라가 저렇게 싱그러운 초록색으로 아름답게 빛날 수 있을까 하는 생각이 들었다.

이런 질문에 가장 간단한 대답은 만물을 주관하시는 하느님이 그렇게 하신다는 것이다. 그러면 더 이상 할 말이 없어진다. 어느 공대 교수로부터 들은 이야기다. 펌프로 땅에서 물을 길어 올릴 수 있는 한도는 10m라고 하는데, 나무가 흔들거리는 것은 펌프질하는 것과 같아 10m 정도 올려주면 거기서 다시 펌프질을 하여 10m 올리고 그러기를 반복하기 때문에 높이까지 수분이 올라 갈 수 있다고 한다. 맞는 말인지 모르지만, 어찌하여 수분이 높은 나무 꼭대기까지 올라갈 수 있는가 하는 대답으로 “하느님이 그렇게 하시니까”하는 것보다는 더 합리적이다.

가만히 생각해보면 어떤 어려운 질문이든지 거기다 ‘하느님’을 갖다 대면 말문이 막힌다. 왜 코로나19가 이렇게 기성을 부리는가? ‘하느님이 그렇게 하시니까’하면 병균의 발생, 전파 경로, 처리 방법 등 역학적 연구가 필요 없는 노고가 될 수밖에 없다. 왜 경제가 이렇게 나쁜가 하는데, ‘하느님이 그렇게 하셔서’라고 하면 수요 공급이 어떻고 하는 경제학이 쓸데가 없어진다. 왜 오늘 비가 오는가 하는 질문에 하느님이 비가 오게 하셨다고 하면 기압골이 어떻고 고기압, 저기압 하는 기상학이 의미 없어진다. 왜 세월호가 침몰했는가? 하느님이 그렇게 하셨다 하면 사고 원인이나 인명구조의 난맥상 등에 대한 조사 연구가 쓸데없게 된다.

어떤 역사적, 과학적, 사회적, 정치적 분야의 학문적 발전은 하느님을 빼고 설명하려 노력한 결과다. 이런 분야의 질문에 대해서 그 대답으로 하느님의 이름을 갖다 대면 이성과 지성의 활용 자체가 무의미해진다. 이것이 바로 “하느님 이름을 망령되게 부르는 것”이 아닌가. 아이러니 하게도 이른바 믿음이 좋다고 하는 들이 이렇게 무슨 문제에나 함부로 하느님의 이름을 들먹여 인간의 지적 발전을 저해하는 것, 이것이 바로 야훼가 “그의 이름을 망령되게 부르는 자를 죄 없다 하지 아니하리라.”고 한 까닭이 아닐까.

공원에서 아름다운 나무를 보면서 문득 든 생각 한 조각이다.



130Kang-nam Oh, Myung-kwon Lee and 128 others

황호건
창세기 1~3장의 창조 설화에서 다른 사물의 이름을 다 짓게 하면서 신의 이름은 어떻게 불러 달라거나 지으라고 하지 않았을까? 이름 없는 신...이름이 주어지면 의미가 주어지고 구분된다. 이제 이름 만으로 실체와 관계 없이 상을 만든다. 신의 이름이 주어지면 신은 그 이름에 갖혀 제한된다. 그래서 궁극적 관심, 없이 계신 분 등으로 지칭했는지도 모른다. 나는 '하늘 아버지'라 부른다. 대명사가 아니라 실체 그대로를 부른다 예수께서 그렇게 부르셨다.

최종원
선악과로 상징되는 분별심만 없애면 바로 그 마음이 하느님이라 생각합니다. 항상 기쁨이 가득한 그 마음.

류제동
정말 타당한 말씀입니다. 퍼갑니다.^^

Bill Park
한국 기독교는 예수와 상관이 없는 한국식 유태라는 것이 저의 인식입니다. 너무 신기한 것은 유태교들과는 대화가 가능해도 한국 기독교인들과는 대화가 불가능하다는 사실입니다. 유태교에서 기독교로 개종한 유태인 목사가 시무하는 교회를 오랫동안 출석한 적이 있습니다. 그는 분명히 말하더군요. 모세 율법은 유태인들의 율법이라고.. 그리고 한국 목사들과는 달리 설교에서도 구약성경을 별로 인용하지 않습니다.

예수 이야기를 주로 하지

Byungchul Han

공감, 공감, 공감!!!

CK Park
뜻깊고 귀한 말씀입니다. 가져가 페친들과 나누겠습니다. ㅎ

Kang-nam Oh
한국도 어른 이름을 함부로 부르지 않는 전통이 있습니다.
떤 꼬마가 전학을 갔습니다. 선생님이 아버지 성함이 어떻게 되냐고 물었습니다. 꼬마 학생 왈 "진가진입니다."
선생님 왈 "어른 이름을 그렇게 함부로 부르면 되냐? 정식으로 다시 대답해봐!"
학생왈 "진짜 가짜 진짜입니다."

우인섭
잘 이해했습니다

Richard Park

셋째 계명의 현대적 해석이 공감됩니다.
지성이 배제된 하나님의 나라가 존재할 수 없으리라 여겨 집니다.
통치는 전 영역을 아우르고 있기 때문이겠죠?

윤종모

ㅎㅎㅎ 제 생각 하고 참 비슷합니다. 아무데나 갖다 붙이는 하느님... 제가 젊었을 때 많이 아픈적이 있는데 내가 죄를 지어서 하나님이 나를 때리는 것리라 하여 병문안 온 친구를 내쫓은 적이 있답니다.