Click on the image to open expanded view
Follow the author
Swami BhaskaranandaSwami Bhaskarananda
Follow
The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Overview of the World's Oldest Religion Paperback – 14 January 2002
by Swami Bhaskarananda (Author)
4.5 out of 5 stars 237
This book gives clearly written explanations of the basic ideas and practices of Hinduism and its culture. It answers so many questions Do the Hindus worship many gods? Are the Hindus idol worshippers? What is the purpose of life? What are Hinduism's spiritual practices? and so on, covering the most mundane to the most profound ideas and questions of Hinduism.
Report an issue with this product
Print length
247 pages
Language
English
Publisher
Viveka Press
Frequently bought together
This item: The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Overview of the World's Oldest Religion
$45.21$45.21
Product description
Review
Swami Bhaskarananda, a monk of the Ramakrishna order, here offers a brief catechism aimed at Westerners unacquainted with Hindu religious traditions. Perforce covering those traditions in broad terms without going into doctrinal complexities, his book has a straightforward style that should appeal to casual readers and students at a basic level but will not interest advanced students and scholars. Bhaskarananda, who has founded and led several Vedanta societies, has also been involved in interfaith relations. His tone is frequently apologetic, and he corrects American stereotypes about India and Hindus. In general, he points out, Hinduism emphasizes family and personal devotion over communal celebration and values variety in viewpoint and observance. While this book is not broad enough to be a reference work and is somewhat biased toward the Vedanta philosophical school of thought, it could fill a gap in collections on Hindu philosophy and practice, especially in those collections dominated by the works of individual gurus. Recommended for public libraries. James F. DeRoche, Alexandria,
Copyright 2002 Cahners Business Information, Inc. --From Library Journal
This book, now in its second printing, has been hailed by many Hindus and Western students of Hinduism as the book that best explains the profound ideas of Hinduism in a clear, precise and easily understandable way. They especially note the author's use of excellent analogies and examples. Many classes on Hinduism use this book as their main text. Often people buy more than one copy at a time so as to be able to keep one copy and to be able to give another as a gift to friends or family. Since it was first published its popularity has been steadily growing. --From the Publisher
I wanted to help people understand Hinduism without having to go through a lot of technical details. I have tried to make it easy to understand, without indulging in oversimplification. The topics covered address the questions I've most often encountered over the last, nearly three decades of my stay in America. --From the Author
About the Author
Swami Bhaskarananda, a monk of the Ramakrishna Order of India since 1958, studied for many years under the scholarly monks of the Order before he was sent to the United States to head the Vedanta Society of Western Washington in 1974. He is also the spiritual head of the Vedanta Societies in Hawaii and Vancouver, Canada. On invitation, the Swami has traveled extensively throughout the world giving talks on Hinduism and other spiritual topics. He is a founding member and past President of the Interfaith Council of Washington State, as well as an Interfaith Partner in the Church Council of Greater Seattle. The Swami is the author of the book "Meditation, Mind, and Patanjali's Yoga" and is the founder and editor-in-chief of the quarterly journal "Global Vedanta."
Product details
Publisher : Viveka Press; 2nd edition (14 January 2002)
Language : English
Paperback : 247 pages
ISBN-10 : 1884852041
ISBN-13 : 978-1884852046
Dimensions : 13.34 x 1.27 x 19.69 cmBest Sellers Rank: 401,801 in Books (See Top 100 in Books)328 in Religious Ethics
3,273 in Hinduism (Books)
365,111 in Textbooks & Study GuidesCustomer Reviews:
4.5 out of 5 stars 237
Top reviews from other countries
Translate all reviews to English
NB
4.0 out of 5 stars Brief compendium on HinduismReviewed in India on 10 April 2022
Verified Purchase
As the title suggests, this book is a brief compendium covering the core concepts and precepts of Hinduism. It's written in a simple language and does not come across as too heavy or abstract. Many topics will be familiar to most Hindu readers, some of the topics can be refreshed from the content in the book and there will be some content that will lead to gaining new insights. It also covers the righteous and ethical way of living as prescribed in our dharma.
Report
Kristyn
5.0 out of 5 stars In Depth and Well WrittenReviewed in the United States on 3 July 2020
Verified Purchase
I've always been interested in Hinduism but was very intimidated by the sheer amount of information available to chose from. This book is exactly what I needed to understand Hinduism. It is clear, concise, and uses analogies to articulate finer points. It has made it easier for me to find aspects of Hinduism I'd like to investigate and learn about more as well as give a great overview of the other subjects so I have a clearer understanding of how Hinduism came to be. I highly recommend this book to anyone interested in learning about Hinduism.
12 people found this helpfulReport
KundeS
5.0 out of 5 stars Ein interessantes BuchReviewed in Germany on 15 May 2021
Verified Purchase
Ein interessantes Buch
Report
Translate review to English
Amazon Customer
5.0 out of 5 stars UnderstandingReviewed in the United Kingdom on 27 May 2018
Verified Purchase
I have a better appreciation of this 5000 year old religion.
Report
Sam Smith
5.0 out of 5 stars Well organized, easy to understand, but not at all lacking in content. Great for those new to Hinduism.Reviewed in the United States on 5 June 2017
Verified Purchase
This book is simple to read and rich in content. The author did a fantastic job at painting a worldview for me, a westerner, to understand the Hindu faith in a way that I would not have if I had simply picked up a copy of the Bhagavad Gita translated into English. He breaks down ideas that may seem strange to westerners with Judeo-Christian perspectives, like Brahman or inherent human divinity, and builds a worldview for people who are on the outside of Hindu culture. I admire his work and have read many different parts three or four times, because each time something else stands out to me in a different way. It has truly changed my life.
11 people found this helpfulReport
===
Displaying 1 - 10 of 34 reviews
Profile Image for Aashish Satyajith.
Aashish Satyajith
25 reviews
2 followers
Follow
June 29, 2018
The book is written with the western audience in mind. The author seems to do justice to the title.
However, when Bhaskarananda says "Essentials", he means it. An introduction to the vast, vast array of Hindu literature gets over in a mere ten pages. That said, the book covers a broad spectrum of topics under the umbrella of Hinduism, and you will really learn a lot about it, breadth-wise.
The book also tries to clear many misconceptions and misunderstandings that the West (or even the East, for that matter) may have about Hinduism. Well thought-out analogies help in the same regard, in addition to clarifying various concepts from the Hindu philosophy.
Now, a word of caution. The numerous appearances of the word "God", "soul" etc. might be unsettling for people with a rational bend of mind. It will take more than an open mind for such people to go through the book.
One thing is clear: if you're unsure whether or not delving into Hinduism is worth it, by the time you're done with this book, you will have an answer.
7 likes
Like
Comment
Profile Image for Bill.
Bill
115 reviews
6 followers
Follow
April 2, 2022
This is good introduction to Hinduism. The most important thing I learned is that, contrary to the belief of most Westerners, Hinduism is not a polytheistic religion. Hindus often refer to God as singular, and they mean the one great all-pervading God, Nirguna Brahman. The three major gods of Hindu worship, Brahmā, Vishnu, and Shiva, are really just personifications of aspects of Brahman and not separate, independent gods. Each of these big-three has both male and female aspects or avatars, which in turn have many of their own avatars or incarnations representing various powers and responsibilities. Essentials of Hinduism says surprisingly little about the dozens of Hindu gods because ultimately they are all just aspects of Brahman. The focus of the book is on broader issues, including the nature of God, God realization, Hindu society and way of life, creation, ethics, karma, reincarnation, spiritual paths, methods of worship, yogas, and moksha or liberation from cycles of reincarnation.
2 likes
Like
Comment
Profile Image for Anil.
Anil
4 reviews
Follow
August 25, 2011
This is a very good book. It provides introduction to almost all aspects of Hinduism. Either for the existing generation Hindus or foriegners to Hinduism, it sets the right path to explore Hinduism. The book is very well written with small, simple and effective examples to make one understand the complexities of the elite thoughts in Hinduism.
Unlike other religion books (and the religion themselves), this book nowhere showcases how Hinduism is better than other religions in any way. This book just talks about the basics of Hinduism.
Definitely this book will plant the seeds of divinity in the reader if his/her mind is open for goodness.
2 likes
Like
Comment
Profile Image for Steve Minard.
Steve Minard
15 reviews
13 followers
Follow
April 11, 2011
A perfect introduction to Hinduism for someone who previously knew very little (and probably had several misconceptions). I had no idea just how many similarities Hinduism has with my other main Eastern interests, Buddhism and Taoism. This book explained the history, practice, and philosophy of Hinduism in a very simple, straightforward manner that was thorough, yet easy-to-understand for a newcomer. Highly recommended for anyone interested in Eastern religion and philosophy who has yet to seriously explore Hinduism. Great intro.
hindusim
2 likes
Like
Comment
Profile Image for Ashok.
Ashok
16 reviews
3 followers
Follow
May 1, 2013
This is a very good book. it tells all about what is Hinduism and more.Even if you are Hindu, you will love since it has more information which you don't know about hinduism
1 like
Like
Comment
Profile Image for Rikas Basheer.
Rikas Basheer
14 reviews
Follow
April 2, 2018
I picked up this book to get an overview, relationship of various concepts and a timeline of important events in the evolution of Hinduism that I have been exposed to growing up. One has to admit that it's pretty challenging to present a vast number of complex concepts of Hinduism in a book of this size. Overall, the book felt more like an academic textbook, less interesting and cohesive. Some parts of the book were, certainly, interesting. But the book did serve the purpose of what I wanted to learn. By providing both positives and criticisms of Hinduism, the Author does gain the trust of the reader in being unbiased. The Author goes into detail on the subject of Dalit and Women's treatment in Hindu scriptures and how the reality has been different and continue to evolve from them. I felt that the author could have gone into a bit more detail on the cultural assimilation between Aryan and Dravidian population over the years. After having finished the book, I still end up with some questions, for example, how Hinduism migrated to the south of India and how indigenous traditions and practices became a part of Hinduism. The book is filled with a lot of facts, definitions, key figures, information on different sects and timelines of events. I would recommend this book to anyone who is looking to gain a basic understanding of Hinduism, especially, the western audience.
spirituality
Like
Comment
Profile Image for Frank Jude.
Frank Jude
Author
3 books
47 followers
Follow
September 6, 2018
Right off the bat I would recommend this easy to read, very accessible "comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion" to anyone interested, teaching or practicing yoga in a western environment. Being "comprehensive" and purposefully written for lay-readers, it doesn't go into very great depth and detail, though I was surprised at how detailed it is!
Also, the only caveat is that, as it is written by a senior monk of the Ramakrishna Order, it lacks any real critical thought about Hinduism and serves a bit as an apologetic when addressing mostly superficial criticisms leveled at Hinduism.
Still, that said, this book serves as a wonderful introduction to the densely varied world of Indian philosophical/theological thought known as Hinduism. I can imagine how many mis-perceptions and distortions promulgated by western trained (200-hour!) yoga teachers could be nipped in the bud if they were required to read this book as part of their training.
cultural-history
history
mythology
...more
Like
Comment
Profile Image for Jeremiah Hopkins.
Jeremiah Hopkins
149 reviews
1 follower
Follow
December 13, 2023
Partially inspired from reading up on the history of religion and its roles in civilization as we know it, I thought it fitting to dive into other systems of belief that I may not be as familiar with. This overview of Hinduism, while not as detailed as other works, gives a well-informed and historic summary of this religion, how it was formed, and what modern Hinduism believes and values. I respect the spiritual disciplines and ritualistic dedication that Hindus exude to outwardly show their reverence for their god.
“An unbiased study of Hinduism reveals that it is neither pessimistic nor overly optimistic. Too much optimism causes frequent disappointments, while pessimism robs people of their initiative. Neither is encouraged by Hinduism. Hinduism is purely realistic. It encourages its followers to recognize the true nature of the world and act accordingly.”
7.4/10
religion
Like
Comment
Profile Image for Robert J. Gallo.
Robert J. Gallo
24 reviews
Follow
December 5, 2018
An Essential Explanation of Hinduism
This author provides an essential outline of Hindu culture and religious practice. The explanation of karma, reincarnation and other esoteric aspects of the East are well developed and presented. A very enlightening read.
Like
Comment
Forrest Yoder
22 reviews
Follow
June 5, 2019
Very well done, brief overview of the lifestyle that is hinduism
Well written gateway into understanding hinduism. Dispells many of the myths and much of the misinformation surrounding hinduism. Greatly enlightening.
Like
Comment
Displaying 1 - 10 of 34 reviews
More reviews and ratings
===
Table of Contents
Prefaces
Pronunciation Guide
I. HISTORY OF HINDUISM
The Ancestors of the Hindus and Their Religion
Supersensuous Truths—The Basis of Hinduism
Founder
II. GOD-REALIZATION
The Inevitable Goal
III. THE HOLY BOOKS
Vedas—the Revealed Texts
Samhitā and Brāhmana
Upanishads
Smritis
Darshanas—Schools of Hindu Religious Philosophy
Purānas
The Two Epics—The Rāmāyana and The Mahābhārata
The Bhagavad Gītā
The Tantras
Shaiva Āgamas and Pancharātra Samhitās
IV. INDO-ARYANS AND THEIR SOCIETY
Theories Concerning the Origin of the Indo-Aryans
Aryans and their Gotra
The Caste System
The Four Stages of Aryan Life
V. HINDUISM—A WAY OF LIFE
Hindu Marriages—Ancient and Modern
Hindu Funerals
VI. HINDU SOCIETY TODAY
Family Structure
Treatment of Children in Hindu Society
Condition of Women in Today’s Hindu Society
VII. THE ROLE OF FOOD
Did the Vedic Ancestors of the Hindus Eat Meat?
Why the Hindus of Today Do Not Eat Beef
Is the Cow Holy?
The Right Kinds of Food as Prescribed by the Scriptures
VIII. GOD
Introduction
Nirguna Brahman
Īshvara
Deities in Hinduism
Devas and Devīs: Beings With Shining Bodies
Presiding Devas or Devīs
Divine Incarnations
IX. THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA
Introduction
Sanchita Karma and Prārabdha Karma
Kriyamāna (Āgāmī) Karma
Hinduism’s View on Suicide
Hinduism’s Interpretation of Death in Childhood
Can a Saint Have Physical Illness or Mental Suffering?
A Divine Incarnation is Beyond the Karmic Forces
Suffering at Birth—Seen in the Light of Karma and
Reincarnation
Karmic Forces Do Not Completely Govern Human Lives
God’s Grace in Hinduism
X. THE DOCTRINE OF PREDESTINATION
XI. THE DOCTRINE OF REINCARNATION
Introduction
The Gross and Subtle Bodies of Man
Death and the Lokas—The Different Planes of Existence
Unfulfilled Desire Causes Reincarnation
Reincarnation—An Opportunity to Make Spiritual Progress
Transmigration of Souls
Reincarnation and the Idea of Evolution of Species
XII. HINDU ETHICS
Introduction
Dharma or Religious Duties
Five Debts or Pancha Rina
God Is the Upholder of Morality
XIII. GURU AND DISCIPLE RELATIONSHIP
XIV. TWO DIFFERENT SPIRITUAL PATHS
Introduction
Pravritti Mārga—The Path of Permitted Sensual Desires
Nivritti Mārga—The Path of Renunciation of Sensual Desires
XV. THE FOUR YOGAS
Introduction
Bhakti Yoga—The Path of Devotion
Jnāna Yoga—The Path of Rational Inquiry
Rāja Yoga—The Path of Mental Concentration
Karma Yoga—The Path of Right Action
XVI. WORSHIP OF GOD
Worship of God through Images
Ritualistic Worship
Hindu Religious Festivals
XVII. MANTRAS AND SACRED SYMBOLS
Introduction
The Sacred Symbol OM
The Gāyatrī Mantra
Mantras and Yantras in the Discipline of Tantra
XVIII. TEMPLES
Introduction
Temple Sites
Temple Architecture
Priests and Their Duties
The Role of Temples in Hindu Society
XIX. THE THREE GUNAS
Prakriti or Mother Nature is Composed of the Three Gunas
The Gunas Constitute the Universe
The Existence of the Gunas Can Only Be Known Indirectly
The Characteristics of the Gunas
God-vision is Possible with the Help of Sattva-guna
Liberated Souls Go beyond the Three Gunas
XX. CREATION
Introduction
Pralaya or the Dissolution of The World
An Objection Regarding the Hindu Theories of Creation and Its
Refutation
XXI. MOKSHA OR LIBERATION FROM SAMSĀRA
Introduction
Moksha According to the Dvaita School of Philosophy
Moksha According to the Advaita School of Philosophy
Moksha According to the Vishishtādvaita School of Philosophy
Moksha According to the Sānkhya School of Philosophy
Moksha According to the Pūrva-Mīmāmsā School of Philosophy
Moksha According to the Nyāya and the Vaisheshika Schools of
Philosophy
XXII. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Hinduism is Realistic—It is Neither Optimistic nor Pessimistic
Hinduism is not Fatalistic
Hinduism’s Position in Regard to Mortification of the Body
Idea and Practice of Nonviolence in Hinduism
The Idea of the Harmony of Religions is Inherent in Hinduism
APPENDICES
A—World Thinkers on Hinduism and Indian Culture
B—Major Hindu Religious Festivals
C—Suggested Reading
GLOSSARY
INDEX
List of Illustrations and Di
===
Full text of "The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Overview"
See other formats
Tlie Essentials
of Hinduism
A Comprehensive Overview of the World's Oldest Religion
Swarni
Bhaskarananda
THE ESSENTIALS
OF HINDUISM
A Comprehensive Overview
of the
World’s Oldest Religion
by
Swami Bhaskarananda
Viveka Press
Seattle
Viveka Press, Seattle 98102
©2002 by The Vedanta Society of Western Washington
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without the written permission of the Publisher, except where permitted by law.
For more information write to:
The Vedanta Society of Western Washington
2716 Broadway Avenue East, Seattle, WA 98102
Phone: (206) 323-1228
Email: society@vedanta-seattle.org
www.vedanta-seattle.org
1st edition 1994
2nd edition 2002
Reprintings: 2005, 2009
Electronic Publication 2010
Publisher’s Cataloging in Publication
(Prepared by Quality Books Inc.)
Bhaskarananda, Swami
The Essentials of ITinduism : a comprehensive overview
of the world’s oldest religion / by Swami Bhaskarananda.
— 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
LCCN: 2001091048
ISBN 1-884852-04-1
1. Hinduism. I. Title.
BL1202.B494 2002 294.5
QBI01-200710
Humbly dedicated to
Swami Vivekananda
who was the first
to make Hinduism known to
North America
Swami Vivekananda
The picture on the front cover depicts the Paramahamsa—a mythological
swan with the ability to drink the essential part of milk rejecting its watery
part. In Hinduism, a Paramahamsa is considered a symbol of a spiritually
illumined soul who has experienced the Divine Essence of everything by
rejecting the worldly lures of the senses. The goal of Hinduism is to
experience this Divinity in everything and every being. Furthermore, it is
seen that a Paramahamsa remains in water and yet the water never clings
to its feathers. Similarly, a spiritually illumined soul lives in the world, yet
is never contaminated by it.
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations and Dia g rams
Prefaces
Pronunciation Guide
I. HISTORY OF HINDUISM
The Ancestors of the Hindus and Their Reli g ion
Suoersensuous Truths—The Basis of Hinduism
Founder
II. GOD-REALIZATION
The Inevitable Goal
III. THE HOLY BOOKS
Vedas —the Revealed Texts
Samhita and Brahmana
U oanishads
Smritis
Darshanas —Schools of Hindu Reli g ious Philoso phy
Puranas
The Two Epics— The Ramavana and The Mahabharata
The Bha a avad GTta
The Tantras
Shaiva A a amas and Pancharatra Samhitas
IV. INDO-ARYANS AND THEIR SOCIETY
Theories Concernin g the Ori g in of the Indo-Arvans
Ar yans and their Gotra
The Caste System
The Four Sta g es of Aryan Life
V. HINDUISM—A WAY OF LIFE
Hindu Marria g es—Ancient and Modern
Hindu Funerals
Vi. HINDU SOCIETY TODAY
Family Structure
Treatment of Children i n Hindu Societ y
Condition of Women jn Today’s Hindu Societ y
VII. THE ROLE OF FOOD
Did the Vedic Ancestors of the Hindus Eat Meat?
Whv the Hindus of Today Do Not Eat Beef
Is the Cow Hol y?
The Ri g ht Kinds of Food as Prescribed bv the Scripture s
VIII. GOD
Introduction
Nir a una Brahman
Jshvara
Deities in Hinduism
Devas and Dew's: Bein g s With Shinin g Bodies
Presidin g Devas or DevTs
Divine incarnations
IX. THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA
Introduction
Sanchita Karma and Prarabdha Karma
Krivamana (Aa ami ) Karma
Hinduism’s View on Suicide
Hinduism’s Interpretation of Death in Childhood
Can a Saint Have Physical Illness or Mental Sufferin g?
A Divine Incarnation is Beyond the Karmic Forces
Sufferin g at Birth—Seen in the L ia ht of Karma
Reincarnation
Karmic Forces Do Not Completely Govern Human Lives
God’s Grace in Hinduism
X. THE DOCTRINE OF PREDESTINATION
XI. THE DOCTRINE OF REINCARNATION
Introduction
The Gross and Subtle Bodies of Man
Death and the Lokas —The Different Planes of Existence
and
Unfulfilled Desire Causes Reincarnation
Reincarnation—An O p portunity to Make Spiritual Pro g ress
Transmi g ration of Souls
Reincarnation and the Idea of Evolution of Species
XII. HINDU ETHICS
Introduction
Pharma or Reli g ious Duties
Five Debts or Pancha Rina
God Is the Upholder of Moralit y
XIII. GURU AND DISCIPLE RELATIONSHIP
XIV. TWO DIFFERENT SPIRITUAL PATHS
Introduction
Pravritti Mama —The Path of Permitted Sensual Desires
Nivritti Mama —The Path of Renunciation of Sensual Desires
XV. THE FOUR YOGAS
Introduction
Bhakti Yo g a —The Path of Devotion
Jnana Yo g a —The Path of Rational Inouirv
Ra ia Yo g a —The Path of Mental Concentration
Karma Yoga —The Path of Ri g ht Action
XVI. WORSHIP OF GOD
Worship of God throu g h Ima ges
Ritualistic Worshi p
Hindu Reli g ious Festivals
XVII. MANTRAS AND SACRED SYMBOLS
Introduction
The Sacred Symbol OM
The Gavatri Mantra
Mantras and Yantras i n the Discipline of Tantra
XVIII. TEMPLES
Introduction
Temple Sites
Temple Architecture
Priests and Their Duties
The Role of Temples in Hindu Societ y
XIX. THE THREE GUNAS
Prakriti or Mother Nature is Composed of the Three Gunas
The Gunas Constitute the Universe
The Existence of the Gunas Can Only Be Known indirectl y
The Characteristics of the Gunas
God-vision is Possible with the Help of Sattva-auna
Liberated Souls Go beyond the Three Gunas
XX. CREATION
Introduction
Pralava or the Dissolution of The World
An Ob j ection Re g ardin g the Hindu Theories of Creation and Its
Refutation
XXI. MOKSHA OR LIBERATION FROM SAMSARA
Introduction
Moksha Accordin g to the Dvaita School of Philoso phy
Moksha Accordin g to the Advaita School of Philoso phy
Moksha Accordin g to the Vishishtadvaita School of Philoso phy
Moksha Accordin g to the Sankhva School of Philoso phy
Moksha Accordin g to the Purva-MTmamsa School of Philoso phy
Moksha Accordin g to the N va va and the Vaisheshika Schools of
Philoso phy
XXII. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Hinduism is Realistic—It i s Neither Optimistic nor Pessimistic
Hinduism is not Fatalistic
Hinduism’s Position in Re g ard to Mortification of the Bod y
Idea and Practice of Nonviolence in Hinduism
The Idea of the Harmony of Reli g ions is Inherent in Hinduism
APPENDICES
A—World Thinkers on Hinduism and Indian Culture
B—Ma j or Hindu Reli g ious Festivals
C—Su gg ested Readin g
GLOSSARY
INDEX
List of Illustrations and Diagrams
Krishna Dvai pa vana Vvasa ( B. R. Chakrabort v)
Chart of the Hindu Scriptures I S. Wirth )
Chart of the Caste System t A. R. Freedman )
Shrl Chaitan va t B. R. Chakrabort v)
Mahatma GandhT t C. Mathias )
Four Sta g es of Indo-Aryan Life ( A. R. Freedman )
Ra j a Rammohan Ro v t C. Mathias )
Swann Davananda SarasvatT ( C. Mathias )
Meera Bai t C. Mathias )
Brahma—The Creator t C. Mathias )
Vishnu—The Preserver t K. Tea g ue )
Shiva—The Destroyer t C. Mathias )
Shrl Krishna ( B. R. Chakrabort v )
Chart of the levels of Pharma ( S. Wirth )
Chart of the Chakras ( C. Mathias and S. Wirth )
Divine Mother Dum a t C. Mathias)
OM or AUM ( S. Wirth )
Yantra of the Divine Mother t S. Wirth )
Kha i uraho Temnle t C. Mathias )
Vimana Style Temple t C. Mathias )
Nag ara Style Temple ( C. Mathias )
A Gonuram or temple g atewa y t C. Mathias )
The Process of Creation ( Sankhva school of philoso phy) ( A. R. Freedman )
The Evolution of the Gross elements ( Vedanta school of philoso phy) tS.
Wirth )
Shrl Ramakrishna ( C. Mathias )
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
During the past twenty years of my stay in the United States, I have
been invited to speak on Hinduism at many schools, colleges, and
universities. I have also spoken at numerous churches and synagogues. The
audiences, for the most part, have had either Christian or Jewish
backgrounds, and I have often received requests from these groups to
recommend a book which would help them understand Hinduism without
having to go through a lot of technical details. Many have complained that
the authors of the available books on Hinduism assume that the readers
already know quite a bit about the subject, making their presentation
difficult for a newly interested reader to understand. Moreover, the
descendents of Hindu immigrants, unfamiliar with their religious heritage,
ask their parents many questions which they are often unable to answer.
Some of these parents requested me to write a book on Hinduism which
would address these questions.
These are the reasons which inspired me to write this book. I have
tried to make it easy to understand, without indulging in oversimplification.
The topics covered address the questions I have most often encountered
from western audiences over the last two decades. Keeping in mind that a
large volume may easily daunt a college or high school student, the number
of pages in this book has been kept well restrained without sacrificing the
academic need of the students. An attempt also has been made to make this
book helpful to high school and college teachers who cover Hinduism in
their classes.
In the publication of this book the following persons have helped
immensely and I acknowledge their loving assistance with deep gratitude.
• Swami Atmatattwananda of the Vedanta Society of Southern
California for his help and guidance during the final stages of editing
the manuscript.
• Biswa Ranjan Chakraborty of Calcutta for providing various
illustrations and the original design upon which the cover is based.
• Diane Fitzgerald for final proofreading of the manuscript.
• Allen R. Freedman for his assistance with some of the diagrams
and charts.
• Devra A. Freedman for her help in editing and also preparing the
index.
• David Manning for providing thoughtful and constructive
suggestions after reading the manuscript.
• Charles Mathias for his many illustrations and the graphic design of
the cover.
• Terri Storseth for editing early copies of the manuscript.
• Kathleen and Timothy Teague for help with some of the
illustrations.
• Charles S. Wirth for providing assistance with the typesetting and
printing of the manuscript. I also thankfully acknowledge my debt to
the following publishers:
• Advaita Ashrama, Mayavati, India, for permission to use
quotations from Great Women of India.
• The R am akri s h n a-Vivekanan da Center of New York for permission
to use quotations from The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna.
• The Vedanta Society of Southern California for permission to use
quotations from Swami Prabhavananda’s translation of the
Upanishads.
• John Benjamins Publishing Company, Philadelphia, for permission
to quote Walter H. Maurer’s translation of the Nasadlya Sukta
contained in Pinnacles of India’s Past; Selections from the Rg-Veda.
I shall consider my labor well rewarded if the book proves to be
helpful to those for whom it is intended.
Swam! Bhaskarananda
October, 1994
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
In this edition slight changes have been make in the body of the book
to make it more accurate and suitable for the readers.
Swami Bhaskarananda
December, 2001
Pronunciation Guide
Sanskrit and other Indian words have been carefully and consistantly
transliterated—according to the chart below—hoping that the correct, or at
least close, pronunciation will thus be indicated,
a is to be pronounced as “o” in come
a is to be pronounced as in star
e is to be pronounced as in bed
i is to be pronounced as in sit
I is to be pronounced as in machine
o is to be pronounced as in note
u is to be pronounced as in pall
u is to be pronounced as in intrude
ai is to be pronounced as in aisle
au is to be pronounced as “ow” in now
bh is to be pronounced as in abhor
ch is to be pronounced as in church
chh is an aspirated version of “ch”
d is to be pronounced as th in thus
dh is to be pronounced as in adhere
g is to be pronounced as in god
gh is to be pronounced as in leghorn
kh is to be pronounced as in inborn
p is to be pronounced as in paternal
ph is to be pronounced as/in fine
th is to be pronounced as in thaw
sh is to be pronounced as in shall
I
HISTORY OF HINDUISM
Hinduism is one of the world’s major religions. There are about one
billion Hindus today. Most are in India, but sizable populations also live in
Nepal, Mauritius, Fiji, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Guyana, Indonesia (Bali)
and a few other countries. Hinduism is, by most estimates, several thousand
years old and holds the distinction of being the most ancient of the world’s
living religions.- Its exact age, however, is difficult to determine—although
it is known to be older than Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam.
Some scholars believe that Zoroastrianism, which is also one of the oldest
religions in the world, owes its origin to the same scriptural source from
which Hinduism has come.=
THE ANCESTORS OF THE HINDUS AND THEIR RELIGION
The ancestors of the Hindus were known as Ary as. The English
counterpart of the Sanskrit word Arya is Aryan, or Indo-Aryan. The Aryas
called their religion Arya Dharma —the religion of the Aryas. The word
Hinduism was completely unknown to them. The word dharma, in this
context, means religion or religious duties. Sanskrit, which belongs to the
Indo-European family of languages, was the language of the Indo-Aryans.
The Aryans also called their religion Manava Dharma, or the Religion of
Man, meaning that it was not an exclusive religion of the Aryans, but was
meant for the whole of mankind. Another name was Sanatana Dharma —
The Eternal Religion, illustrating their belief that the religion was based on
some eternal truths.
The name Hinduism came much later. One of the neighboring
countries, Persia, had a common border with ancient India, which at that
time was known as Aryavarta—the land of the Aryans. This common
border between Persia and ancient India was the river Indus, called in
Sanskrit, Sindhu. The Persians could not pronounce Sindhu correctly; they
pronounced it Hindu. They also called the Aryans, living on the other side
of the river Sindhu, Hindus; thus the religion of the Aryans became known
as Hinduism.
SUPERSENSUOUS TRUTHS—THE BASIS OF HINDUISM
• Where did the universe come from, and how?
• If there is a Creator, what is He like? What is the relationship between
the created and the Creator?
• What happens to us when we die?
• Do we exist after our death?
• Did we exist before our birth?
Such questions have challenged the human mind since the dawn of
civilization. Even those with the most intelligent minds have not found
definite answers to these questions. Whatever answers they have found are
based on mere speculation. But some spiritually illumined saints, with the
help of their special purified minds, found the answers and have made them
known to us. These answers were eventually recorded in books known as
scriptures.- Scriptures, according to Hinduism, are unique in their ability to
reveal truths not knowable by average impure minds. The difference
between an “impure” and a “pure” mind can be explained by the following
analogy.
Ice, water and water vapor—all three are the same chemical substance.
Yet they differ greatly in their properties. Relatively speaking, ice has the
least freedom among the three; it can hardly move. Water has more
freedom; it can easily flow and spread out. Water vapor has the maximum
amount of freedom. Not only can it freely spread out in every direction, but
being invisible, it is also the most subtle of the three. It can reach where
neither ice nor water can ever go.
So also is the human mind. An impure mind, no matter how intelligent,
has many limitations. It cannot know anything beyond the domain of sense
perception or what lies beyond the world of time and space. It cannot know
what is going to happen the next moment or what happened in the distant
past. Metaphysical truths, such as the knowledge of the existence of God or
the hereafter, are beyond the scope of such a mind. But when that same
mind is purified or transformed through spiritual discipline into an
extraordinary mind, it can transcend the barriers of the sense world and
reach the outermost frontier of the world of time and space. It can then
glimpse what lies beyond the domain of the senses. It gains extraordinary
capabilities. It becomes all-knowing; it can know all the events of the past,
present and the future. A genuine saint possesses such a pure mind. With
the help of that mind the saint comes to know the truth about God, the soul,
creation, etc. Such truths are called super sensuous- or metaphysical truths.
Hinduism, like the other major religions of the world, is based on such
truths discovered by its pure-minded sages.
FOUNDER
Hinduism has the unique distinction of having no known founder. One
may wonder how there can be a religion without any founder. The eternal
and supersensuous truths discovered by ancient Indian sages are the
foundation of Hinduism. These sages preferred to remain anonymous
because they realized that these Truths must always have existed, just as the
laws of gravitation had already existed when they were discovered by
Newton. The sages also realized that these Eternal Truths had come from
God, the same source from which everything in creation had come. As the
Truths were revealed by God, the sages called them apaurusheya —not
man-made.
Having no known founder gives Hinduism a certain advantage over
other religions. Had it been a religion with a specific founder, it would have
been hard for Hinduism to undergo the kind of evolution it has experienced
during the past many thousand years. Various saints and Divine
Incarnations at different times have appeared on the stage, played their
individual roles, and enriched Hinduism with their teachings. By
reinterpreting earlier scriptural texts they have made the religion relevant to
changed times and people. They also have given validity to the scriptural
truths through their own spiritual experiences.
Any ancient religion can be compared to the attic of an old home.
Unless the attic is regularly cleaned, it gathers dust and cobwebs and
eventually becomes unusable. Similarly, if a religion cannot be updated or
cleaned from time to time, it loses its usefulness and cannot relate anymore
to changed times and people. But this did not happen to Hinduism.
Fortunately, at different periods, many genuine saints born in India have
cleansed, reformed and revitalized Hinduism and made it relevant to their
times. This would not have been possible had Hinduism had a founder.
Footnotes Chapter I
L Information Please Almanac (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993), 411.
2. Jatindra Mohan Chatterji, Hymns of Atharvan Zarathustra (Calcutta: The Parsi Zoroastrian
Association, 1967).
3. The Sanskrit word dharma has other meanings such as property or quality.
A The Sanskrit definition, Ajndtajnapakam shdstram, means “What makes the unknown known is a
scripture.”
5. Super: Latin, above or beyond. Thus “beyond the senses.”
II
GOD-REALIZATION
THE INEVITABLE GOAL
Hinduism recognizes four goals of human life:
• Kama —satisfying the desire for sense pleasure
• Artha —acquisition of worldly possessions or money
• Dharma —observance of religious duties
• Moksha —liberation achieved through God-realization-
Among these four, kama is considered the lowest because this urge is
common to both man and animals. Artha, on the other hand, is noticeable
mainly in human beings, and is considered superior to kama. The third goal,
dharma,- is no other than a training in self-sacrifice. Kama and artha are
rooted in selfishness, dharma is not. Thus, dharma is superior to kama and
artha.
The Hindu way of life consists in the performance of a series of
religious duties or dharma as dictated by the scriptures. Even in order to
acquire worldly possessions or to satisfy his passions a Hindu must hold on
to dharma. This is why kama and artha —which are mentioned as two
separate goals different from dharma —are placed under the category of
dharma by some scholars.-
Moksha, which means “liberation,” can be achieved only through the
realization of God. Hinduism believes in God’s omnipresence and speaks of
the presence of Divinity in every human being. At any given point of time
Divinity is equally present in all, but not equally manifest. The purpose of
spiritual practice is to manifest this inherent Divinity. When this Divinity
becomes fully manifest, a person is said to have become a God-realized
soul; he is also said to have attained moksha.
This Divinity is the true Self of man. It forms the very core of man’s
existence. One can give up whatever is extraneous, but not that which forms
the very core of one’s being. Sooner or later this true Self, or Divinity, must
manifest itself. All without any exception will eventually attain moksha.
Some highly evolved souls may accomplish this in this life, or after their
death. Others who are not as evolved may need several more incar- nations.
Conscious effort or sincere spiritual practice, however, can help one to
achieve this goal faster. Nonetheless, everybody is unconsciously
proceeding towards this goal.
According to Hinduism Infinite Bliss is one of the principal aspects of
Divinity. Even when man pursues kama or artha he is unconsciously trying
to reach his Divine Self—which is Infinite Bliss.- No matter how much
plea- sure or money he gets, he craves for more. He cannot find satisfaction
through them, because the joy that he gets from such pleasure or money is
finite. Eventually he realizes that searching for Infinite Bliss through such
finite external means will lead him nowhere.
This awareness inspires him to turn around and consciously search for
that fountain of Infinite Bliss within himself. When he arrives at this
perennial source of Infinite Bliss, all his wants and cravings disappear. He
then experiences God—the all-pervading Divinity—both within himself
and without. He experiences God as the essence of everything and every
being. He loves all, even his enemies, because he sees no enemy anywhere.
He transcends all suffering, fear and sorrow. In this state any interaction
with the world is a most joyous and rewarding experience, because it is no
other than directly interacting with God. He sees himself as a part of a
Divine play where God is playing all the roles, including his own. He can
no longer identify with his body-mind-complex, which is subject to birth,
change, decay and death. He gains the unshakable conviction that he is the
eternal Divine Spirit—deathless and birthless.
This is moksha or “liberation.” Moksha- is the inevitable goal of
human life. Compared to this intensely blissful experience every other joy
derived from the senses is tasteless and insipid. The scriptures of Hinduism
again and again urge Hindus to consciously strive for this goal.
Footnotes for Chapter II
L God-realization means knowing without any doubt that God exists. Such knowledge can only
come through directly experiencing God.
T For more about dharma please see “Dharma or Religious Duties” here .
3. D. S. Sharma, What is Hinduism (Madras: The Madras Law Journal Press, 1945), 75.
4 Eternity, Perfection, Absolute Knowledge, Absolute Truth, Auspiciousness and Beauty are
among the other aspects of God according to Hinduism. These aspects are metaphorical expressions
suggesting the indescribable Nirguna Brahman or Impersonal God. To know more about the Hindu
concept of Impersonal God, please see here .
5. To know more about moksha read the chapter entitled Moksha or Liberation from Samsdra here .
Ill
THE HOLY BOOKS
VEDAS —THE REVEALED TEXTS
The revealed Divine Truths are called the Vedas. The Sanskrit word
Veda means knowledge. The Hindu sages considered these truths so sacred
that for a long time they did not put them in writing. They preserved them
in their memory and taught them to deserving students through oral
instruction.
The sages had phenomenal memory acquired through the practice of
celibacy. Celibacy is no other than conservation of energy. The sages of
ancient India knew that a person who did not waste his energy through
unrestrained sensual pursuits, particularly sexual activity, could greatly
enhance his memory and other mental faculties.- The other benefits of
celibacy were greater longevity and dharana shakti —the ability to
understand the deeper meaning of the scriptures. Equipped with such
memory the sages were able to memorize the numerous Vedic Truths. Their
students, who were also celibate, heard these Truths, memorized them, and
shaped their lives accordingly. As they were learned by hearing and not by
reading, the Truths came to be known as Shruti, which literally means
hearing.
In the beginning the Aryans were not a unified or homogeneous
nation. There were many Aryan tribes. Some of the tribes were fortunate to
have sages who had experienced supersensuous Divine Truths. These sages
or saints were called Rishis or Seers, because they had seen those Truths
with their purified minds.
A sage or a saint, in the context of Hinduism, is one who has directly
experienced God in this lifetime. A person possessing noble virtues and
engaged in doing good deeds is appreciated in Hinduism, but is not
necessarily considered a saint. Moreover, Hindu tradition does not
recognize sainthood through post-mortem canonization.
In course of time a need was felt to collect and compile the Vedic
Truths. A sage named Krishna Dvaipayana collected them from different
sources and recorded them in a book called the Vedas. The Vedas had four
parts— Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda and Atharva-Veda.- The older
texts of the Vedas , such as the hymns of the Rig-Veda , are written in an
archaic form of Sanskrit called Vedic or, less accurately, Vedic Sanskrit.
In recognition of his monumental compilation of the Vedas , Krishna
Dvaipayana was given the name Veda Vyasa.- Hindus still gratefully
remember this ancient sage and honor him by celebrating his birthday every
year. His birthday is called Guru Purnima or Guru's Day. The English
counterpart of the Sanskrit word guru is teacher. In this particular context
guru refers to the great teacher Vyasa.
Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa
The most important message of the Vedas is that everything
and every being is divine.- There are four very important statements
in the Vedas. They are called Mahavakyas or “great sentences.”
Three out of these four great sentences speak of the divinity of every
soul, the fourth speaks of the nature of God:
• Aham Brahmasmi —I am Brahman (God)
• Tat tvam asi —You are That ( Brahman )
• Ayam atma Brahma —This indwelling Self is Brahman
• Prajnanam Brahma —Supreme Knowledge is Brahman
Even though God is equally present everywhere He is not
equally manifest in every being, every thing or every place. To
explain, let us consider four light bulbs of 100 watts each. If turned
on, each one will give the same amount of light. Let us now cover
the first bulb with one layer of paper, the second with two layers, the
third with three layers, and leave the fourth uncovered. When we
turn the bulbs on, they will not give the same amount of light. And
yet, it cannot be denied that the same amount of light is present in
each one. Similarly, God is equally present everywhere, but not
equally manifest. His manifestation is greatest in Divine Incarnations
and spiritually- illumined souls, and least in a non-living object, such
as a rock. Vedic literature asserts the inherently divine nature of man
and provides means and methods to manifest this divinity.
According to the estimate of many scholars, the Vedic texts
must be at least 4000 years old.^ There is considerable controversy,
however, about when Vyasa lived, but it must have been before the
4th century B.C. The wellknown Hindu grammarian, Panini, who
probably lived in the 4th century B.C., mentions the epic
Mahabharata in one of his works. Therefore, Vyasa, the author of the
Mahabharata, most likely lived before the 4th century B.C.
Besides the Vedas, Hinduism has several other scriptures. But
the Vedas, being the revealed scriptures, enjoy a special place of
honor and are considered the most authentic. The validity of the
Vedic texts is never questioned. Their Truths have been repeatedly
validated by the experiences of Hindu saints who appeared at
different periods of time.
SAMHITA AND BRAHMAN A
As mentioned earlier, the Vedas have four parts: Rig-Veda,
Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda and Atharva-Veda. Each of these works
consists of two sections: Samhita and Brahmana. The former
contains hymns, and the latter explains those hymns and instructs
how and when to use them.
UPANISHADS
The Vedas also contain some highly philosophical portions
known as the Upanishads. The Upanishads are also called Vedanta
—the acme or culmination of knowledge. Among the 108
Upanishads available today, the following are the most popular: Isha,
Kena, Katha, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittinya, Chhandogya,
Prashna, Shvetashvatara and Brihadaranyaka.
SMRITIS
All Hindu scriptures, except the Darshanas and the Tantras, can
be placed within two categories: (1) the Vedas and (2) the Smritis.
The Vedic scriptures are the final authority. The scriptures belonging
to the smriti category have secondary authority only. All the
scriptures, except the Vedas, fall under the smriti category.
Hindu Scriptures
Vedas (Shruti)
Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda,
Yajur-Veda, .^tharva-Veda
Smriti
r i
Samhita Brahmana
Darshanas
I
Sankhya,
Purva Mimamsa,
L ttara Mimamsa (Vedanta),
Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika
Tantras
Agama & Nigama
Mahanirvana,
Kulasara,
Kularnava, etc.
Law-books
Manu-Smriti, etc.
~1
Epics
Upanishads
Isha, Kona, Katha,Mundaka,
Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya,
Chhandogya, Prashna,
Shvetashvatara,
Brihadaranyaka, etc.
Puranas
Bhagavata, Skanda,
Vayu, Mark^ndeya, etc.
Chandi
(part of the
Markandeya Purana)
I-
Ramayana
Mahabharata
I
Bhagavad Gita
The word smriti also has a technical meaning. It means a
lawbook^ or a manual of codes of conduct for the Hindus. Among
these ancient lawbooks, the lawbook of Manu is most well known.
Yajnavalkya, Baudhayana, Apastamba, Vashishtha and Gautama
are other ancient law-givers. The latest lawbook was authored by
Raghunandana.
DARSHANAS —SCHOOLS OF HINDU RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHY
Six different systems of philosophy, called Darshanas, were
developed by Hindu sages at different periods of time. They are
“religious” philosophical systems because their foundation is in the
Vedas. Also known as the Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, they
are as follows:
• The Sankhya school founded by Kapila
• The Purva-MTmamsa school founded by Jaimini
• The Uttara-MTmamsa or Vedanta school founded by Vyasa
• The Yoga school founded by Patanjali
• The Nyaya school founded by Gotama
• The Vaisheshika school founded by Kanada
The philosophical system called Vedanta should not be
confused with the other meaning of the word, the Upanishads.
All the authors of these religio-philosophical systems wrote
original treatises using very concise aphorisms, called sutras in
Sanskrit. The sutras, being very brief and terse, needed explanatory
notes or commentaries, which were written later by other scholars.
Vyasa’s treatise, which forms the basis of the Uttara-MTmamsa
system, is known as Vedanta Darshana or Brahmasutra. Several
commentaries have been written on this book by famous
commentators like Shankaracharya (c.700-740), Ramanujacharya
(1017-1137) and Madhvacharya (1199- 1278).
PURANAS
The deeper truths of the scriptures of Hinduism are quite
difficult and abstruse. They are beyond the scope of most people to
understand. The sages of India created a special type of religious
literature, called the Puranas, in order to present them in an
interesting and easily understandable manner. In the Puranas the
scriptural teachings are presented through stories and parables. In
all, eighteen Puranas are available today, among which Bhagavata
Parana, Skanda Parana, Vayu Purana, Padma Purana, Markandeya
Purana and Agni Purana deserve particular mention. The ChandT or
DevTmahatmyam, a popular book of Hinduism, is actually a part of
the Markandeya Purana.
THE TWO EPICS—THE RAMAYANA and THE MAHABHARATA
The Hindus can be proud of two great epics, the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata, which were composed by the sages ValmTki
and Vyasa respectively. These two epics, which are also called
Itihasa, contain many scriptural teachings side by side with the
stories of the various Aryan clans and dynasties. They are extremely
rich in literary treasures and mythological content. The profusion of
moral and spiritual teachings contained in them has raised them to
the level of scripture. The Bhagavad G~\ta, perhaps the most popular
scripture of Hinduism, is included in the Mahabharata. Both the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata have many exalted characters who
are considered role models by religious-minded Hindus.
THE BHAGAVAD GITA
This popular Hindu scripture forms a part of the Mahabharata. It
contains a dialogue between ShrT Krishna, a Divine Incarnation, and
an Aryan prince named Arjuna. In answering the questions of his
disciple Arjuna, ShrT Krishna gives many excellent spiritual
teachings. These teachings are a great treasure of Hinduism. The
Bhagavad G~\ta contains most of the essential teachings of the
Upanishads , giving it a status very close to that of the Upanishads.
THE TANTRAS
Side by side with the Vedic disciplines, Hinduism has another
parallel set of disciplines called the Tantras.- In the disciplines of
Tantra, God is looked upon as both a Male and a Female principle,
called Shiva and Shakti respectively.
Shakti is the creative power of Shiva. In modern scientific
terms, Shiva can be compared to potential energy and Shakti to
kinetic energy. When potential energy becomes active it is called
kinetic energy. When Shiva becomes active, He is called Shakti.
Conversely, when Shakti is inactive, She is called Shiva. It is Shakti
which has created this world. The relationship between Shiva and
Shakti is like the relationship between fire and its burning power.
They are always inseparable and one. Shakti, however, has many
other names. One of them is ParvatT.
The scriptural texts of Tantra are usually in the form of
dialogues between Shiva and ParvatT. The dialogues where Shiva is
the speaker giving spiritual teachings and ParvatT is the listener are
called Agama texts. Where ParvatT plays the role of teacher and
Shiva the listener, the texts are called Nigama.
Tantra is an all-inclusive religious system which is capable of
helping man at all levels of spiritual growth. It has spiritual disciplines
suitable for people from the highest cultural level to the lowest.
The Tantra literature is vast. Among the 64 most prominent
texts, we can mention Mahanirvana, Kulasara, Prapanchasara,
Kularnava, Rudra Yamala, Vishnu Yamala, Brahma Yamala and
Tantra raj a.
SHAIVA AGAMAS AND PANCHARATRA SAMHITAS
Shaiva Agamas are related to the Tantras. Of the original 28
Shaiva Agamas only 20 are available now.
Pancharatra Samhitas are the scriptures of certain Vaishnava
sects of Hinduism. The number of scriptural texts pertaining to these
Samhitas is 250; of them Brihad-Brahma, Ishvara and
Jnanamritasara Samhitas are particularly noteworthy.
Footnotes for Chapter III
L Pdtanjala Yogasutra; Sadhanapada, Aphorism 38: “Brahmacharyapratishthdyam
viryalabhah ”—“By the establishment of continence energy> is gained. ’’
2 According to the Vishnu Parana, Vyasa was helped by four of his disciples in the compilation of
the Vedas. Paila helped him to compile the Rig-Veda; Vaishampdyana, the Yajur-Veda; Jaimini, the
Sama-Veda; andSumantu, theAtharva-Veda.
2 The Sanskrit word vyasa means compiler.
P Sarvam khalvidam Brahma — “All, indeed, is Brahman (God). ”
P S. R. Goyal, A Religious History of Ancient India, vol. 1 (Meerut, India: Kusumanjali
Prakashan, 1984), 49.
(y These law books, authored by the ancient sages of India, are different from the law books
pertaining to the legal system of the Indian Government.
Z. In Sanskrit: Tanyate vistaryate jndnam anena iti tantram—“the scripture by which knowledge is
spread is called Tantra. ”
IV
INDO-ARYANS AND THEIR SOCIETY
THEORIES CONCERNING THE ORIGIN OF THE INDO-ARYANS
It is very difficult to arrive at any definite decision about the original
home of the Indo-Aryans. There is considerable controversy among
scholars about where they came from. For many decades archaeologists,
anthropologists, historians and philologists have independently or
conjointedly been trying to discover the original home of the Indo-Aryans.
Through their research they have developed various theories, but have not
yet been able to arrive at a common conclusion.
It is generally believed that the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans were not
indigenous to India, but migrated from some other region. According to
some scholars, such as Gafurov,- they came from Central Asia. According
to Tilak, the forefathers of the Indo-Aryans came from the Arctic.- Bender
thought that the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans most probably came from the
region where the Lithuanians have lived “for at least five thousand years. ”
Bongard-Levin is of the opinion that the ancestral home of the Aryans was
the region of southeastern Europe between the Dnieper and the Ural
mountains.-’- Some say that the migration of the Indo-Aryans into India
probably started around 1700 B.C. and continued till 1200 B.C.- However,
Swaml Vivekananda, one of the greatest exponents of Hinduism, believed
that the Indo-Aryans were indigenous to India, and had not come from
anywhere else.-
ARYANSAND THEIR GOTRA
In ancient times the Aryans were nomadic people. They had not yet
formed an urban society. Their wealth and livelihood depended mainly on
raising cattle. They constantly herded their cattle from one grazing ground
to another. In certain seasons the cattle needed protection from the ravages
of harsh weather. During a severe winter or the rainy season the cattle were
kept in secure shelters.
A shelter for cattle is called a gotra in Sanskrit. As these shelters were
relatively small in number, many Indo-Aryan families were obliged to put
their cattle in the same shelter or gotra. As a result, the cattle of one family
often got mixed up with the cattle of other families and disputes arose over
their ownership. To resolve such disputes, supervisors were appointed to act
as judges and give fair and just verdicts.
These supervisors were endowed with great moral and spiritual
virtues. They were appointed as supervisors because of their exalted
character and were called gotrapati, meaning Lord or Master of the gotra.
Some of them were later recognized as spiritually illumined souls. Among
these highly venerated gotrapatis are Shandilya, Bharadvaja, Kashyapa
and others, who are considered to be rishis (lit., seer or overseerj or sages.
When an Aryan of one clan or family met someone belonging to
another Aryan clan or family, he introduced himself by using the name of
his gotrapati, such as Shandilya or Bharadvaja. The descendants of these
Aryans, now called Hindus, carry on that same tradition and use the
gotrapati s name to identify themselves. Every Hindu, therefore, is expected
to remember the name of his ancestral gotra. To avoid inbreeding, marriage
between members of the same gotra was forbidden. But, now that many
centuries have passed, that custom is not followed as strictly.
THE CASTE SYSTEM
Originally the caste system had a qualitative basis and all castes were
treated equally
Indo-Aryans were divided into four castes or social categories,
known as the Caste System. Such division was originally based on
the inherent qualities or “career potential” of the individuals. A person
naturally endowed with noble qualities like truthfulness, serenity of
mind, nonviolence, compassion, and unselfishness belonged to the
Brahmin or priestly caste. Possessed of great spiritual and moral
virtues, he was considered the right person to teach and give
spiritual guidance to others. One naturally endowed with martial
qualities was fit for the Kshatriya or military caste. Kings and
administrators generally came from the Kshatriya caste. Similarly,
anyone naturally gifted with business acumen belonged to the
Vaishya or merchant caste. Others belonged to the Shudra caste.-
This fourth caste included farmers and artisans, etc.
The Caste System
Brahmin Kshatriya Vaishya Shudra
Priests Warriors Merchants Artisans
Teachers Kings Farmers Laborers
Administrators Cattlemen & others
Aryans who were exempted from the caste system, and the outcastes or
untouchables
Not all Aryans adhered to the caste system. For instance, all-
renouncing monks or Sannyasins were beyond caste rules. Though not
belonging to any caste, they were respected by one and all. Non-Aryans,
and the progeny of Aryans who violated the laws of Aryan society
pertaining to food, matrimony, and so on, were usually considered
outcastes. According to Manu, the most famous lawgiver, “A twice-born
man who knowingly eats mushrooms, a village pig, garlic, a village cock,
onions, or leeks, will become an outcaste.”-’-
Outcastes, for obvious reasons, did not enjoy the same status as those
belonging to the caste system. They had lower status in Aryan society, but
there is no evidence to prove that they were ill-treated or hated at that time.
Much later, during the decadent stage of the caste system, outcastes were
treated as inferior and given the name “untouchables.”
Caste system became degraded when made hereditary
Originally every caste was given equal importance. Each was
considered essential for Aryan society. Later, as time passed, vested
interests crept in. Caste, originally determined by the qualities and aptitudes
of the individual, was made hereditary by self-interested people in positions
of power and authority. They wanted to perpetuate their caste-based social
privileges. As a result, the caste system degenerated. Some castes were
artificially made superior or “higher” and others inferior or “lower.”
Brahmins , who belonged to the highest caste, comprised the learned
priestly class. Traditionally they were not rich. Nevertheless, they held
positions of respect and honor in society. Kshatriyas, belonging to the
second highest caste, held the positions of kings, administrators, or warriors
and could enjoy wealth and power. Vaishyas belonged to the next lower
caste. Even though they could never be priests, kings or military officers,
they could find satisfaction from wealth earned through trade. But Shudras,
reduced to the lowest caste and denied many privileges, including Vedic and
other higher education, suffered the most. This disparity in privileges
corrupted the caste system and eventually bred intercaste jealousy, hatred,
and conflict. Under these circumstances, the condition of the untouchables
or the outcastes became even worse.
The effects of repeated foreign aggression on Hindu India and the caste
system
As centuries passed, Aryan society underwent a lot of change. Starting
in 327 B.C., India was repeatedly invaded by many foreign aggressors,
including the Greeks, Huns, Arabs, Turks, Afghans, Persians, Mongols,
Portuguese, French and British. From the 13th century onwards the
Muslims ruled the greater part of India for nearly 600 years, until the
British took over power at the end of the 18th century. India shook off the
British rule in 1947 and became an independent nation. All these invasions,
many years of foreign rule, and the passage of time left their impact on
Hindu society. As a result, society changed, and the caste system changed
along with it.
During the British rule, the Brahmins were the first to benefit from
English education. Giving up their caste based traditional professions of
priesthood and teaching, many became medical doctors, engineers,
businessmen, government servants, and lawyers. Brahmins even went into
military service. Members of the other higher castes who took advantage of
English education also enjoyed similar opportunities. Still the fate of the
culturally and economically disadvantaged members of the lowest caste and
the untouchables remained more or less the same.
Even though the original character of the caste system was changed
beyond recognition, the false sense of superiority of one caste over another
still lingered on in some parts of India.
Steps taken to cure the degraded caste system
Since becoming an independent nation in 1947, the government of
India has given all citizens of India, irrespective of caste, color, sex or
religion, equal access to higher education and other facilities provided by
the government. Special scholarships and stipends are given to members of
the underprivileged classes to encourage them to pursue higher education.
The government also passed a law in 1949 banning untouchability.
Through the years many Hindu saints have strongly disapproved of the
decadent caste system and refused even to recognize it. For instance, both
Shri Chaitanya— and Shri Ramakrishna— taught their followers that lovers
of God do not have any caste whatsoever. Many social reformers also
condemned the degenerated caste system. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948),
the well-known freedom fighter and political leader of India, was very
critical of the ills of this system.
Mahatma Gandhi
Thinking people of India today unanimously condemn the severely
weakened and yet lingering specter of the caste system. Yet some
politicians and others with ulterior motives try to keep the system alive by
promoting intercaste hatred and conflict. Nevertheless, their efforts are
bound to fail, because more and more people are getting educated and no
longer believe in this system. Eventually, educating the masses and
improving their living standard, coupled with a healthy religious education,
will eradicate this decadent system. As proof of this, some intercaste
marriages have lately been taking place among the educated and relatively
more affluent urban population of India.
While India has its caste system, Europe has its “class system,” and
the United States has its own social strata based on wealth. SwamI
Vivekananda used to say that any attempt to remove the caste system
forcibly will only cause a similar system to take its place. According to him,
efforts should be made to raise the educational, cultural and economic
levels of Hindus from the so-called lower castes up to the cultural level of
the so-called highest caste Brahmins. Pulling the Brahmins down to the
level of the culturally disadvantaged lowest caste is not a healthy solution.
It will only cause further degradation of the Hindu society.
THE FOUR STAGES OF ARYAN LIFE
In ancient times the Hindus, known then as Aryans, were expected to
go through the four stages of Aryan life:
• Brahmacharya—the stage of a student
• Gdrhasthya—the stage of a householder or family man
• Vdnaprasthya—the stage of a retired person or hermit
• Sannyasa—the stage of a monk or ascetic
Four Stages of Indo-Aryan Life
First
^ Student }
X Second
^ Householder ^
Third
L
r >
Retired Person
or Hermit
^_ J
N
Fourth
Monk or |
Ascetic
1 z
Brahmacharya—the first stage of ancient Aryan life
In order to be educated, every Aryan boy between the ages of seven
and eleven had to go and live in his teacher’s home, where he remained
until his education was finished. Normally it would take about twelve years
to complete his education. During that period he was required to practice
complete celibacy and imbibe noble virtues, as well as get a formal
education. Great emphasis was put on developing character.
The role model for the student was his teacher, who was endowed with
many noble, moral and spiritual qualities. The teacher would not only give
the students secular education, but he was also their spiritual guide. In
addition to the study of the Vedas, the student studied grammar, poetry,
ethics, morals, mathematics, and astronomy. Yet the students were
emphatically told that the final aim of education was liberation through
Godvision.
The teacher looked upon his students as his own children and gave
them the same amount of love and affection. The students also considered
their teacher s home their own and helped with various household chores. A
student was called an antevasin. The teacher was called the guru or
acharya in Sanskrit. This period of studentship was the first stage of Aryan
life.
The relationship between the teacher and the student was not based on
money. The teacher would not accept any fee or salary. It was against
Aryan tradition to accept remuneration for any kind of teaching—spiritual
or secular. The teacher, usually a family man, lived a simple life devoid of
luxury. What few wants he had were most often met by occasional gifts from
the king. The students were not a financial burden on their teacher. It was
customary for the students to go to the neighbors ’ homes every day and beg
for food. They wore deerskin or processed tree-bark, a grass girdle and
matted locks. The cows owned by their teacher provided them with plenty of
nutritious milk.
On completion of his education the student was called a snataka,
which means a “bather. ” The word implies that the student had successfully
bathed in the water of knowledge. In today s language, becoming a snataka
would be like graduating from college. After graduation the students gave
gifts to the teacher as a token of their respect and gratitude. There was a
farewell meeting, and the teacher gave a final address to the students. The
Taittinya Upanishad, a part of the Vedas, has the following farewell address
given by a teacher to his departing students.— This address will convey
some idea about the duties and ideals of the students of the Vedic period:
Let your conduct be marked by right action, including study and
teaching of the scriptures; by truthfulness in word, deed, and thought;
by self-denial and the practice of austerity; by poise and self-control;
by performance of the everyday duties of life with a cheerful heart and
an unattached mind.
Speak the truth. Do your duty. Do not neglect the study of the
scriptures. Do not cut the thread of progeny. Swerve not from truth.
Deviate not from the path of the good. Revere greatness.
Let your mother be a god to you; let your father be a god to you; let
your teacher be a god to you; let your guest also be a god to you. Do
only such actions as are blameless. Always show reverence to the
great.
Whatever you give to others, give with love and reverence. Gifts must
be given in abundance, with joy, humility, and compassion.
If at any time there is doubt with regard to right conduct, follow the
practice of great souls, who are guileless, of good judgment, and
devoted to truth.
Thus conduct yourself always. This is the injunction, this is the
teaching, and this is the command of the scriptures.
After graduation the students returned home, marries and enters the
second stage of Aryan life—the stage of a family man or householder.
In ancient times, girls also resided in their teachers’ homes and
received education similar to that of boys. Later, as society became more
rigid, it became customary for girls to be educated at home. They were then
taught by their male relatives. The custom of begging food was observed by
them only within the confines of their homes. The wearing of deerskin, tree-
bark and matted locks by girls was banned. Nevertheless, around the 5th
century B.C., there were many learned women teachers enjoying the same
status and positions of honor as men teachers did. Among the great women
scholars of the Vedic period were GargT, the daughter of Vachaknu, and
Pathyasvatl, who for her scholarship was given the title Vach, meaning
“the goddess of learning. ” In the early Vedic period there were also women
sages; Vishvavara, Ghosha, and Apala, to name a few. Girls of the Vedic
period also learned singing, dancing, the playing of musical instruments,
painting, sewing, poetry-writing, carpentry, the making of garlands, and
other fine arts.
Nowadays that tradition is no longer followed. Students no longer live
and are educated in their teacher’s home, nor do they dress in deerskin,
bark and grass girdles, or have matted locks. Begging food from neighbors ’
homes is no longer done. The educational system in India today is exactly
like the educational system of any other country in the West. Teachers in
schools and colleges work for a salary as their counterparts in western
countries do. Teachers give secular education to the students, and society
no longer objects to their accepting a salary.
Nevertheless, the ancient tradition of not accepting money for spiritual
education is still honored in India. Any spiritual teacher or holy man who
violates this rule brings only disgrace to this time-honored tradition of
Hinduism.
Whatever changes have occurred in the ancient educational system are
mostly the result of nearly two hundred years of British rule in India, which
ended in 1947. Now Hindu girls attend western style schools and colleges,
some of which are coeducational. Just as the boys do, they study
humanities, science, engineering, medicine and arts and crafts. Generally
neither boys nor girls study the Vedas anymore. That tradition has gone out
of style. Still, they go to temples and observe the rituals of their religion
during the many religious festivals celebrated throughout the year.
Garhasthya—the second stage of ancient Aryan life
This stage of life started with marriage. Upon returning home the
student, with the permission of his teacher, married a young woman of his
own caste, but not of the same gotra. After marriage he lived the life of a
householder following the dictates of the scriptures.
Among other things, he had to perform the daily worship ritual called
the agnihotra where fire is used as the symbol of God, study the Vedas
regularly, earn an honest living, practice hospitality, raise children, be
charitable to the poor, honor his elders, and take care of his parents and the
other relatives living with him. According to the sage Manu, the renowned
law-giver of ancient India, it was the householder s duty to treat women
with honor and respect and make them happy by giving desirable gifts on
holidays and festivals. In the words of Manu, “Where the female relations
live in grief, the family soon wholly perishes; but that family where they are
not unhappy ever prospers.
The husband and wife were expected to observe complete fidelity, and
it was their duty to create a happy atmosphere at home. “In that family,
where the husband is pleased with his wife and the wife with her husband,
happiness will assuredly be lasting, ” says Manu. Moreover, such a family
provided an ideal loving environment for children to grow up in. Great
importance was given to raising noble children.
The wife was called ardhangini (lit. having half a body) in the sense
that she and her husband were two halves constituting the body of an ideal
marriage. She was also called sahadharmim, which means “the partner in
spiritual life. ” Both the husband and the wife were expected to help each
other in their spiritual growth. A member of Aryan society, no matter in
which stage of life, was always reminded that the ultimate goal of human
life is God-realization.
Men were allowed to practice polygamy. A widower could remarry, but
usually not a widow who had to practise celibacy and live like a nun.— This
double standard probably existed because Aryan society at that time was
dominated by men. Divorce was not permitted. Marriage was considered a
sacrament and was meant to last the entire lifetime of the partners.
In today’s Hinduism, however, divorce is permitted by a law enacted in
1955. Another law permitting the remarriage of widows was passed during
British rule mainly through the efforts of the great 19th century Hindu
reformer and scholar, Ishvar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820- 1891).— In spite
of these laws benefiting Hindu women, very few divorces or widow-
marriages take place in India except in the lower cultural and economic
strata of the country. A negligible number of such cases has also occurred
among the wealthy and upper middle-class Hindus in big cities, but they are
the exception and not the rule. Despite the legalization of divorce and
widow-marriage, some stigma associated with them still persists. Such
reforms have not yet been fully approved or accepted by the vast majority of
Hindus. The government of India also passed a law banning polygamy; the
Muslim population is, however, exempt from this law.—
Vanaprasthya—the third stage of ancient Aryan life
According to the law-giver Manu, when a householder would “see his
skin wrinkled, and his hair white, ” his time for entering the third stage of
life had come. He then retired to the forest, “either committing the care of
his wife to his sons, or accompanied by her. ” He lived in a humble hut,
wore bark, animal skin, or tattered clothes; studied the Vedas regularly and
performed various worship rituals. His food was mainly vegetables,
flowers, fruits and roots, either cooked or uncooked. He had a long beard,
didn’t cut his hair, nor clip his nails. Or, in other words, he lived a life of
great simplicity and religious austerity to achieve the spiritual goal of his
life. This stage of life was obviously a preparation for the next stage of
Aryan life, the stage of a monk or an ascetic.
As times have changed, Hindus no longer follow this ancient tradition.
And yet, with the approach of old age, almost every Hindu starts
remembering the ways of his ancestors. Even though not living in the forest,
he becomes pensive and starts showing signs of genuine spiritual interest,
either in order to depart from this world with dignity, or to have “spiritual
liberation. ” For this purpose many men and women move to holy places of
pilgrimage like Varanasi/- and live a retired life of prayer and worship.
Sannyasa—the fourth stage of ancient Aryan life
This stage of Aryan life was a natural transition from the life of a
hermit to the life of an ascetic or a monk. According to Baudhayana, a law¬
giver of ancient India, any of the following was fit to enter this stage of life:
(1) a student who had just completed his period of studentship and was
feeling an inner urge to renounce the world, (2) a childless householder, (3)
a widower, (4) a wanderer and (5) a hermit. Anyone who was seventy years
old and whose children had become settled in life was also considered fit to
renounce the world and become a monk.
An ascetic or monk regularly shaved his head, clipped his nails, and
sustained his body by begging food every day from a maximum of seven
homes. He slept under a tree, in a temple, or in an abandoned house. He
constantly wandered from one place to another carrying a staff, begging
bowl and water pot, no longer wearing the white clothes of the householder.
He would not stay in any one place for more than a few days. He was
exempted from performing the agnihotra and other obligatory rituals
required of the Aryans belonging to other stages of life. Nevertheless, he
had to study the Vedas regularly.
According to the monastic ideal, a monk belongs to the entire world.
Consequently, he severed all ties with his family. He took the vows of
nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, abstinence and tolerance. He
obeyed his spiritual teacher, abstained from anger, avoided rashness of
thought or action, and followed rules of cleanliness and purity about eating.
He was required to think of himself as essentially the effulgent soul or
Atman, and not an embodied being. His goal was to become a God-realized
soul by realizing his identity with Brahman (God).
The Hindu monks of today more or less follow that same ancient ideal
of Sannyasa or monasticism. Organized monasticism, however, was first
introduced to the world by Gautama Buddha nearly 2500 years ago and
later adopted by Hinduism.
Shankara, the great 8th century Hindu saint and philosopher of India,
founded a monastic order known as the DashndmT Order. This order is not
as well-organized and regimented as the Buddhist monastic order, but
through the centuries it has played a very important role in Hinduism.
Following the old and orthodox Hindu tradition, it mainly stresses
individual spiritual growth along with the study and teaching of the
scriptures.
The Rdmakrishna Mission, a well-known monastic order founded on
modern lines by SwamT Vivekananda at the turn of the 20th century,
encourages its members to engage in various philanthropic and
humanitarian activities side-by-side with scriptural studies and spiritual
practice. Their ideal is to serve man as God and also to strive for their own
spiritual enlightenment. The Ramakrishna Mission is the largest and most
well-organized Hindu monastic order in India today. This monastic order,
although an independent organization, owes its lineage to Shankara. Its
monks, by tradition, belong to the Purl branch of the Dashnaml Order.
Today’s Hinduism, like any other ancient religion, has many
denominations or sects. Many of these sects have their own brands of
monasticism based on the ancient Vedic ideal of asceticism.
Footnotes for Chapter IV
L Bobodzhan Gafurovich Gafurov, From Ancient Ftistory to Contempory Times (Delhi, India:
Navayug Publishers, 1973), 141 and 149.
Z Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, The Arctic Home in The Vedas (Puna City, India: Tilak Bros.,
1956), 388-389.
Z Harold H. Bender, The Home of the Indo-Europeans (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1922), 55.
Z G. M. Bongard-Levin, The Origin of the Aryans (Delhi, India: Arnold-Heinemann, 1980), 123.
Z C. P. Masica, The Indo-Aryan Languages (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 37.
(L The Complete Works of Swaml Vivekananda, vol. 3 (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama), 293.
Z. Some historians think that the Shudras were originally of non-Aryan origin, but were later
adopted by the Aryan society. See R.C. Majumdar and H.C. Raychaudhuri, An Advanced History of
India (London: MacMillan and Co., 1948), 32.
B Twice-born means belonging to any but the Shudra caste.
V F. Max Muller, Laws ofManu (Delhi, India: Motilal Banarasidas, 1979), V/19.
10. Shri Chaitanya (1485-1533). Well-known saint; revered by many as a Divine Incarnation. See An
Advanced History of India editd by R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri and Kalikinkar Datta.
Macmillan and Co. Ltd. 1948.
11. Shri Ramakrishna (1836-1886). Well-known saint of modern India; considered by many to be a
Divine Incarnation and a prophet of the harmony of all religions.
12. Swaml Prabhavananda and Frederick Manchester; The Upanishads—Breath of the Eternal
(Hollywood, CA: Vedanta Press, 1947), 81-82.
13. F. Max Miiller, Sacred Books of The East, Vol. XXV (New Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidas,
1979), III/57.
14. Remarriage of virgin widows was permitted in the early Vedic period, but later on it was
prohibited.
15. Ja dun a th Sarkdr; India Through the Ages (Calcutta, India: M. C. Sarkar and Sons. 1928), 113.
16. To kiiow more about Hindu marriage please see Hindu Marriages—Ancient and Modern here .
17. Varanasi, formerly known as Benares, is one of the many holy cities of India. It is an ancient city>
on the bank of the holy river Gangd in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
V
HINDUISM—A WAY OF LIFE
Many scholars have rightly described Hinduism as a way of life. Every
important event of Hindu life has to be sanctified through religious
observance. This ritualistic sanctification or sacrament is called samskara
in Sanskrit. There are ten such samskaras, pertaining to (1) marriage, (2)
the consummation of marriage, (3) prayers for the well-being of a pregnant
woman, (4) the birth of a child, (5) naming of the baby, (6) giving the baby
its first solid food, (7) the baby’s first hair-cut, (8) introduction of the child
to his studies, (9) Upanayana or the sacred thread ceremony,- and (10) the
returning home ceremony after a student completes his education at the
teacher’s home.- For every such event specific worship ritual has to be
performed.
Other than the above, there are prescribed religious rituals for (1) the
funeral for the departed, (2) the post-funeral honoring of the departed
(Shraddha Ceremony), (3) building a new home, (4) entering a new home,
(5) spiritual initiation, and (6) the attainment ofpuberty for girls.
Today, because of the changed times and altered lifestyles of the
Hindus, not all the samskaras mentioned above are strictly followed. Under
special circumstances such lapses are condoned by Hinduism. For instance,
the scriptures say that a Hindu need not strictly observe the scriptural
injunctions and prohibitions in a foreign land if the circumstances there are
not conducive to such an observance.
HINDU MARRIAGES—ANCIENT and MODERN
Hindu society is much more family-oriented and close-knit than
societies in the West. The average size of a typical Hindu family is generally
much larger than a family in the West. Married sons live with their parents,
brothers, unmarried sisters, and also grandparents. Young women, when
married, go to the homes of their in-laws to live with their husbands. There
are very few nuclear families in Hindu society.
Maintaining the good image of the family is considered one of the
primary duties of the family members. The respectability of a Hindu family
is determined by the moral virtues of its members and its cultural level, and
not necessarily by its wealth. Every member of a family is expected to
uphold or enhance the good image of the family by maintaining its moral
and cultural level.
An important event like the marriage of a family member is bound to
have its impact on the entire family. None should enter into a matrimonial
relationship which will adversely affect the image of the family. A Hindu
marriage is not just a relationship between a husband and wife; it also
engenders a close and lasting relationship between the members of both
families. It is sometimes said, and not too incorrectly, that a Hindu
marriage is more a marriage between two families than between two
persons.
In general, Hindu marriages are arranged by the parents or guardians
of the young people. In the rare cases where young men or women choose
their own marriage partners, the approval of the parents or the guardians
must be obtained. Otherwise it may cause a lot of heartache or sadness for
both the families involved. Parents, being more experienced, are usually
able to select a good marriage partner for their son or daughter. They make
thorough inquiries about not only their future daughter-in-law or son-in-
law, but their families as well. During the negotiations, the intended couple
are allowed to see each other only once or twice in the presence of family
members. If they like each other and give their consent, then their marriage
is arranged by the parents or guardians. No premarital dating or free
mixing between men and women, as in the West, is allowed in Hindu
society. According to available statistics, such arranged marriages are
many times more harmonious and stable than marriages where the partners
choose each other.-
In ancient times the following eight types of marriage took place in
Aryan society:
• In Brahma Marriage the father or guardian gave away his daughter
“decked with costly garments and jewels ” to a carefully chosen bridegroom
well-versed in the Vedas and endowed with noble qualities. The bride’s
father also honored the bridegroom by offering him a traditional drink
made of honey.
• In Daiva Marriage the daughter, “duly decked with ornaments, ” was
given in gratitude to a priest for performing some important worship ritual.
Such a marriage, however, was rare.
• In Arsha Marriage the bride s father received a gift of a milk cow and a
breeding bull from the bridegroom. This gift, permitted by the sacred law
books, was a token of respect—not a dowry. 4
• In Prajapatya Marriage the bride s father gave his daughter away to the
bridegroom with this traditional blessing: “May both of you perform your
duties together. ” The bridegroom was also honored by being given a
traditional honeyed drink.
• In Gandharva Marriage the bridegroom and bride married secretly
without the knowledge of their parents or guardians.
• In Asura Marriage the bridegroom voluntarily gave as much wealth as
he could afford to the bride and her relatives, 5 and then received the bride
as his wife.
• In Rakshasa Marriage the girl was forcibly taken away from her family
and then persuaded to marry.
• In Paishacha Marriage a person married a girl whom he had seduced
while she was asleep, intoxicated or insane.
Among all these marriages, brahma marriage was considered superior
to the others. The lawgiver Manu prohibited asura and paishacha
marriages. Gandharva and rakshasa marriages were also considered
inferior because they were caused by lustful impulses. Only the kshatriyas
were permitted to have gandharva and rakshasa marriages. During the
time of Manu the kshatriyas, who were either rulers or warriors, considered
rakshasa marriage an act of bravery. To capture a woman the kshatriyas
had to fight with her relatives. They had to risk their lives to wed a woman
of their own choice. It also appears that the kshatriyas, more than others,
indulged in gandharva marriages. Aside from that, it was the duty of the
kings to enforce the laws governing society. Manu obviously chose the path
of least resistance. He did not want to antagonize the kings who were
kshatriyas.
Brahma marriage is observed by Hindus today. Either giving or taking
a dowry in marriage is strongly condemned by various sages and scriptures
of Hinduism. For instance, ancient law books such as the Apastamba Smriti
and Manu Smriti; scriptures such as the Narada Parana; and sages like
Sanatkumara, have strongly condemned the dowry system. Nevertheless, in
certain parts of India today, the bride s parents are often pressured by the
bridegroom’s family to give a dowry for their daughter’s marriage. This
practice, in violation of the dictates of the scriptures and the saints, has
turned into a social evil. Should other efforts fail, young and idealistic
Hindu men and women must come forward and start a movement to
eradicate this evil.
A Hindu marriage consists of five important ceremonies:
• Vagdana—the verbal contract between the fathers or guardians about
the marriage of the young man and woman
• Kanya Sampradana—giving away the daughter to the bridegroom by
her father or guardian
• Varana—welcoming the bride and the bridegroom
• Panigrahana—ritualistic holding of each other s hands by the bride and
the bridegroom
• SaptapadT—the seven step walking ritual by the bride and the
bridegroom
The entire marriage procedure for the bride and bridegroom is an
elaborate religious ritual consisting of fasting, prayer, worship, and some
festivities. The exchange of rings and garlands is also a part of Hindu
marriage ritual. The marriage ritual starts with the Vagdana ceremony and
ends with the SaptapadT ceremony. The marriage generally takes place in
the bride’s home. After the marriage the bride goes with the groom to her
in-laws ’ home where other religious rituals connected with their marriage
take place. There is no honeymoon in a Hindu marriage. During these
ceremonies many friends and relatives are invited and treated with
sumptuous feasts in both the homes. The bride is usually lavished with
various gifts by the invited guests and relatives.
Different dictates have been given by the ancient scriptures and law
books of Hinduism regarding the marriageable age of the bride and
bridegroom. According to one such dictate, the bridegroom should be twice
the age of the bride. According to another, the bridegroom should be
twenty-five and the bride sixteen. Marriage of a young man under twenty-
one was not recommended by the scriptures. These ancient rules are not
strictly followed by today s Hindus.
Today a typical Hindu young man living in a city is likely to marry
between the ages of 25 and 30. He may not think of marriage until he has a
comfortable income. He is expected to marry a woman of his own caste but
not his own gotra. 6 He is likely to marry a woman younger than he.
Preferably she should be of a financial, cultural and educational
background similar to his own.
In rural areas, however, children of farmers and land owners marry
relatively younger. Three or four generations ago many boys and girls in
villages married before attaining puberty. Such child marriages were later
consummated through a religious ceremony when both the girls and boys
became adults. These child marriages, however, have been legally banned
in India for many years. 7
Although the main rituals of Hindu marriage are generally observed
everywhere, secondary rituals connected with marriage may differ from
place to place. Such variation is due to different local customs or family
traditions. Hindus of certain smaller sects and those who belong to the
lower cultural and economic strata of Hindu society follow relatively
simplified versions of Hindu marriage.
Priests are usually appointed to conduct traditional Hindu marriages.
Marriages officiated by priests are considered sacraments; they are not
required by Hindu law to be registered. However, in some cities a small
number of registered marriages, conducted by judges or registrars of
marriages, have lately been taking place. These marriages are usually
intercaste marriages, 8 or marriages which would not be easily approved of
or condoned by Hindu society.
During the Vedic period, there was some provision for the remarriage
of virgin widows, but no provision for divorce. Hindu marriage is a lifelong
commitment—a sacrament never to be broken through separation. Its
foundation is chastity, fidelity and mutual trust between the husband and
wife. Nevertheless, through the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, divorce was
legalized by the Indian Parliament. To this day, however, there are very few
divorces in Hindu society. The vast majority of Hindus have not yet
wholeheartedly approved of this reform. Indulging in divorce is still bound
to tarnish the image of any respectable Hindu family.
Although permitted by law, Hindu widows with children rarely
remarry. A Hindu mother is highly adored and loved by her children. To
them she is the embodiment of chastity and purity. Her remarriage would be
a terrible shock to her children. Hindu legends and history are full of
stories of ideal Hindu women who would rather kill themselves by taking
poison or jumping into fire than lose their bodily purity and chastity. When
a woman becomes a widow, either her husband s family or her own family
comes forward to take care of her and her children. She does not feel
helpless or abandoned by her relatives.
HINDU FUNERALS
Hindus generally cremate their dead. The body of the departed is given
a bath and dressed in fresh clothes. Fragrant sandalwood paste is applied
to the corpse, which is then decorated with flowers and garlands, followed
by a small amount of gold dust sprinkled on different parts of the head and
face. After some purificatory scriptural chants and worship rituals, the
body is placed on the funeral pyre facing either north or south. A close
relative of the departed, preferably the eldest son, lights some kindling and
walks around the pyre chanting a prayer for the well-being of the departed
soul. Then he lights the funeral pyre after touching the mouth of the
departed with kindling. In some big cities of India, bodies are cremated in
modern crematoria. The same is true for Hindus living in the West. The
ashes are later put in a holy river or in the sea. As all holy rivers eventually
pour into the sea, the sea is considered very holy.
The body of a Hindu saint is not usually cremated. It is either put in a
grave or buried in water. In a water-burial the body is securely tied to a
long and flat piece of heavy rock and immersed in the deep waters of a holy
river while scriptures are chanted aloud.
In Hinduism an early funeral is considered beneficial to the departed
soul. The departed soul is likely to have some lingering attachment to the
body left behind. Such attachment may make the departed soul temporarily
earthbound. An early cremation frees the departed soul from such a
bondage.
Footnotes for Chapter V
1. In the Vedic period boys of the three higher castes, before attaining puberty, had to go through a
spiritual initiation called the Upanayana ceremony. During that ceremony they would be invested
with a sanctified or sacred girdle to be worn by them all the time, and particularly when performing
worship rituals. This girdle, also called the upavita, would be made of grass, fibers or threads.
2. In the Vedic period students had to live in their teacher s home for several years until their
graduation. Upon their return home a special religious ritual would be observed. This tradition is no
longer followed today. The system of education in India has changed and is now very similar to that
in the West.
3. To know more about arranged marriages please read Mrs. Majumdar s views here.
4. In ancient times dairy cattle were the main wealth of the Hindus, hence such a gift.
5. Such gifts were not in accordance with the injunctions of the sacred law. The lawgiver Manu did
not approve of this because it was like buying the bride by paying money.
6. For the meaning of the word gotra please see here.
7. In 1929, the Sarda Act was passed banning the marriage of girls under fourteen. In 1955, the
Hindu Marriage Act was passed, raising the minimum age of marriage to 15 for girls and 18 for
boys.
8. Act III of 1873 and the later Gour Act provide scope for intercaste marriages. In 1949, the
Hindu Marriage Validating Act was passed to remove all barriers to intercaste marriage.
VI
HINDU SOCIETY TODAY
FAMIL Y STR UCTURE
Today s Hindu society is very different from the society of the Vedic
period. Nevertheless, some of the old traditions are still being followed
partially or in modified forms. Hindus do not go through the four stages of
life anymore, as their Vedic ancestors did. After student life, barring a few
exceptions, a Hindu enters the stage of a family man and remains there until
death. He does not go through the stages of a hermit or an ascetic anymore.
Nearly ninety per cent of the people of India live in villages. The
people of rural India depend mainly on farming for their livelihood. Even
two generations ago most Hindus lived in large joint or extended families.
Married sons would live with their parents, brothers, unmarried sisters,
uncles, aunts, cousins, nephews, nieces, and grandparents. The produce of
the farm would usually maintain such large families. Today, due to
economic reasons and population explosion, the joint family system has
been breaking up, giving rise to smaller families—though the tradition of
married sons living with their parents and unmarried brothers and sisters is
still followed by Hindus.
As rural farms in most cases are no longer able to support the ever-
increasing number of families, some smaller families have been moving to
the cities to make a living. As a result, some nuclear families are gradually
forming in the urban societies, but their number is still small.
A superficial observation of a Hindu family may give the impression
that it is a male-dominated one. The father, who is usually the principal
breadwinner, appears to be the most authoritative figure. Children hold him
in awe because he is the disciplinarian of the family.
Yet it is the mother who really rules the family through her love,
kindness, and subtle persuasions. To a Hindu son, the mother s position is
the highest; she is the very emblem of purity. He will never tolerate any
indignity shown to his mother by anyone; nor will he tolerate any insult
done to his father.
Every member of Hindu society is trained to uphold the respectable
image of his or her family. Hindu boys and girls are taught to maintain the
purity of their bodies until they are married. Free mixing between young
men and women is not allowed. There is no dating in Hindu society.
The relationship between brothers and sisters is very close in this
society. Both the brother and the sister gladly make great sacrifices for each
other, whenever needed. If the mother dies, the elder sister becomes like a
mother to her younger brothers and sisters. Similarly, when his father dies,
the eldest son takes care of his mother and his younger brothers and sisters.
There have been numerous cases where the eldest son, after his father’s
premature death, has taken care of the entire family for years, spending all
his income for them without thinking of his own interest or comfort. Such
men are highly adored by Hindu society.
It is not to be supposed, however, that there is no selfishness in Hindu
society. Selfishness is universal. It exists in Hindu society as well. However,
the Hindu value system strongly condemns it. For instance, a son with a
comfortable income who does not take care of his elderly or financially
handicapped parents is considered by society to be no better than an
animal. In Hindu society money does not necessarily bring respectability.
What generates respectability is a person s noble qualities and cultural and
educational level.
TREATMENT OF CHILDREN IN HINDU SOCIETY
Children who grow up in a typical Hindu family with their
grandparents, uncles or aunts have a special advantage. They are never
wanting in genuine love and attention. Such children are lucky not to be at
the mercy of questionable babysitters, who work for a fee. They develop
healthier minds as a result of growing up in an environment of love and
affection. In addition, they learn many valuable traditions from their
grandparents. In a larger family, a child learns to adjust to the other
members. He learns to share and make sacrifices for others. This training
helps the child immensely, not only in his childhood, but also when he
grows up. In some urban nuclear families of India, where both the parents
have to work owing to economic or other reasons, the children are deprived
of these advantages.
Hindu society respects its elderly members. Hindu children are taught
to be obedient and respectful to their elders. Talking back disrespectfully to
one’s parents or elders is considered uncivilized behavior. Such behavior
brings disgrace to the entire family.
Through the religious legends and epics of Hinduism, children are
made acquainted with role models of morality, ethics and spirituality—such
as Rama, Prahlada, Nachiketa, Sitd, Savitri, Dhruva, and many others.
Moreover, social pressure on individuals to uphold good standards of
morality and ethics also persuades Hindu parents to behave in a manner
which is inspiring to their children. Unless the parents are good and noble,
it is a futile dream to expect the children to grow up into good and noble
members of any society.
It may finally be noted that because they are always surrounded by a
large n umber of loving relatives, abuse of children cannot easily take place.
Children are punished if they misbehave, but not abused.
CONDITION OF WOMEN IN TODAY’S HINDU SOCIETY
Motherhood is considered the greatest glory of Hindu women. The
Taittinya Upanishad teaches, “Matridevo bhava”—“Let your mother be a
god to you. ’’ Hindu tradition recognizes mother and motherland as even
superior to heaven. The epic Mahabharata says, “While a father is superior
to ten Brahmin priests well-versed in the Vedas, a mother is superior to ten
such fathers, or the entire world. ” In Hinduism, God is also looked upon as
the Divine Mother. Blessings of both the mother and father are sought by
the children in order to succeed in life. Motherly love is considered the most
unselfish love. When a mother takes care of her baby, all that she wants is
the well-being of the baby. She does not want anything in return. This
makes her love superior to other forms of worldly love. These are the
reasons why a Hindu mother is highly adored by her children. To her
children, she is the very embodiment of chastity, purity and selfless love.
Hindu society will never tolerate any insult done to a mother or sister. A
riot may start in India to punish the miscreant if the chastity of a Hindu
mother or girl is known to have been forcibly violated. To understand the
position of women in Hindu society, one has to recognize these Hindu
sentiments.
In ancient India, Hindu women did not veil their faces and they
enjoyed a considerable amount of freedom in society. But repeated attacks
on Hindu India by foreigners through the centuries changed that situation.
During such aggressions, and also when India was under foreign
occupation, the honor and chastity of women often became the casualties.
There have been numerous cases when Hindu women killed themselves
rather than yield to indignities inflicted by the aggressors. As a result,
Hindu society became more and more protective about its women. The
freedom of women was curtailed. To protect themselves Hindu women
started covering their faces with veils. They were no longer allowed to have
their formal education away from home. Instead, they stayed at home, had
whatever education was available there, or none at all. Their participation
in social events was greatly restricted.
In the latter half of the 19th century, during the British rule, a few
reform movements were started in India to remedy some of the ills of Hindu
society, and to prevent the conversion of Hindus to other religions. A great
reformer, Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) believed, among other things,
in giving higher education and more social freedom to women. He founded
a religious organization called the Brahmo Samdj, which started many
schools for women in India. SwamT Dayananda Sarasvati (1824-1883), the
founder of the Arya Samdj, also believed in the education of women.
According to SwamT Vivekananda, the founder of the Ramakrishna Mission,
“There is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the condition of
women is improved. It is not possible for a bird to fly on one wing only. ”
The Ramakrishna Mission runs many model educational institutions for
both men and women in India.
Raja Rammohan Roy
Those reform movements and the political freedom which India gained
in the year 1947 have helped improve the condition of Hindu women
immensely. Today’s Hindu women enjoy considerable freedom in society.
They have the same opportunities which men enjoy in education and other
areas of human achievement. Now there are numerous women medical
doctors, nurses, engineers, university professors, scientists, philosophers,
lawyers, judges, politicians, administrators, social workers, artists,
actresses, musicians and dancers in India. For example, Indira Gandhi, a
Hindu woman, was the prime minister of India, and other Hindu women
hold high positions in the police and defense forces of the government of
India. The number of such women has been steadily and rapidly increasing.
Hindu women are not lagging behind the men in their pursuit of adventure.
Two women have successfully climbed Mount Everest, one of them twice. A
Hindu woman has swum across the English channel. There are
mountaineering teams consisting of only women, and Hindu women
regularly take part in national or international competitions in athletics and
other sports.
Swami Dayananda Sarasvati
Even two generations ago almost all Hindu women were financially
dependent on their husbands, but not anymore. In many urban as well as
rural families, both the husbands and wives earn money. In many families
where there are no sons and the parents are elderly and financially
inadequate, unmarried working daughters support their parents. India does
not yet have social security or similar government welfare plans for the
retired or the elderly, which explains why elderly parents have to depend on
their grown children, financially or otherwise.
Western media often speak disapprovingly of Indian parents’
reluctance to have girl-children. In this connection Mrs. Lila Majumdar-
wrote forty years ago, “It is generally supposed that in middle-class Indian
families the problem of providing her marriage expenses is so acute as to
render a girl-child unwelcome to her own parents. One must understand
that lack of affection for the daughter is not the reason for this attitude, but
anxiety for her future. Once again, with the growing popularity of
education, it must of necessity soon be realized that the educated unmarried
daughter may be an asset to the family and not a liability. Indeed, in many
advanced families such a woman has often proved to be a source of comfort
to her parents in their old age. Today, forty years later, Mrs. Majumdar s
expectation has been fulfilled.
Regarding arranged marriages, which are still in vogue in India today,
Mrs. Majumdar writes:
“For the foolish and utterly ignorant marriage is indeed a denial
of self-expression, but for the wise and the educated it is the noblest
career the world has to offer. A good marriage gives such
opportunities of fulfillment and service as may never be found
elsewhere. To this day the normal Indian woman accepts marriage as
her natural destiny, not in perpetual tutelage, as has heretofore been
often quoted, a tutelage that commenced under her father, continues
under her husband and will end under her son, but as a proper
partner, not in rivalry with her husband over personal rights, but
bound in service with him for the welfare of the family and the nation.
“To the Western judgment this betokens a slave mentality, but
Indian women look upon it otherwise. Indeed, it is an anomaly that in
continents where women have fought for their freedom and rights
through generations, there should be such feverish competition among
almost all adult, even adolescent, women in order to secure a husband
at any cost. A glance at the advertisement pages of any popular
Western magazine strengthens the idea that the sole aim of
dressmakers, chemists and cosmetic manufacturers is so to disguise a
plain girl as will enable her to catch a man s eye with matrimony as
her final goal. The Indian attitude appears more natural, dignified and
simpler in every way. To the Indian girl, even now, marriage is neither
frustration nor self-satisfaction, but a self-dedication. An Indian
woman, to this day, does not marry her husband alone but adopts his
whole family and identifies her own happiness with their well-being.
She is bound by ties of duty not only to her husband but also to his
parents, brothers, sisters and even nieces and nephews. This imposes a
discipline over her emotions and desires, no less rigorous than that of
any school. To her eyes the Western idea of family life, which excludes
and resents a widowed mother’s, an invalid father’s or a ruined
brother s claims, appears mean and selfish in the extreme. The modern
Indian woman is no slave to her family, but the dispenser of its
welfare. She will gladly cook, sew, nurse and teach not only for her
husband and children but also for those of his relations who may need
her services. This is not frustration, but the true fulfillment of her
womanhood.
Professor Majumdar s above words eloquently express the ideal of
Hindu womanhood, although her opinion of western women and western
family life is open to controversy. No culture or society in this world can
claim perfection. Perfection on a societal basis will never be achieved.
Nevertheless, all progressive societies crave perfection. Imperfection in a
society is measured by its evils. And every evil in a society is caused by the
selfishness of one or more of its members. Only the willing and loving self-
sacrifice of its members can make a society better. Hindu society has been
trying to achieve this through its time-honored ideal of self-sacrifice and
service.
Footnotes for Chapter VI
L Formerly Professor at Visvabharati University in Santiniketan, and Asutosh College and
Vidyasagar College in Calcutta.
F Lila Majumdar, Great Women of India (Mayavati, India: Advaita Ashrama, 1953), 119.
1 Ibid., 116-117.
VII
THE ROLE OF FOOD
Since the early Vedic period great importance has been given to
determining which food can be safely eaten by the Indo-Aryans. Not all
kinds of food are considered good for the physical and spiritual well-being
of people. The ancient law giver Manu has described in great detail what
food is forbidden and what is permitted. -
DID THE VEDIC ANCESTORS OF THE HINDUS EAT MEAT?
The Vedic ancestors of the Hindus ate, among other things, certain
kinds of meat permitted by their law books ( Smriti ). Though meat eating
was permitted, Manu encouraged vegetarianism on grounds of nonviolence.
Says Manu, “There is no sin in eating meat...but abstention brings great
rewards.’- But all food, including meat, had to be offered to God first.
A question often asked is whether beef was eaten by the Vedic
ancestors of Hindus. There are valid reasons to believe that Vedic Aryans
ate beef. But milk cows were never slaughtered. A milk cow was called
aghnya, which means “what should not be killed.” Only bulls, calves and
barren cows were killed for meat. -
WHY THE HINDUS OF TODAY DO NOT EAT BEEF
The tradition of not eating beef came to Hinduism much later. Some
scholars think that the influence of Jainism- might have had something to
do with it. Besides that, in rural areas where most of the people of India
live, almost every Hindu home has at least one milk cow. Indian cows are
very gentle by nature. They are like members of the family. Children grow
up drinking their milk and treat them the same way pet dogs are treated in
western countries. Apart from the religious taboo in regard to eating beef,
this is another reason why a Hindu can never think of killing a cow and
eating its meat. Other than that, Hindus always try to avoid slaughtering the
females of any animal species as far as practicable.
IS THE COW HOLY?
There is also an idea in the West that Hindus do not eat beef because
they consider the cow holy. This notion is not correct. Hinduism, like other
theistic religions of the world, believes that God is present everywhere. He
is equally present in every being and every thing, but not equally manifest
everywhere. God is most manifest in a Divine Incarnation or a saint. He is
not as manifest in ordinary human beings, and even less manifest in
animals, plants and other “lower” forms of life. He is least manifest in non¬
living objects like rocks or stones. Therefore, God must be present in a cow
also. If not, it will contradict the idea of God’s omnipresence. God being the
holiest of the holy, whatever has the presence of God in it also has to be
holy—why not a cow? However, a Hindu will never consider a cow
superior to human beings; the manifestation of God in a cow, an animal, is
much less pronounced than in human beings.
In ancient Indo-Aryan nomadic culture, cows had a very useful role.
Their milk gave the Aryans nourishment. Browned butter, the main source
of edible oil for Aryans, was also used for oil lamps. Shoes and other
essential leather goods were made from cow’s hide; hooves of cows were
used to make glue, and dried cowdung cakes were used as fuel. Thus,
probably from a utilitarian point of view, Aryans developed a special
feeling of fondness for cows. In some western countries similar sentiments
about horses are voiced in statements like, “The horse is a noble animal.”
Such statements are not supposed to be interpreted literally. Just as a
thoroughbred is admired as a fine and extremely valuable animal, so also
ancient Indo-Aryans might have had a feeling of admiration for cows, and
nothing beyond that.
THE RIGHT KINDS OF FOOD AS PRESCRIBED BY THE
SCRIPTURES
The Bhagavad Gita, the well-known Hindu scripture, teaches that only
juicy, soothing, wholesome and agreeable foods should be taken for one’s
physical and spiritual well-being. Excessively bitter, sour, too salty, too hot,
pungent, dry and burning foods should be avoided. One should also avoid
foods which are stale, tasteless, rotten and impure.-
The scriptures of the Vaishnava and Shaiva sects of Hinduism
prescribe strictly vegetarian food for their followers. Those who belong to
the Shakta sect are allowed by their scriptures to take meat, fish and even
consecrated wine. As a result some Hindus harbor strong and negative
feelings—even hatred—towards Hindus of other sects who eat other kinds
of food. The saints, however, have never condoned such negative feelings.
Swam! Vivekananda lamented, “In India religion has entered into the
cooking pot.” Shn Ramakrishna used to say, “If a person who eats pork-
can incessantly think of God, then he is far superior to a person who eats
vegetarian food and yet thinks of sense objects all the time.” Meera Bai, the
well-known 16th century woman saint of India, used to say:
Had it been possible for one to see God by eating fruits and roots,
why haven’t the bats and monkeys seen Him?
Had it been possible for one to know God by taking baths in the holy
waters,
why haven’t the fish known Him?
Had it been possible for one to find God by eating vegetables and
leaves,
why haven’t the deer and goats found Him?
Had it been possible for men to see God by renouncing their wives,
why haven’t the eunuchs seen Him?
Without the love of God, says Meera, None can ever have God-vision.-
Therefore, according to Hindu saints, eating the right kind of food,
though beneficial for spiritual life, is of secondary importance to developing
genuine love of God. Such love can make God-vision possible.
Footnotes for Chapter VII
L G. Biihler, trans., The Laws ofManu (The Oxford University Press, 1886) V/5-56.
2 Ibid., V/56.
2 Kunhan Raja, The Cultural Heritage Of India, vol. 1 (Calcutta, India: Belur Math), 39.
J Jainism is an ancient religion. It is an offshoot of Hinduism and is much older than Buddhism. It
strongly believes in non-injury to all forms of life.
2 Bhagavad Gita, Chapter XVII, verses 8, 9 and 10.
(L Pork obtained from domesticated pigs is forbidden food according to Hindu tradition.
2 . Translated by the author.
VIII
GOD
INTRODUCTION
From its beginning, Hinduism has been undergoing evolution. At a
very early stage of their civilization the ancestors of the Hindus are
believed to have been polytheistic. Earth, water, fire, wind, sky, sun, dawn,
night, thunderstorm—all were deified and adored as gods. But while being
praised by the Vedic hymns, each of these gods was addressed or referred to
as the Supreme God, the Lord of all gods, and the Creator of this universe.
According to the famous German Indologist Max Muller, the earliest
ancestors of the Hindus were, therefore, not polytheistic; they were
henotheistic.-
Gradually the Indo-Aryan mind discovered some common ground
behind this multiplicity of gods. The NasadJya Hymn,- or the “Creation
Hymn” of the Rig-Veda tells us in beautiful and poetic language about a
single primordial and extremely abstract principle designated THAT, from
which the entire world has evolved. This principle is Pure Consciousness or
Pure Spirit. It is beyond the world of space and time, beyond multiplicity,
unfathomable and unknowable by ordinary human minds. That principle
was there when neither the gods, nor men, nor anything else in creation
existed. From that One and Only principle the world of Many has evolved.
The Indo-Aryan genius at last arrived at the One and Only cause of
everything, the One and Only God, who in Vedic Sanskrit is called
Brahman. After that divine revelation the Vedic texts echoed the truth of the
Oneness of Brahman again and again.
Vedic statements like “Ekam sad vipra bahudha vadanti”-—“One
alone exists, sages call It by various names, ” not only emphasize the
oneness of God, but also form a firm foundation of catholicity and tolerance
in Hinduism. The idea of harmony of religions is a fundamental ingredient
of Hinduism.
The great sage Manu declared, “One ought to know the Supreme Spirit
Who is the Ruler of all, subtler than the subtlest, of resplendent glory, and
capable of being realized only by the meditation of pure-minded ones. Some
call Him Agni (Fire); others call Him Manu (Thinker); and others
Prajapati (Lord of creatures). Some again call Him Indra (the Glorious);
others Prana (the Source of life); and still others the Eternal Brahman (the
Great).
NIRGUNA BRAHMAN
If we ask, “Who was there before creation?” then the logical reply will
be that only the creator, or God, was there. But if we ask, “What was God
like before creation?” then Hinduism’s reply will be that God was in a
transcendental state of existence before creation. The word
“transcendental” means that God’s existence was beyond our time, space
and causation. Hinduism holds that when God created the world he created
time and space along with it. His pre-creation existence must, therefore,
have been beyond time and space since they pertain only to this world.
To make this idea clear, let us take the help of an analogy. Let us
consider a person who has fallen asleep and is dreaming. In his dream
world, he exists in dream space and dream time, both of which he created
with his mind when he created his dream world. He no longer belongs to
the time and space of his waking state. In the dream state he has
transcended the time and space of his waking state.
In the same manner, God’s pre-creation existence must have been
transcendental existence, because God then did not belong to the time and
space pertaining to this world. God’s existence in that state may be called
the True State of the Existence of God. In that state God is beyond all
limitations imposed by time, space and causation. God in that
transcendental state is eternal, infinite and changeless.
In Hinduism, God in this transcendental state of existence is called
Nirguna Brahman, the Supreme Spirit, the Supreme Brahman, or the
Impersonal and Attributeless God.
Nirguna Brahman cannot have a personality. Personality is a
limitation. Being devoid of a personality, Nirguna Brahman is also beyond
sex. Neither the pronoun “He ” nor “She ” can be used to denote Nirguna
Brahman. The Vedas use the Sanskrit neuter pronoun Tat, the counterpart of
the English word That, indicating that Nirguna Brahman is neither male
nor female.
Transcending space, Nirguna Brahman is Infinite. Transcending time,
Nirguna Brahman is Timeless or Eternal. Free from the ceaseless change
generated by causation, Nirguna Brahman is Changeless.
Attribute or quality is a factor of separation. For example, the power
of burning is a quality of fire. It separates fire from water, which lacks that
quality. As Nirguna Brahman is One, Indivisible and Infinite, It cannot
accommodate any kind of separation within Itself. Therefore, Nirguna
Brahman must be attributeless, or free from all qualities.
Hinduism also uses the expressions “Absolute Truth, ” “Consciousness, ”
and “Infinite Bliss ” to mean Nirguna Brahman. But no matter what epithets
are used, Nirguna Brahman can never be adequately described by the finite
words and expressions of our world of limitations. Nirguna Brahman is
indescribable. The great Hindu saint and philosopher Shankaracharya says
that Vedic statements such as Sat-Chid-Anandam—“Brahman is Eternal
Existence, Absolute Knowledge and Infinite Bliss”—are only hints about
the nature of Nirguna Brahman. They are never the description of Nirguna
Brahman.
Brahma—The Creator
ISHVARA
When man tries to think of the infinite Brahman with his finite mind, he
unknowingly projects the limitations of his finite mind on Nirguna
Brahman. As a result, Nirguna Brahman appears to become finite to him.
The human mind can never think other than in human terms. It unknowingly
projects human characteristics or qualities on Nirguna Brahman. Thus
impersonal Nirguna Brahman acquires a personality very much resembling
a human personality, no matter how glorified. Impersonal Nirguna
Brahman appears to become Personal Brahman or Personal God. In reality
Nirguna Brahman does not undergo any change or modification
whatsoever. Personal God is no other than Impersonal God or Nirguna
Brahman experienced through the veil of time, space and causation. It is
like a person looking at the blue sky through three pairs of glasses, red,
green and pink. When he uses his red glasses, the sky looks reddish; when
he uses green glasses, the sky looks greenish; and when he looks through
his pink glasses, the sky appears pinkish. In reality these colors are
projected by the viewer’s colored glasses on the sky. The sky does not
change color at all. Similarly, the finite minds of people, like so many
colored glasses, project their limitations on Nirguna Brahman. The
changeless and infinite Nirguna Brahman appears to acquire limitations
like personality. In reality Nirguna Brahman does not undergo any change
whatsoever. From Nirguna Brahman s standpoint Nirguna Brahman
remains changeless. The idea of Personal God is therefore not the ultimate
truth about God according to Hinduism. It is a relatively lower concept of
God. Nevertheless, Personal God and Impersonal God are not essentially
different from each other. Just as the reddish sky and the greenish sky are
really the same sky, so also Personal God is no other than Impersonal God.
They are essentially one and the same.
Personal God in Hinduism is called Saguna Brahman or Ishvara.
From the standpoint of man posited in the world of time, space and
causation, Ishvara or Saguna Brahman is the creator of this world. He is
omnipotent, omniscient and all-pervading. By His mere will He manifests
Himself as the manifold universe. Although formless, by His divine magical
power, Maya, He assumes various forms. By His maya He has created the
world with good and evil in it.- Even though the world is in Him, He is
beyond the good and evil of the world. He is like a cobra, which is not
affected by the poison in its mouth. Its poison affects others only.
Vishnu—The Preserver
Ishvara is not only the creator, but the preserver and destroyer as well.
Creation, preservation and destruction go hand in hand in this world.
Ishvara, therefore, has three basic aspects: (1) the creator aspect, (2) the
preserver aspect and (3) the destroyer aspect. These three basic aspects of
Ishvara are given the names Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva respectively. When
Ishvara creates, He is called Brahma; when He preserves, He is called
Vishnu; and when He destroys, He is called Shiva.
Shiva—The Destroyer
Ishvara is sexless. Yet the Hindus can look upon Ishvara as both father
and mother. According to the devotees ’ mental attitudes they can establish
other relationships with Ishvara as well. They can look upon Ishvara as
friend, child, or even husband or sweetheart, for such relationships are
nothing but mental projections on Ishvara. Many great women saints of
Hinduism considered themselves to be spiritually married to God. They
looked upon God as their Divine Husband or Divine Sweetheart. Some
women saints looked upon God as their Divine Child. Many saints of
Hinduism like Kamalakanta, Ramprasad, Shri Ramakrishna and others
looked upon God as the Divine Mother. Such relationships were purely
mental and completely devoid of any kind of association with the physical
body. According to Shri Ramakrishna, the famous 19th century saint of
India, such attitudes toward God can generate feelings of great closeness
between God and the devotees, and thus hasten God-realization.
Ishvara is also the originator and upholder of the eternal moral order
in this world. This moral order or basic law, which is called Rita in
Sanskrit, maintains the regularity and orderliness of everything in this
universe including the stars and planets.
DEITIES IN HIND UISM
Aside from the three basic aspects, Ishvara has endless powers or
aspects. One or more of these aspects can be personified as a deity in
Hinduism. For instance, when a Hindu thinks of Ishvara as the giver of
knowledge and learning, that aspect of Ishvara is personified as the deity
Sarasvati. In the same manner, the deity LakshmTpersonifies Ishvara as the
giver of wealth and prosperity.
It should be clearly understood that the deities are not so many
different gods, they are the personifications of various aspects of one and
the same Ishvara.
DEVASAND DEVlS: BEINGS WITH SHINING BODIES
Certain created beings who have done a lot of meritorious work while
on earth are promoted after their death to hold various exalted positions.
These exalted beings acquire special bodies which give out light. The
Sanskrit word div means “to shine. ” These beings, therefore, are called
Devas (masculine) or DevTs(feminine) depending upon whether they are
male or female.
The greatest of the Devas is Hiranyagarbha, who has infinite powers.
He was the first being created by God (Ishvara). Even though a created
being, Hiranyagarbha has almost God-like powers. He is Cosmic
Intelligence. By Ishvara s will, Hiranyagarbha created this world.
Hiranyagarbha is the first manifestation of God (Ishvara), therefore, he
deserves the adoration of all. All other Devas and DevTs exist in
Hiranyagarbha, because Hiranyagarbha is infinite and comprises the entire
world. Adoration of any one of them, therefore, is like adoring
Hiranyagarbha himself. Sometimes the Puranas deify Hiranyagarbha and
raise him to the level of Ishvara. Then he is called Brahma, the creator.
Except for Hiranyagarbha, these beings are not spiritually illumined
or liberated souls. They acquire exalted positions as a result of their
meritorious deeds done on earth. When the effect of their meritorious deeds
is worn out they have to be born again as human beings.
PRESIDING DEVAS OR DEVlS
Hinduism speaks of presiding Devas or Devis—in Sanskrit,
Adhishthatri Deva and Adhishthatri Devi—who control various animate
and inanimate domains of this universe. These domains can be either subtle
or gross, or very large or small. For example, Indra is the presiding Deva
or the controller of the arms and hands of all people. Similarly,
Hiranyagarbha is the presiding Deva of the sum total of all individual
minds in this universe. Or, in other words, Hiranyagarbha considers the
sum total of all minds as his own mind. In the same way, the presiding Deva
of the sum total of all material bodies in this universe is Virat. Virat
considers the entire material universe as his own body. To explain, let us
consider a human body. A body is like a skin-bound universe for all the
minute life forms existing in it. We also know that a human body has white
blood corpuscles. They seem to have a keen sense of duty to protect the
body from harmful intruders. As soon as some germs enter the body, the
white blood corpuscles attack them. Had it been possible for someone to
talk to a white blood corpuscle and say, “Look, you live in a skin-bound
universe. There is a being who thinks that this universe is his body. He is
the presiding Deva of your universe. ” Then the white blood corpuscle
would most probably say, “Are you kidding? ”
We are very much like that white blood corpuscle. Our mental
conditioning makes it hard for us to accept the idea of a presiding Deva or
Devi, but it will not be prudent to dismiss the idea as ridiculous. If we are
unbiased, we have to admit that the existence of such beings is not
impossible. Hinduism asserts that such beings do exist.
DIVINE INCARNATIONS
According to Hinduism, when religion declines and irreligion prevails,
God out of His compassion incarnates on earth to revitalize religion. Then
He is called a Divine Incarnation, or Avatara in Sanskrit. Since the
beginning of creation God has incarnated many times and He will again do
so in the future whenever such necessity arises. The first few times God
incarnated in the form of subhuman beings. He incarnated first as a fish,
then as a turtle, and after that as a boar. Then He incarnated as a
combination of beast and man.- All His subsequent incarnations were in
human form.
Science tells us that early life forms on earth were fish or aquatic
animals. Then came amphibians such as turtles. They were followed by land
animals like boars. After them the first ancestors of man made their
appearance. They were not quite human; they were a combination of both
man and animal. Gradually they evolved into human beings. The
resemblance between the Divine Incarnations of the earlier period and
evolving life forms on earth is indeed quite striking.
Shri Krishna
One may wonder why God incarnated in forms other than human. To
explain this, Hinduism draws our attention to the fact that all creatures
were created by one and the same compassionate God. God’s infinite
compassion, which causes His descent on earth as a Divine Incarnation,
should be the same for both human and subhuman beings. Otherwise God
becomes biased and partial, an idea which is not acceptable.
A Pauranic scripture of Hinduism, the Shrimad Bhagavata, mentions
the possibility of innumerable Divine Incarnations. Some other scriptures
mention only ten.-
The Vedas, however, do not speak of Divine Incarnations. They speak
of the Rishis or sages. But not all sages were of the same spiritual caliber; a
few of them outshone the others in their spiritual attainments. In a later
period when the different schools of Hindu philosophy were developed,
these exalted sages came to be known as Adhikan Purushas—persons
endowed with superhuman power or authority. The Adhikan Purushas,
though human, could not be put in the category of other human beings
because they were extraordinary. Sankhya, the most ancient school of
Hindu religious philosophy, would call an Adhikan Purusha Ishvarakoti or
Kalpaniyamaka Ishvara.
The phenomenon of a Divine Incarnation has always been present, but
was not interpreted correctly during the Vedic period or when the Sankhya
or other schools of philosophy were developed in India. Only in the much
later Pauranic period was the phenomenon correctly interpreted. The post-
Vedic Adhikan Purusha, Ishvarakoti, or Kalpaniyamaka Ishvara was no
other than the Divine Incarnation of the Pauranic period. This is the view
of some Hindu scholars.-
God incarnates on earth to fulfill two purposes: (1) to inspire and (2) to
liberate. He inspires mankind through example. He willingly takes upon
Himself human limitations. Then through intense spiritual practice He goes
beyond them and manifests His spiritual perfection. It should be understood
here that as He is perfect from His very birth, the Divine Incarnation does
not really need any spiritual practice to attain perfection. Nevertheless, to
inspire others He goes through various spiritual disciplines and thereby
manifests His perfection to set an example for mankind. Just as a hen,
which itself is not hungry, may pick at and gobble up birdseed to teach its
young ones how to eat, so also a Divine Incarnation, for the sake of
mankind, goes through various spiritual austerities in order to teach them
how to attain perfection through spiritual practice.
The Divine Incarnation liberates from their sins those who completely
surrender to Him, and helps them attain perfection. Shri Krishna, a Divine
Incarnation, says in the Bhagavad Gita, “Abandoning all rites and duties
take refuge in me alone. Do not grieve; for I shall liberate you from all
• y yQ
sins. -
Footnotes for Chapter VIII
L According to Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary, henotheism means “(1) a
religious doctrine attributing supreme power to one of several divinities in turn (2) belief in one god,
without denying the existence of others. ”
2 Please see the poem here .
2 . Rig-Veda 1/164/46.
2 Universal Prayers (Madras, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1933), xxxviii.
X According to the Vishishtadvaita school of Vedanta philosophy, Ishvara has six divine qualities:
(i) Jndna (infinite knowledge), (ii) Bala (infinite strength), (Hi) Aishwarya (lordship over everything),
(iv) Shakti (creativepower), (v) Vitya (infinite vigor), and (vi) Tejas (majestic luster).
(x_ God incarnated as “Nrisimha ”—half man and half lion.
Z. These are the ten Divine Incarnations: (1) Matsya, (2) Kurina, (3) Varaha, (4) Nrisimha, (5)
Vdmana, (6) Parashurdma, (7) Rama, (8a) Balardma/(8b) Krishna, (9) Buddha and (10) Kalki. Both
Balardma and Krishna are considered the 8th Divine Incarnation; if we count both of them, the
number comes to eleven.
B See Shn Rdmakrishna The Great Master—a translation by Swami Jagadananda of the Bengali
original named Shn Shrl Rdmakrishna Lildprasanga by Swami Sdraddnanda.
6 Bhagavad Gita 18/66.
IX
THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA
INTRODUCTION
Hinduism believes in the doctrine of cause and effect, which in
Sanskrit is called Karmavada —the theory or doctrine of karma. The word
karma means action. Sometimes the word is also used to mean the effect of
action. According to this doctrine, all good actions produce good effects,
and bad actions bad. The effects or fruits of action are generally called
karmaphala- in Sanskrit. The fruits of good deeds bring pleasure and
enjoyment to the doer, while the fruits of bad deeds cause him suffering and
pain.
Physics tells us about the theory of conservation of energy. According
to this theory, energy is never destroyed; rather, one kind of energy becomes
transformed into another kind of energy. Using this idea as an analogy, it
can be said that energy expended through any action of the doer only
changes its form and becomes karmic force or karmaphala. This force, like
a boomerang, inevitably comes back to the doer sooner or later. Returning
to the doer the karmic force starts acting on his mind and body causing
either pleasure or pain. No doer can escape this karmic force. After working
on the mind and body of the doer, the karmic force is spent. It leaves the
doer and becomes a part of the vast storehouse of cosmic energy.
According to this doctrine, God is not responsible for the pleasure or
pain of His creatures. It is the creatures who are responsible for their own
enjoyment or suffering. They suffer or enjoy owing to the consequences of
their own bad or good deeds. According to Hinduism, God is
karmaphaladata —the giver of the fruits of action. He is the ultimate
dispenser of justice. He makes sure that everyone gets his own karmaphala,
not someone else’s. During an average lifetime a doer performs
innumerable deeds, the effects of which are equally countless. All the
effects of his actions do not immediately return to him, although some of
them may. For instance, if a person plants an apple sapling in his orchard it
will be years before he can get the fruits. But if he puts his hand into fire it
will have immediate effect; his hand will be burnt.
SANCHITA KARMA AND PRARABDHA KARMA
Some actions, owing to their inherent nature, yield late effects. They
are like term deposits with late maturity dates. Some may mature years from
now. Similarly, the late-bearing fruits of some actions may not come during
the doer s lifetime. Such fruits of action or karmaphala will remain stored
up until their “maturity ” dates. They may come in a future lifetime of the
doer. Thus, in Hinduism, the doctrine of karma is also tied in with the
doctrine of reincarnation.
Stored up karmic forces are the effect of the deeds done by the doer in
his past lives. These forces are called sanchita karma or accumulated
karmic forces. They remain in a potential state like so many term deposits
with different maturity dates in a bank. When one matures, it becomes
kinetic and starts acting on the mind and body of the doer. The karmic force
in this kinetic form is called prarabdha karma—the karmic force which has
started yielding effect. According to Hinduism, prarabdha karma causes a
person s birth and determines how long he will live. It also causes pleasure
or pain during the lifetime of a person. When the force of his prarabdha
karma is exhausted, his body dies. It is as though the body is a clock, the
main spring of which has been wound up by the prarabdha karma to go on
ticking for a certain number of years. When that energy is used up the clock
stops.
KRIYAMANA (AGAMl) KARMA
Any action done in this life, or its effect, is called kriyamana karma or
agami karma in Sanskrit. The Hindu scriptures tell us which kind of
kriyamana karma or action done in this life will yield immediate effect. A
person who has committed extremely heinous crimes,- like killing a saintly
soul or a woman, will suffer from their bad effects in this very life. Other
good or bad actions, which are relatively trivial, may not yield immediate
effects. These actions go on accumulating during a person’s lifetime as
kriyamana karma and eventually join the vast storehouse of sanchita or
accumulated karma.
HINDUISM’S VIEW ON SUICIDE
If a person stops his “body clock” prematurely by committing suicide,
he commits a great mistake. His karmic force does not stop with his death.
It goes on hounding him even in the other world. For this unnatural death
caused by himself the karmic force inflicts many times more suffering and
pain on him than what he would have suffered had he been alive. Therefore,
Hinduism very strongly condemns suicide.
HINDUISM’S INTERPRETATION OF DEATH IN CHILDHOOD
In the light of reincarnation, Hinduism does not necessarlily consider
a newborn child to be a “pure” or an “innocent” soul. Nor does Hinduism
believe that a child who dies shortly after birth goes to heaven or becomes
liberated. Every birth is an opportunity for an individual to grow and
progress spiritually through the bitter and sweet experiences of life. Those
dying in infancy do not get that opportunity. A person with a lot of bad
karma to work out may be repeatedly born just in order to die again and
again in his infancy. He works out his bad karma by going through the
painful process of repeated and fruitless births and deaths. The short
duration of his life on earth prevents him from making any spiritual
progress.
CANA SAINT HAVE PHYSICAL ILLNESS OR MENTAL SUFFERING?
There is a wrong notion in some people s minds that a real saint must
not suffer any physical illness or mental pain. Their notion is based on the
supposition that the saint, being perfect, must not suffer like other people.
But many genuine saints have been seen to go through a lot of physical and
mental suffering in their lives. The saying, “A saint has a past, and a sinner
a future, ” may explain why a saint suffers in this life. The saint must have
done some bad deeds in one or more of his past lives. He is working out the
effect of those deeds in this life in the form of physical or mental suffering.
Even though spiritually illumined now, he still must work out his prarabdha
karma until the force of that karma is exhausted.-
According to the doctrine of karma, when a person becomes a saint by
having the ultimate spiritual experience, all his sanchita or accumulated
karma is, as it were, burnt to ashes. But he cannot get rid of his prarabdha
karma until his death.
Hinduism uses a beautiful analogy to explain this. A hunter has his
quiver full of arrows. These arrows are his sanchita or “accumulated”
karma. He takes an arrow from his quiver, puts it in his bow, and shoots it.
The arrow shot by him is his prarabdha karma. Once the arrow is released
from his bow he does not have any more control over it. It keeps on going
through the air and drops to the ground when its energy is completely
exhausted. Prarabdha karma is like the arrow over which the hunter does
not have any more control. Prarabdha karma creates a mans body and
goes on bringing pleasure and pain until all its karmic force is exhausted,
and then the body dies. Even saints are not exempted from this process.
A DIVINE INCARNATION IS BEYOND THE KARMIC FORCES
There is, however, an exception to this rule. A Divine Incarnation is
never controlled by the forces of karma, nor is his body caused by any
prarabdha karma. God, in order to incarnate on earth in human form,
creates an earthly body for Himself through His inscrutable magical power
or rndyd and enters into it. By His maya He gives others the impression that
He is born of human parents. Out of compassion for His creatures who take
refuge in Him, He absorbs their sins or bad karma in His earthly body, and
suffers on their behalf. He works out their bad prarabdha karma to give
them relief and salvation. Neither does a Divine Incarnation generate any
karmaphala for whatever he does during his earthly existence.
SUFFERING AT BIRTH—SEEN IN THE LIGHT OF KARMA AND
REINCARNATION
Why one child is born blind while another is born with a perfect body
cannot be explained by saying that it happens according to God s will. In
that case God would be either biased or whimsical. Hinduism explains this
disparity in terms of both reincarnation and the doctrine of karma. The
child has been born blind as the result of bad deeds done in some previous
incarnations. The stored up karmaphala of the past births has taken effect
as blindness in this birth.
KARMIC FORCES DO NOT COMPLETELY GOVERN HUMAN LIVES
It should be clearly understood that Hinduism never says that
everything that happens in a person s life is the result of his actions from
previous births. Karmic force is just one of the many forces which control
his life. In spite of these forces working on him, he has quite a bit of
freedom of action as well. He should exercise this freedom by acting in a
manner which will spare him suffering or pain in the future and help him to
attain liberation through the realization of God.
The scriptures of Hinduism, the Bhagavad Gita in particular, also tell
us that a person can get rid of all his karmic forces, except those of
prarabdha karma, if he performs his activities without expecting the fruits
of his own actions. A devotee of God is encouraged to develop the attitude
that his actions are not for his own sake but for the pleasure of God. Work
done with this attitude helps him to become free from the late-bearing
effects of actions (kriyamdna karma) done in this life. It also purifies his
mind and thereby enables him to have the vision of God. After God vision
he gets rid of all his sanchita or accumulated karma. Thus he attains
liberation from the cycle of repeated births and deaths. Nevertheless, he has
to work out his prarabdha karma, from the grip of which no mortal can
completely escape. Some say, however, that even though one cannot
completely escape from one’s prarabdha karma, the intensity of its forces
can be considerably reduced if one surrenders to God completely. ShrT
Sarada Devi (1853-1920), one of the greatest women saints of India,
supports this view. She says, “By surrendering to God a devotee can
considerably reduce his prarabdha karma. For instance, had he been fated
to have a sword injury owing to his karmic forces, he will have a pin-prick
instead. ”
GOD’S GRACE IN HINDUISM
In the light of the doctrine of karma it may seem that man is
responsible for whatever happens to him in his life in the form of pleasure
or pain. Since God is only the giver of man’s karmaphala, His role is no
different from the role of a cashier in a bank. The cashier cannot give any
money to the depositor other than his invested capital and its interest.
Where then is the scope for God’s grace in Hinduism?
In reply, Hinduism says that God s grace cannot be conditional. Any
conditional gift cannot be called real grace. Therefore, God s grace has to
be unconditional, unbiased and impartial. Just as the sun shines on both the
good and the wicked, so also God showers His grace impartially on
everyone, whether good or evil. The good use God’s grace for good
purposes. The wicked use God s grace for bad purposes.
Shrl Ramakrishna explains this with the help of a beautiful analogy. In
a small room a candle is burning. By the light of the candle one person is
reading a holy book, while another person in the same room is forging
dollar bills. In this analogy the candlelight represents God’s grace. It is
impartial; it shines equally on both. The two persons are using God s grace
for two completely different purposes—one good, and the other bad.
Perhaps one of them will eventually turn into a saint, while the other will
end up in prison.
According to Shri Ramakrishna the breeze of God’s grace is always
blowing. Everyone in this world is like the owner of a sailboat. As long as
the sail of the boat is not unfurled one cannot take advantage of the breeze
—one cannot get the benefit of God’s grace. But as soon as the sail is
unfurled, the breeze of divine grace starts moving the boat. In this analogy
the act of unfurling the sail is no other than making self-effort. Without self¬
effort one will neither be able to appreciate nor enjoy the benefit of God s
grace.
Footnotes for Chapter IX
L Sanskrit: karma = work; pha la = fruit.
Z In Sanskrit, atyutkata karma.
Z In the context of Hinduism, a saint is one who has experienced God face to face in this life. It may
also be said that a saint is one who has attained perfection by manifesting his or her inherent
divinity.
X
THE DOCTRINE OF PREDESTINATION
According to the doctrine of predestination, every event in the life of an
individual has already been determined by God—everything happens only
according to God’s will. Individuals do not have any control over events. In
the light of the doctrine of predestination the doctrine of karma cannot be
accepted as a valid doctrine, and vice versa.
Hinduism, however, accepts both of these doctrines as valid. According to
Hinduism, the doctrine of karma is valid for a person who has the sense of
agency or doership. Such a person holds himself responsible for his actions,
whether good or bad. But through intense spiritual practice a spiritual
aspirant’s mind can be made to acquire higher and higher degrees of purity.
At a certain high level of mental purity the spiritual aspirant completely
loses his sense of agency. He gains the firm conviction that he is not the
doer of any of his actions. He becomes convinced that God has been doing
everything by using his body, mind, energy and the senses. He feels that he
is only an instrument in the hands of God, and whatever God has been
doing to him is for his ultimate spiritual good. At this high level of
spirituality the doctrine of predestination becomes the only valid doctrine to
him. To him the doctrine of karma ceases to be a valid doctrine.
Therefore, these two doctrines, even though apparently contradictory to
each other, are valid for people at different stages of spiritual growth. At an
intermediate level of spiritual growth, however, a spiritual aspirant may
interpret some events of his life in terms of the doctrine of predestination
while he may interpret other events of his life in terms of the doctrine of
karma.
XI
THE DOCTRINE OF REINCARNATION
INTRODUCTION
The idea of reincarnation in Hinduism is perhaps as old as Hinduism
itself. To students of religion, reincarnation is a theological doctrine. Most
Hindus consider it a fact. The evidence in support of reincarnation comes
from two sources: (1) Jatismaras —people who can remember their past
birth or births and (2) the testimony of the scriptures or saints.
Hindu religious literature is full of numerous references to
reincarnation. In the Bhagavad Gita, Shrl Krishna, a Divine Incarnation,
says to his student Arjuna, “Arjuna, both you and I were born many times
in the past. You do not remember those births, but I remember them all.” In
this particular context Shri Krishna can be called a jatismara, a person who
remembers his past births, but Arjuna is not.
Hinduism believes that not only the Divine Incarnations like Shrl
Krishna, but pure-minded saints also, if they want to, can remember their
past incarnations. Through the years some people who are neither divine
incarnations nor saints have also displayed the rare ability to remember
their past lives. Their number is quite small. Nevertheless, the validity of
many such cases has been proved in India through reliable and unbiased
investigations throughout the ages.
The doctrine of reincarnation explains many things which cannot
otherwise be explained adequately. For instance, the genius of a child
prodigy like Mozart cannot be satisfactorily explained by heredity or genes
alone. Only the doctrine of reincarnation can explain this satisfactorily.
Such a prodigy must have been a highly accomplished musician in his last
birth, and he carried that talent over to this incarnation.
In reply to the question, “Why does a person reincarnate?” Hinduism
says that the unfulfilled desires of departed people are primarily responsible
for their rebirth. To understand this position one should know Hinduism’s
view about death and thereafter.
THE GROSS AND SUBTLE BODIES OF MAN
According to Hinduism, man has two bodies, the gross and the subtle.
The gross body is the physical body. The subtle body consists of the mind,
intellect, sense organs, motor organs and vital energy. The physical eyes,
ears, nose, tongue and skin are not considered real sense organs. They are
only offices used by the senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch to
establish contact with the external world. The real sense organs are
extremely subtle.
DEATH AND THE LOKAS —THE DIFFERENT PLANES OF
EXISTENCE
When a person dies, his gross physical body is left behind and the soul
with the subtle body, consisting of his mind, intellect, vital energy and his
motor and sense organs, goes to a different plane of existence. Such a plane
of existence is called a loka in Sanskrit.- In addition to this earthly plane,
which is called Bhurloka , there are innumerable lokas. They are worlds of
different sets of vibrations. All of them, however, occupy the same space.
The lokas are neither above nor below in relation to this earthly plane. They
have the same spatial existence.
It is not possible for anyone to produce an exhaustive list of the lokas
because they are innumerable. Nevertheless, Hinduism speaks of fourteen
lokas- including this earthly plane {Bhurloka). The lokas are Satyaloka,
Tapoloka, Maharloka, Janaloka, Svarloka, Bkuvarloka, Bhurloka,
Atalaloka, Vitalaloka, Sutalaloka, Rasatalaloka, Talatalaloka,
Mahatalaloka and Patalaloka. Among these lokas the first six are
considered the higher lokas- and the last seven are considered the lower
lokas. The adjectives higher or lower in this context are used in comparison
to conditions found in Bhurloka. In the higher lokas, in ascending order,
there is more and more enjoyment or spiritual bliss compared to what is
usually found on this earthly plane. Similarly, in the lower lokas, in
descending order, there is more and more suffering. All these joys or
sufferings, however, are experienced by the departed soul only through his
mind. The degree of purity of his mind determines where his soul along
with his subtle body will go. A departed soul goes to a higher loka if his
mind is pure, and to a relatively lower loka if it is not. As determined by his
past karma, the departed soul remains in one of these lokas for a certain
period of time, either suffering or enjoying there.
UNFULFILLED DESIRE CAUSES REINCARNATION
When a person dies with a strong unfulfilled desire which can only be
fulfilled on earth, his mind—while he is in the other world—strongly
yearns for the fulfillment of that desire. That unfulfilled desire eventually
brings him back to earth, thus causing his rebirth or reincarnation. An
analogy will explain this more clearly. Let us suppose a person is extremely
fond of a special exotic dish which is served by an exclusive restaurant in
the city where he lives. But the restaurant is ten miles away from his home.
One day he develops a great craving for that dish. His strong desire to enjoy
that dish persuades him to get into his car and drive ten miles to that
restaurant. So also the urge of the departed soul to satisfy his unfulfilled
desire will bring him back to earth until his desire is fulfilled.
REINCARNATION—AN OPPORTUNITY TO MAKE SPIRITUAL
PROGRESS
Reincarnation also gives a person the opportunity to gradually evolve
spiritually through the various valuable experiences he acquires in his
different incarnations. Eventually he reaches the acme of his spiritual
progress through God-realization. After realizing God he goes beyond all
desires because he no longer lacks anything. He transcends the chain of
repeated births and deaths. Such a person is called a liberated soul.
TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS
The idea of the transmigration of souls is also present in Hinduism.
Generally speaking, a human soul goes on evolving from incarnation to
incarnation. It is normal for a human soul to be born again and again only in
human bodies until he is liberated. But there may be rare exceptions. In
these exceptional cases a human soul may be born once or twice in a
subhuman body to work out very bad karma. When the bad karma is
worked out, the soul incarnates again in a human body and goes through the
process of gradual spiritual evolution.
REINCARNATION AND THE IDEA OF EVOLUTION OF SPECIES
Those who do not accept the idea of reincarnation sometimes argue
that the total number of human beings should have been depleted because
so many human beings must have been liberated from death and rebirth
since the beginning of creation. But Hinduism refutes this objection by
stating that many subhuman beings through the course of evolution are
being born as human beings. Consequently, the number of human beings is
increasing. Hinduism also asserts that divinity is equally present in every
soul, whether that be in a human or a subhuman body. Otherwise it goes
against the idea of God’s omnipresence.
Patanjali, the founder of the Yoga system of philosophy, speaks of the
transformation of one genus or species into another. In Sanskrit it is called
jatyantara-parinama. According to Patanjali, one genus or species
potentially has the ability to evolve into another genus or species when
changing circumstances create a suitable environment for such evolution.
Footnotes for Chapter XI
_L According to popular concept there are three lokas. They are Svarga, Martya and Patala, but the
scriptures speak of many more.
2. Swarm Nikhilananda, Vedantasara of Saddnanda (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1978), 61.
3. Scriptures of Hinduism mention other higher lokas also. KaushTtaki Upanishad (1.3) mentions
Brahmaloka, Prajapatiloka, Indraloka, Adityaloka, Varunaloka, Vdyuloka and Agniloka as the seven
higher lokas.
XII
HINDU ETHICS
INTRODUCTION
The foundation of Hindu ethics is the Vedic teaching that God
(Brahman) and the indwelling Self of man are one and the same. Behind the
psychophysical man is the Self, which is divine. Ayam atma Brahma
—“This Self is Brahman ,” is a fundamental teaching of the Hindu
scriptures.
The Self forms the very core of man’s being. It is different from his
physical body, vital energy, senses and mind. Man’s ego is not this Self. The
ego or I-ness is an idea only; it is purely mental. Being mental, it cannot be
the Self. This Self of man is called Atman in Sanskrit.
If Brahman is compared to an infinite ocean, then Atman is a wave in
it. The ocean is never different from its waves, and the waves are never
different from the ocean. They are one and the same. Thus, Brahman and
Atman are one and the same. It is Atman which has become the manifold
universe. If I hurt anyone, I actually hurt myself. Therefore, I must not hurt
anyone. This realization is the basis of Hindu ethics.
The Isha Upanishad says very beautifully, “He who sees all beings in
the Self, and the Self in all beings, hates no one.” It is possible for us to hate
others only when that awareness of unity is not there. In the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad there is a dialogue between the sage,
Yajnavalkya, and his virtuous wife, Maitreyi. In that dialogue Yajnavalkya
says that our awareness of the presence of the Self in all makes everyone
dear to us. The spiritual goal of Hinduism is to experience this divine Self
within and without.
DHARMA OR RELIGIOUS DUTIES
The word dharma plays a very important role in Hindu ethics. Dharma
usually means religion. It also means moral and ethical duty. One definition
of dharma says, “ Dharayati dharma ity-dhu ”—“Whatever sustains is
dharma The Divine Self is the very foundation of our being, and it is that
which sustains us. Therefore, according to this definition, the highest
meaning of the word dharma is the Divine Self in man, the Atman.
However, in regard to the day-to-day practice of morality and ethics,
dharma has a relatively lower meaning in Hinduism. In mundane life there
are different types of dharma , such as vyakti-dharma or the dharma of an
individual, parivarika-dharma or family -dharma, samaja-dharma or
society -dharma, rashtra-dharma or national -dharma, and manava-dharma
or the dharma of man kin d.
The observance of moral and ethical principles sustains an individual’s
mind. Following the rules of health and hygiene sustains his physical body.
Such observances at the individual level constitute vyakti-dharma. There
are also other observances, listed below, which also come under the
category of vyakti-dharma
• Dama —control of the external organs
• Arjava —straightforwardness at all times
• Ahimsa —abstention from injury to all forms of life
• Akrodha —absence of anger
• Satya —truthfulness in thought and speech
• Brahmacharya —control of carnal desires and passions
• Santosha —contentment
• Tyaga —renunciation of selfis hn ess
• Apaishuna —refraining from vilification and backbiting
• Aloluptva —non-covetousness
• Aparigraha —non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts from others
• Hrl —modesty
• Mardava —gentleness
• Daya —kindness and compassion
• Shanti —peace of mind attained through its control
• Kshama —forgiveness
• Shaucha —purification of body and mind
• Adroha —freedom from malice
Individuals make up a family. For the well-being of the individual the
family has to be sustained. Codes of conduct to be observed by individuals
to prevent the disintegration of the family are parivarika-dharma or family-
dharma. The basis of family -dharma is mutual self-sacrifice and respect.
Upanishadic statements such as “Treat your mother as a god” and “Treat
your father as a god ,” 3 are included in the codes of family -dharma. If
families do not survive, individuals cannot survive.
Families make up a society. If society disintegrates, families cannot
survive. Therefore, individuals must observe codes of conduct to maintain a
well-integrated society. This is samaja-dharma or society -dharma. Self-
sacrifice of various kinds made for the sustenance of society is the basis of
soc\Qty-dharma. The practice of nonviolence, non-stealing, truthfulness,
refraining from speaking a truth which hurts, control of anger, control of the
lower passions, practicing charity and kindness to all, refraining from
backbiting, practicing hospitality, etc., constitute samaja-dharma.
If the nation disintegrates, society cannot survive. Individuals have to
make some self-sacrifice for their country also in order to sustain its
existence. This is rashtra-dharma or national -dharma.
If mankind does not survive, it is impossible for nations to survive.
Individuals, therefore, have to behave in a manner which will be conducive
to the sustenance of mankind. This behavior comes under the category of
manava-dharma. It also consists of self-sacrifice.
All these dharmas are like so many concentric circles at the center of
which is the individual, who is performing the dharmas. An ideal Hindu is
supposed to observe all these dharmas. It is a hard task, but pursuing a high
ideal alone can make life noble and meaningful. Self-sacrifice is the
common denominator among all these dharmas. Without self-sacrifice the
survival of the individual is not possible. Such self-sacrifice is in fact self¬
sustenance and self-preservation; it is not self-deprivation.
The Levels of Dhanna
FIVE DEBTS OR PANCHA RINA
According to Hinduism, man has five debts: (1) deva-rina or
debt to God, (2) rishi-rina or debt to the sages, (3) pitri-rina or debt to
the ancestors, (4) nri-rina or debt to mankind and (5) bhuta-rina or
debt to the subhuman beings. A Hindu has to repay these five debts
through the performance of certain moral duties enjoined by the
scriptures. Hindu ethics believes that all life forms belong to one
ecosystem. Man cannot exist without acknowledging his
indebtedness to other human beings and life forms on earth. All lives
are interdependent. One cannot survive without the survival of
others. Wanton destruction of life, whether human or subhuman, is
not permitted by Hinduism.
One of the scriptures of Hinduism says that a Hindu has to
maintain ethical behavior from his inception in his mother’s womb
until his death.^
GOD IS THE UPHOLDER OF MORALITY
The Vedas also declare God to be the creator and upholder of
rita, the eternal moral order. The entire universe is controlled by rita.
All laws which maintain the orderliness of this universe and the other
subtler worlds are included in rita. None in this universe can escape
this moral law. Therefore, Hinduism considers God to be the very
foundation of ethics and morality.
Footnotes for Chapter XII
L, Also “Prithivim dharmand dhritam ”—“The world is sustained by dharma.” Atharva Veda
12/1/17.
2. See The Bhagavad GTtd 16/1, 2 and 3. Also see Yoga Sutras ofPatanjali 2/30.
3. See Taittinya Upanishad 1/11/2.
A “Nishekadi shmashanantah ”—“Starting from the inception in one’s mother’s womb and ending
in the cremation ground.” Agniveshya Grihyasutra3/\ 0/4.
XIII
GURU AND DISCIPLE RELATIONSHIP
In Hindu tradition a teacher, whether he gives spiritual or secular
education, is worthy of great respect. The spiritual teacher, who is called a
guru, is given the greatest respect and veneration by a student. The word
guru means “the dispeller of spiritual darkness.”- The word guru can also
be used to mean a teacher of secular education.
A spiritual aspirant must have shraddha for his guru. In the present
context the Sanskrit word shraddha has two meanings: (1) self confidence
and (2) implicit faith in the words of the guru. The Bhagavad Gita says,
“One who has shraddha attains knowledge,’- meaning that a student must
have the confidence that when guided by his teacher he will be able to
succeed. He should also have implicit faith in the teachings of his teacher.
Various Upanishads, epics and legends stress the necessity for
shraddha. The Chhandogya Upanishad tells a story of Satyakama to
illustrate this. As a boy, Satyakama went to his teacher’s home to live and
study. But his teacher Gautama did not give him any lessons. Instead, he
gave Satyakama four hundred lean and sickly cows and asked him to take
care of them. Satyakama had shraddha; he had implicit faith in his guru.
Happily obeying the order of his teacher, the boy drove the cattle toward the
forest. He lived in the forest for many years caring for the cattle until their
number increased to a thousand.
Then strange things started happening. The bull of the herd approached
Satyakama and, speaking in human language, reminded him to take the
cattle back to his teacher’s home. The bull also gave Satyakama teachings
about Brahman (God). On his way back Satyakama was given more
teachings about Brahman by a fire which he lit one evening. Thereafter a
swan and a loon also gave Satyakama similar teachings.
At last the boy arrived at his teacher’s home. As soon as Gautama set
his eyes upon Satyakama he said, “My son, your face shines like one who is
a knower of Brahman. Please tell me who taught you.” The boy replied, “I
have been taught by beings other than men. But I also want you to teach
me, because I have heard that the teachings of one’s own guru alone can
lead a student to the supreme good.” Then the sage Gautama imparted to
Satyakama the same knowledge which the boy had acquired from
nonhuman sources. This story gives the message that the highest knowledge
comes to a student who has shraddha for his teacher.
The great epic Mahabharata has a similar story about an outcaste
Nishada- boy, Ekalavya, who wanted to leam archery from Drona, one of
the greatest Aryan teachers of martial art in ancient India. As it was against
the custom of the Aryans to teach the secrets of warfare to outcastes, Drona
refused to accept Ekalavya as his student. Nevertheless, Ekalavya mentally
accepted Drona as his teacher. He built a statue of Drona in the forest, and
with intense shraddha for his guru started practicing archery without
anybody’s help in front of that statue. After a few years, by virtue of his
shraddha, Ekalavya became such a great archer that he even excelled
Prince Arjuna, who was the best student of Drona.
Not everyone can be a guru. Only a person with an exemplary life and
high spiritual attainments can be a guru. Otherwise, he will not be able to
help a student. The student has to follow the instructions of the teacher and
sincerely strive to reach the goal of his spiritual life.
A true spiritual teacher must never charge any money for the guidance
that he gives his student. A teacher who violates this sacred time-honored
tradition of Hinduism brings only disgrace to himself and his religion.
Footnotes for Chapter XIII
L Guru Gita 20.
2. Bhagavad Gita 4/39.
3. According to the Law Book of Manu, a Nishada is the child of a Brahmin father and a Shudra
mother and, thus, an outcaste. Some scholars, however, hold that Nishddas were non-Aryan.
Ekalavya’s father was king of a Nishada tribe.
XIV
TWO DIFFERENT SPIRITUAL PATHS
INTRODUCTION
As has been mentioned earlier, the ultimate goal of human life
according to Hinduism is God-realization. Hinduism assures that both
householders and monks can realize God if they sincerely follow their own
spiritual ideal. Many of the spiritually-illumined sages of ancient India such
as Ashvapati and King Janaka were family men.
Hinduism offers two major spiritual paths or sets of religious duties
—one for householders and the other for monks. The path for householders
is called Pravritti Marga or “the path of permitted sensual desires.” The
path for monks is Nivritti Marga or “the path of renunciation of sensual
desires.”
PRAVRITTI MARGA —THE PATH OF PERMITTED SENSUAL DESIRES
According to the Mahanirvana-Tantra- the following are the duties of
a householder. They fall under the category of Pravritti Marga.
The goal of a householder is to realize God. To achieve this goal he
should perform all his duties as enjoined by the scriptures. He should
constantly work by surrendering the fruits of his actions to God. He should
earn a living through honest means and remember that his life is meant for
the service of God and the poor and helpless. He should always try to please
his parents, looking upon them as tangible representatives of God. In the
presence of his parents a householder must not joke, be frivolous, or show
anger. If his parents come when he is sitting, he must rise as a mark of
respect and honor. He may resume his seat only when asked by his parents
to do so.
A householder must not eat before providing food for his parents, his
wife and children, and the poor. He should undergo a thousand troubles in
order to serve his parents because he must not forget that he owes his body
to them.
He must never scold, hurt the feelings of his wife, or show anger
towards her. He must always take care of her as if she were his own
mother. He must maintain complete fidelity to his wife. He will go to the
darkest hell if he craves even mentally for another woman. He must always
please his wife with money, clothes, love, faithfulness, and sweet words,
and never do anything to hurt her. A man who has succeeded in getting the
love of his chaste wife has indeed got the blessings of his religion and
acquired all virtues.
A householder must never use improper language in the presence of
women nor should he brag about his achievements. He must not say, “I
have done this, and I have done that.” He must not talk in public of his own
fame, nor should he brag about his wealth, power or position. He must not
talk about his poverty either. Neither must he divulge to others what
someone has confided in him.
He must not give excessive attention to food, clothes or his external
appearance. He should maintain the cleanliness of his body, and his heart
should be pure. He should always be enthusiastic and active. He must be
brave and should fight to resist his enemies like a hero. He must not act like
a coward and try to rationalize his cowardice by talking about non-
resistance or non-violence. To his friends and relatives, however, he will be
as gentle as a lamb.
These will be his duties, in regard to his children:
He should lovingly bring up his son until he is four. Then the son
should be properly educated until he is sixteen. When the son is twenty he
should be employed in some work and be treated by his father as his equal.
His daughter should also be treated and educated the same way. At the time
of her marriage her father should give her jewelry and money.
The householder should also take care of his brothers and sisters and
their children if they are poor. He has similar duties toward his other
relatives, friends and servants, and the people of his own village. If a
householder be rich and yet does not help his needy relatives and the poor,
he is considered a brute and not a human being.
A householder must never show respect to the wicked nor condone
wickedness. He must respect those who are good and endowed with noble
qualities. He should enter into friendship with only those who are reliable.
Before befriending them he should carefully judge them by their dealings
with other people.
He must make sincere and honest efforts to acquire a good name. He
must speak the truth. His words should be pleasant and beneficial to others.
He must not gamble, and must not be the cause of trouble to others.
A householder who does not struggle to become wealthy through
honest means is failing in his moral duty. If he is lazy and leads an idle life,
he should be considered immoral. He must be enthusiastic in earning
money in order to help others who depend on him.
A householder should engage in social service for the benefit of
people. He should excavate reservoirs to provide water for drinking and
irrigation, plant shade-trees by the roadside for pedestrians, build shelters
for travelers, and construct roads and bridges. Such selfless actions will
help the householder to attain the same spiritual goal as the greatest Yogi?-
NIVRITTI MARGA —THE PATH OF RENUNCIATION OF SENSUAL
DESIRES
The path for all-renouncing monks, Nivritti Marga, is quite different
from that of the householders. A monk, avowed to celibacy, should be
physically and mentally pure. He should respect every woman, looking
upon her as his own mother. Following the ancient tradition, he should
maintain his body by begging food from householders, lead a life of
simplicity, and spend most of his time in the contemplation of God and
study of the scriptures. He should not own any home, wealth or property.
He should live in a hut, a temple, or under a tree. He must be truthful,
nonviolent, serene of mind, and full of compassion for all beings. He should
never go to see a king or such dignitaries. If they want they can come and
see him, and he should treat them with the same kindness with which he
must treat everyone. He should give the same good behavior to all, whether
poor or rich, good or wicked. He must be indifferent to praise, blame,
pleasure or pain. His only goal in life should be the realization of God.-
Footnotes for Chapter XIV
L See Swam! Vivekananda’s English translation of the Mahanirvana Tantra in his book Karma-
Yoga.
2. In Hindu society, grown-up sons, even though married, live with their parents and are expected to
take care of them. According to the Taittiriya Upanishad a son has to serve his mother, looking upon
her as a goddess.
3. See here for more on the second stage of Aryan life.
A See here for more on the fourth stage of Aryan life.
XV
THE FOUR YOGA
INTRODUCTION
In addition to the Pravritti Marga and Nivritti Marga discussed in the
previous chapter, Hinduism speaks of many different methods or paths to
reach God. Of them four are considered major paths: (1) Bhakti Yoga —the
path of devotion, (2) Jnana Yoga —the path of rational inquiry, (3) Raja
Yoga —the path of mental concentration, and (4) Karma Yoga —the path of
right action. The Sanskrit word yoga means yoke—the “connecting link”
between the spiritual aspirant and God. Yoga also means a method or
technique to establish mental communion with God.
According to Hinduism all people can be put into four broad
categories: (1) the emotional person, (2) the rational person, (3) the
meditative person and (4) the habitually overactive person. Bhakti Yoga is
suitable for the emotional person. Jnana Yoga is meant for the rational
person. Raja Yoga is suitable for the meditative person. Karma Yoga is
prescribed for the person naturally inclined toward activity.
BHAKTI YOGA —THE PATH OF DEVOTION
This path enables the emotional person to have a direct vision of
Personal God or Ishvara. The emotion love, which is abundantly available
in everyone, is skillfully used as a means to attain God-vision. Love in
human beings is usually present as “selfish love.” If selfish love can
somehow be sublimated and directed towards God, it becomes an effective
means of God-realization. Hindu histoiy and legends tell us about many
such instances.
In his youth Tulsidas, a famous Hindu saint of India, was passionately
attached to his young wife. He loved her with all his heart and soul and
could not stay away from her even for a single day. His wife had not seen
her parents for a while and was eager to visit them, but Tulsidas would not
allow her to go.
One day, however, when Tulsidas left his village on some errand, his
wife went to her parents’ home in a nearby village without informing her
husband. Tulsidas came to know this as soon as he returned home and
immediately went to his in-laws’ home to find his wife. She felt extremely
embarrassed at this,- and said to her husband, “Shame on you! You can’t
stay away from me even for a day! Had you been as attached to God as you
are to me, perhaps you would have seen Him.” This admonition hurt the
feelings of Tulsidas so much that he immediately left his wife and never
returned home. He became a monk and a passionate lover of God. In course
of time he was blessed with God-vision and became a saint.
Tulsidas’s life is a beautiful example of how selfish and passionate
love can be sublimated and transformed into a means of God-realization.
This technique of transforming worldly love into divine love is called
Bhakti Yoga.
Bhakti Yoga disciplines consist of maintaining physical and mental
purity ( shaucha ), prayer (prarthana ), chanting of God’s holy name (japa ),
the singing of devotional songs ( gita ), and the adoration and worship of
God (puja or upas ana).
Worship is of two kinds: (1) external ritualistic worship and (2) mental
worship. Mental worship is a kind of meditation and is considered superior
to ritualistic worship. It is more suitable for those who have made adequate
progress in spiritual life. Ritualistic worship is suitable for beginners. In
ritualistic worship, images or holy symbols are used.=
Chanting the holy name of God, or japa , is done in several ways.
When it is done audibly by pronouncing the holy name correctly, it is called
vachika japa. When the chanting is done by moving the tongue and the lips
in such a manner that it can be heard only by the chanter and no one else, it
is called upamshu japa. In the third type of chanting the Holy Name is
repeated mentally without moving the tongue or the lips. This type of silent
chanting is called manasa japa. Among these the third one is considered
superior to the second, and the second superior to the first.
Encouragement is given to develop special mental attitudes that
generate a feeling of closeness to God. The attitudes are shanta or a serene
and dispassionate attitude, dasya or the attitude of a servant, sakhya or the
attitude of a friend, vatsalya or the attitude of a mother towards her child,
and madhura or the sweet attitude of a loving wife towards her husband.
Any of these attitudes helps spiritual aspirants develop a feeling of
closeness to God. These five different spiritual attitudes differ from one
another in the quality and intensity of love associated with them.
In the serene or shanta attitude, the intensity of love is relatively less
pronounced. The devotee does not want any personal relationship with God
and yet wants to know Him with one-pointed yearning of heart.
In the dasya or serving attitude, the devotee looks upon himself as the
servant of God and through his loving service wants to please Him. As a
servant, however, he naturally has to maintain some distance between
himself and God.
In the sakhya or friendly attitude, the relationship between the devotee
and God is much closer. The devotee loves God by looking upon Him as his
dearest friend, and at the same time expects reciprocal love from God. In
the vatsalya or motherly attitude, the devotee looks upon God as his child,
and like a mother showers all his love and affection on Him. The devotee
does not expect anything in return from God.
In the madhura or sweet attitude, the devotee loves God with the same
intensity of love that a faithful and loving wife has for her husband. The
reader should understand very clearly that in this attitude the devotee is not
even aware of his or her body or sex. This is entirely a spiritual relationship.
Other than these attitudes, the devotee can also look upon God as his
father or mother and himself as the child. Many great saints of Bengal, such
as Ramprasad, Kamalakanta, and Shri Ramakrishna, maintained this
attitude and looked upon God as the Divine Mother.
With the help of these spiritual attitudes, and following the other
disciplines of Bhakti Yoga, the devotee’s love for God becomes more and
more mature. This love gradually purifies his mind and enables him to have
the vision of the Personal God or Ishvara.
JNANA YOGA —THE PATH OF RATIONAL INQUIRY
According to one American author, a theologian who belongs to the
Episcopal Church, “The top 10% of the people who are most creative,
constructive and thoughtful, do not have much to do with churches. To them
the canons of reason come first, making faith secondary and questionable.
It is these people who can especially benefit from Jnana Yoga. Such a
person may say, “I can’t accept things on faith alone. I have difficulty
believing in what the saints or the prophets say. How can I be sure that they
are not self-deluded or mistaken? I can’t believe in God because I have not
experienced or known Him yet. Besides, I am not even sure if this world
really exists; the whole thing may be just an illusion or my mental
projection!”
Jnana Yoga will try to resolve these doubts by saying, “You doubt the
existence of this world and also the experiences of the saints and prophets.
Your reasoning may disprove the existence of all this, but you can’t
disprove your own existence as the doubter. Therefore, as a doubter you
must exist. But who are you ‘really’? Are you your physical body, vital
energy, senses, or mind? You can’t deny that you have the awareness that
you own them. The ‘owner’ and the ‘owned’ can’t be the same. They have
to be different from each other. Therefore, you are not your physical body,
energy, senses or mind; you are different from them all. Try to know your
true identity; try to know who you really are.”
The first instruction of Jnana Yoga is “ Atmanam viddhi ” or “Know
thyself.” This instruction is based on the fundamental teaching of the Vedas
that everything in this universe is divine.- As divinity is present
everywhere, it must also be present in all human beings. The true Self of
man or the indwelling Spirit is this divinity which forms the very core of
one’s being or existence. This true Self is not the ego. According to
Hinduism, the ego or “I-ness” is purely mental; it is an idea only. The true
Self of man or the indwelling Spirit is different from this ego. The goal of
students of Jnana Yoga is to gain 100% conviction that this true Self is
divine.
First a student has to go through some preparatory disciplines, such as
the observance of moral and ethical practices in order to strengthen the will
or mental muscles. Then he has to purify his mind through selfless work.
Once the student’s mind has been purified, the spiritual teacher asks the
student to meditate on the divinity of his true inner Self.-
In order to follow the instructions of his teacher the student has to go
through three steps: (1) Shravana, (2) Manana and (3) Nididhyasana.
Shravana means “hearing.” The student has to hear from the mouth of his
teacher the ultimate truth about himself. The teacher says to his student,
“Tat tvam asi“ which means, “You are that Divine Reality” or “You are
God.”
The student must have implicit faith (shraddhd) in the words of his
teacher. The purity of mind which the student has acquired through his
preliminary spiritual practice enables him to have such faith. Consequently
he says to himself, “My teacher has said that I am divine. But my
experience is that I am still a mortal, limited in my power and knowledge. I
don’t feel that I am eternal, all-knowing, all-powerful and all-pervading.
How can I then be divine? But my teacher’s words can’t be false. There
must be something in me which is divine. Let me try to find it. Obviously
my body is not divine, because it is transient and subject to decay and
death. My vital energy can’t be divine either, because it is limited and not
infinite. For the same reason my senses and mind can’t be divine.”
Through such mentation or manana the student tries to negate
everything that is not Divine in himself; this negation is called the process
of neti (lit. “not this”) in Sanskrit. Gradually his contemplation on his
divine Self becomes one-pointed. This is called nididhyasana, and it
eventually leads him to the divine core of his being.
At that stage he no longer is conscious of his physical body or the
external world. His mind and ego have, as it were, melted away in the
infinite ocean of divinity. The mind is then said to be in nirvikalpa samadhi.
Through such samadhi he comes to experience his identity with the
Impersonal God or Nirguna Brahman. Knowing one’s divine identity or
divine Self is the ultimate goal of Jnana Yoga. This divine identity is the
ultimate Truth which a student of Jnana Yoga experiences through
nirvikalpa samadhi at the end of his spiritual quest.
There is, however, a lower state of samadhi, called savikalpa samadhi,
where the ego of the meditator is still retained in a very subdued form.
RAJA YOGA —THE PATH OF MENTAL CONCENTRATION
Eight steps of Raja Yoga
Raja Yoga is most suitable for a person with a natural tendency to
explore and know his own mind in order to gain total mastery over it. The
founder of this yoga is the renowned sage Patanjali. Raja Yoga is ordinarily
called Yoga', it is also called Kriya Yoga. The disciplines of Raja Yoga
consist of eight steps: (1) yama or inn er restraint, (2) niyama or cultivating
good habits, (3) asana or posture, (4) prdnayama or the art of controlling
the breath, (5) pratydhdra or withdrawal of the senses, (6) dharana or
fixing the mind on a chosen object, (7) dhyana or meditation, and (8)
samadhi or intense mental concentration.
Yama or inner restraint consists in abstention from violence, falsehood,
stealing, indulging in passions or carnal desires, and accepting unnecessary
gifts from other people.
Niyama consists in the cultivation of good habits, such as keeping the
body and mind clean, contentment, austerity, regularity in the study of
religious books, and submission to God.
Asana means sitting postures suitable for prolonged contemplation or
meditation. Raja Yoga prescribes various postures for that purpose.
Pranayama, or breath control, is a type of rhythmic breathing which
helps in calming down and concentrating a restless mind. It consists in
inhalation, retention of breath, and exhalation, all done according to
techniques which can be learned only from expert teachers of Raja Yoga.
Pranayama , if not practiced under the guidance of a capable teacher, can do
irreparable physical and mental damage to one who engages in it.
Pratydhdra is the art of withdrawing the senses and the mind from
external objects.
Dharana is the art of fixing the mind on a chosen object of
contemplation for a short period of time.
Dhyana or meditation is a more mature state of dharana. When the
mind is concentrated on the object of contemplation without any break or
disturbance for a longer period of time, it is called dhyana. In both dharana
and dhyana the meditator’s mind retains its distinction from the object of
meditation. Dhyana at a higher state of maturity is called samadhi.
Samadhi is a state of the most intense mental concentration on the
object of contemplation. The meditator can have different types of samadhi,
one superior to the other, because of the various levels of mental
concentration.
A relatively inferior samadhi is called samprajnata samadhi. The
power of controlling nature comes to a person who attains this samadhi. In
this samadhi the meditator still retains his ego.
In the highest type of samadhi, called asamprajnata samadhi, the ego
disappears completely. In this state of intense concentration the mind loses
itself or melts away in the object of its contemplation. It is no longer aware
of its own independent existence. In other words, the mind is without
thought. This samadhi is the goal of Raja Yoga.
According to Raja Yoga, the uncontrolled and impure mind of a person
can be compared to a lake with many waves and ripples in it. Its water is
not clear because it has many impurities. At the bottom of the lake there is a
powerful light. In this particular analogy the waves are the thoughts, the
turbidity of water is the impurity of the mind, and the light source at the
bottom of the lake is the soul or inner Divine Self of the person.
The light of the inner Self is not visible on the surface because of the
cloudy water and numerous waves in the lake. If the lake can be made free
from waves, and its water freed from impurities, the light at the bottom will
shine forth. In other words, the Divine Self of the person will manifest itself
in all its glory when the person’s mind becomes pure and free of all
thoughts. The goal of Raja Yoga is to create such a state of mind. This state
of mind is asamprajnata samadhi. Anyone who has been able to attain this
samadhi has attained the highest level of saintliness.
Past mental impressions and how to free the mind from them
The impurity of the mind is primarily caused by the accumulated
thoughts of the past. According to Raja Yoga , not a single thought is ever
lost. Every thought eventually goes down to the subconscious level and
remains there as an impression. There are innumerable impressions of past
thoughts in the subconscious level of an average mind. These impressions
are called samskaras- in Sanskrit. The techniques of Raja Yoga, such as
meditation or dhyana, can help cleanse the mind of these samskaras.
An analogy will make this idea clear. Let us suppose a person is
standing on the shore of a lake with a roll of absorbent paper towels. He
starts throwing the paper towels one by one into the lake. The towels first
float on the surface for a few minutes and then sink and settle at the bottom
of the lake, layer by layer, one on top of the other.
The lake is the mind and the paper towels are the thoughts. The paper
towels when floating are thoughts at the conscious level of mind. In their
submerged state at the bottom of the lake, they are samskaras or
impressions of past thoughts in the subconscious level of mind. These
impressions are like so many negatives of photographs. They have the
ability to produce picture prints under favorable circumstances. Similarly,
the samskaras have the potential to become conscious thoughts again if a
suitable mental environment is created for them.
Meditation is contemplation done with great mental concentration.
When a person meditates, his concentrated thought, like a laser beam,
penetrates through the inner layers of his mind and arrives at the bottom
where the samskaras are. The concentrated thought, like an underwater
probe, starts disturbing the accumulated samskaras. As a result, they
gradually get dislodged and rise one by one to the conscious level. They
become conscious thoughts again. The meditator should watch the
rejuvenated thoughts like a disinterested observer and must not act upon
them. The old thoughts, once they have risen to the conscious level, burst
like so many air bubbles and disappear. This is how, through the practice of
meditation, one can purify one’s mind by gradually getting rid of old
impressions or samskaras. If, however, the meditator acts upon those
rejuvenated thoughts, he will create new samskaras and his mind will not
be cleansed.
Siddhis or supernatural powers
In the course of practicing Raja Yoga , as a student gains considerable
mastery over his mind, he acquires eight extraordinary powers called
ashtasiddhi: (1) anima —the capacity to grow as small as a molecule and
penetrate solid objects, (2) laghima —extreme lightness of body or the
ability to levitate, (3) vyapti —the ability to expand, (4) prdkamya —the
acquisition of irresistible will, (5) mahima —the ability to make the body
extremely large, (6) Tshitva —acquiring godlike powers, (7) vashitva —the
power to bring everything under one’s control, and (8) kamavasayita —the
ability to obtain whatever one desires.
Other powers may also come: the ability to fly ( khechari- vidya), the
conquest of death ( mrityunjaya-vidya ), the ability to acquire hidden treasure
( patala-siddhi ), the ability to enter another’s body ( kaya-siddhi ), knowledge
of the past, present, and future ( trikala-jnana ), the power to die at will
(ichchha-mrityu), the power to make oneself invisible ( antardhana ), going
beyond hunger and thirst ( kskutpipasa-nivritti ), and the power to
understand all animal languages (sarvabhutaruta-jndna).
The student is advised not to use any of these powers {siddhis). These
powers are like milestones on the path of spiritual progress, but can be
obstacles to reaching the ultimate spiritual goal. If the student stops at any
of these milestones, trapped by the lure of these powers, he cannot reach the
goal. He should ignore them and proceed steadfastly along his spiritual path
until the goal is reached. Once he reaches the goal, his inherent divinity will
manifest itself in all its splendor and he will be free from all human
limitations. He will become a saint.
KundalinTpower and the six chakras
According to Raja Yoga , the spiritual power in man usually lies in a
dormant state. Like a coiled-up snake in a state of hybernation, this power
usually remains asleep near the lower extremity of a person’s backbone. A
coil is called kundala in Sanskrit. KundalinT means something which is
coiled up, such as a snake. Raja Yoga helps one to awaken this dormant
spiritual power called kundalim through meditation and other spiritual
practices.
The human backbone or spinal column is like so many 8’s piled one on
top of the other, forming two vertical channels side by side. The vital
energy or nerve current of a person works in his body by passing through
these two channels. The left channel is called ida and the right channel
pingala. If a person’s breath is stronger through his left nostril when he
exhales, it is an indication that his vital energy is flowing through the ida
channel at that time. Similarly, if the breath is stronger through his right
nostril, then the energy is flowing through the pingala channel. When a
person does a copious amount of physical activity, his energy usually flows
through the pingala channel. When resting, his energy flows through the
ida channel.
The Chakras
There is a third channel inside the backbone which is between the ida
and pingald. Its name is sushumna. Normally the sushumna channel
remains closed. It opens up when the kundalim power is awakened. The
awakened kundalim power starts coursing through the sushumna channel
towards the brain. When that happens, the spiritual aspirant enters into an
altogether different domain of experience. He starts having genuine spiritual
experiences. The awakened kundalim power, as it starts moving toward the
brain, seems to pass through different doors, each one of which introduces
the spiritual aspirant to a newer set of genuine spiritual experiences. Each of
these doors or levels of spiritual experience is called a chakra. Raja Yoga
speaks of seven such levels, the topmost one of which is sahasrara. The
sahasrara is located somewhere inside the brain. The lowest one, which is
at the lower end of the spinal cord, is called muladhara. The next higher
chakra is svadhishthana, then in succession come manipura, anahata,
vishuddha, djna, and sahasrara.
In Hinduism we read about three types of space. The space in which
we and the stars and planets are posited is called mahdkasha or “outer
space.” Our dream world or the objects of our imagination exist in
chittakasha or mental space. All genuine spiritual experiences take place in
chidakasha or “knowledge space.” A person gets access to chidakasha only
when his kundalim power has awakened and entered into the sushumna
channel. All experiences in the chittakasha are no other than imagination or
hallucination compared to the genuine spiritual experiences in the
chidakasha. When the kundalim power reaches the sahasrara through the
sushumna channel, the spiritual aspirant becomes spiritually illumined. He
reaches the goal of Yoga —he attains asamprajnata samadhi.
Although Raja Yoga literally means the “King of all Yogas” there is
some hazard connected with its practice. In the words of SwamI
Vivekananda, a past master of Raja Yoga, “There must be perfect chastity,
in thought, word and deed; without it the practice of Raja Yoga is
dangerous, and may lead to insanity.” Aspirants who want to practice this
yoga are advised to heed these words of caution.
KARMA YOGA —THE PATH OF RIGHT ACTION
In the context of Karma Yoga the Sanskrit word karma means work or
action. Thinking also may be considered karma. A verse of the Bhagavad
Gita says, “No one can ever stay without doing work even for a moment.
Work, which can be both physical and mental, is inevitable. Therefore, the
impact of work on the life of the doer can never be overemphasized. Even
the attempt not to work turns out to be work. The following story will
clearly explain this idea.
During his wanderings in India a holy man came to a village. He
stayed there for a few days and impressed the villagers greatly with one of
his yogic powers. He displayed the extraordinary ability to kill or revive
anything by sprinkling water on it while chanting mystic words or mantras.
During the holy man’s stay in the village, a young boy served him
daily by doing various chores. As a result, the holy man grew very fond of
the boy. He called the boy aside one morning and said, “I am leaving this
afternoon, but before I leave I would like to give you a gift. I have had this
rosary for many years; I give it to you. You may use it when you say your
daily prayers.” But the boy said, “Sir, if you don’t mind, I would rather
have some other gift from you.” The holy man said, “I am a man of very
few possessions. What else can I give you?” The boy said, “Please teach me
how to give or take life as you do. I want this gift from you.”
The holy man, bound by his commitment, had to teach the boy the
mantras and said, “My child, before you chant them you have to be very
careful about one thing. You must never think of a black cat. If you do, the
mantras won’t work.” “I’ll never do that,” the boy assured him, and taking
leave of the holy man immediately went towards his neighborhood.
Reaching his neighborhood, he called all his young friends and said,
“I’ve the power to kill or bring anything back to life. The holy man has
taught me how to do it!” But his friends would not believe him. So, the boy
decided to display his power.
He had a pet cat. After tying the cat to a post he sprinkled water on it
and chanted the mantras. But nothing happened; the cat did not even faint
—what to speak of dying! The boy became a laughingstock in his
neighborhood. He ran to the holy man and said, “Sir, the mantras didn’t
work. I feel very humiliated.” The holy man said, “Did you heed my
warning? Did you, by any chance, think of a black cat when you chanted
those words?” The boy said, “Sir, I may be young, but I’m not stupid. When
I was chanting those words I kept telling myself all the time that I must not
think of a black cat.” The holy man said, “That’s as good as thinking of a
black cat. In trying not to think of a black cat you actually thought of one!
That’s why the mantras didn’t work.”
According to Hinduism, work, which is inevitable, has one great
disadvantage. Any work done with attachment to its fruits generates a kind
of psychological bondage for the doer. Consider a florist who with great
care has been trying to grow for the first time an extremely rare and delicate
variety of rose in his garden. When the roses are about to bloom, he gets a
call from a close friend who says, “I am going on a trip to Europe for a
month. I shall be very happy if you come with me. All expenses are mine,
you don’t have to worry about anything!” But the florist, even though he
would like to go on that trip, feels that he cannot do so. It is as though his
attachment to his exotic roses has put him in some kind of bondage. If he
could shake off his attachment to the roses, he instantly would be free from
this bondage and could go anywhere he liked.
So also with every action that a person does. An action done with
attachment to its fruits puts the doer in bondage. Karma Yoga teaches the
secret of how to maintain one’s freedom even though working all the time.
The secret consists in working without any attachment to the fruits of
the work. Attachment is selfish involvement, and always rooted in selfish
expectations. Therefore, work done without attachment to its fruits is no
other than work done unselfishly.
The art and science of performing unselfish work is Karma Yoga or the
Yoga of Right Action. It is not easy to work unselfishly. A student of Karma
Yoga is often instructed to work for the pleasure of God. If work is done for
God, and not for one’s own sake, then that work becomes unselfish work.
It may be argued, however, that even when a person works for the sake
of God, the desire for his own spiritual progress actually motivates his
action. Therefore, such action cannot be called truly unselfish action. But
according to Karma Yoga the desire for one’s own spiritual progress is not
considered selfishness; it is considered “enlightened” selfishness. It is not
harmful.
The saint Shrl Ramakrishna makes this point clear with the help of an
analogy. He says that uneducated villagers in rural Bengal- believe that
sweets and candies are harmful for a person suffering from an acid stomach.
According to them, sweets and candies aggravate acidity. But they believe
that rock candy—which itself is a candy—is an antidote for acidity.
Similarly, the desire for one’s own spiritual progress, even though a selfish
one, is an antidote for selfishness. It is conducive to one’s ultimate spiritual
enlightenment.
Work done for the sake of God gradually transforms the doer’s mind
into a purified mind, devoid of the sense of agency or doership. Such a
mind alone can enable a person to have God-vision, which is the goal of
Karma Yoga.
Karma Yoga also liberates a person from the chain of repeated births
and deaths. Every link of this chain is created by the person’s own
karmaphala .- If the person can learn to work in such a manner that the
fruits of his work do not come back to him, then no new links will be
created. As a result, the continuity of the chain of repeated births and deaths
will be broken, and he will become free. The secret of gaining this freedom
is to work without attachment to its results. If the doer does not want the
fruits of his action, the fruits will never come to him.
It is like a person who has deposited one million dollars in a bank with
the instruction that the income from his investment must not be credited to
his account; it should be given in charity to a church. In this case, the
account holder is not expecting the fruits of his investment. The result of his
investment—the interest income—will not come back to him. In the same
manner, a person who works while disowning the fruits of his action will
break a link in the chain of repeated births and deaths and will not be bom
again. In other words, he will attain liberation.
According to Hinduism, work in itself is neither good nor bad. The
mental attitude with which work is done determines if the work is good or
bad. A surgeon performs surgery on a patient and the patient dies. Even
though the patient dies at the hands of the surgeon, the doctor is not
considered a criminal because he had a helping attitude toward the patient.
He wanted the patient to be cured. In another case, an assassin who has
killed someone is considered a criminal, because he had a harmful attitude.
He deliberately wanted to harm his victim. The consequences of the action
in these two externally similar cases will be diametrically opposite to each
other—one good, the other bad.
But merely maintaining the right attitude toward work is not enough in
Karma Yoga. The doer must also know how to work properly. Otherwise, he
will not have the desired spiritual progress. The following story will make
this idea clear.
A soldier had a pet monkey. He trained the monkey to do many
intelligent tricks. One hot summer afternoon, the soldier was having a nap
lying on the grass in the shade of a large tree. He had put his sword by his
side on the grass. The monkey was sitting near the soldier and keeping a
close watch over its master. The monkey noticed that a fly kept sitting again
and again on the soldier’s face and disturbing his sleep. The monkey did not
like it. When the fly sat on the soldier’s face again the monkey unsheathed
its master’s sword and with one swift and powerful stroke tried to kill the
fly. The fly flew away and the soldier died!
The monkey had the right attitude; it wanted to help its master. But its
method was all wrong. Similarly, a person who has the right attitude toward
work, but does not know how to work properly, will not have the full
benefit of Karma Yoga.
Footnotes for Chapter XV
L In orthodox Hindu society, direct or indirect display of love or feeling of endearment between a
husband and wife in the presence of other people, including close relatives, is considered to be in
very poor taste. Such love is expected to be displayed only in the privacy of one’s home. Tulsidas’s
unexpected arrival at his in-laws’ home without an invitation made his sensual attachment to his wife
too obvious to her parents. Therefore, she felt extremely embarrassed at her husband’s behavior and
spoke harshly to Tulsidas.
2. For a detailed description of ritualistic worship please see the next chapter .
T Dr. Joseph Fletcher, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 2 November 1974, sec. A, p. 10.
4. Sarvam khalv idam Brahma —“All, indeed, is God.”
B According to Jnana Yoga, upasana or worship of God can also purify the mind.
A The word samskara in this context does not mean “sacrament.”
7. Bhagavad Gita 3/5.
8. Bengal is a state in India.
9. Sanskrit: the fruits of action.
XVI
WORSHIP OF GOD
WORSHIP OF GOD THROUGH IMAGES
There is a notion in the minds of many people that Hindus are
idolatrous because they usually use images to worship God. This is not at
all correct. Images are no other than various “symbols” of God’s ( Ishvara’s )
power and glory. Through such tangible symbols a Hindu tries to establish
contact with the intangible Ishvara. Just as a photograph of a person’s father
is not his real father, but only reminds him of his father, so also an image
symbolizing some powers or glories of God is never considered by a Hindu
to be God Himself. It only helps him to remember God. The image, which
is a symbol, acts like a link between God and His worshiper. When through
such adoration and worship the worshiper establishes mental communion
with God, worship ends. Then there is no more need for images. That is
why Hindus often discard the images after worship and immerse them in
either lakes or rivers.
Images are made of various materials, such as clay, stone, wood, pure
metal or metal alloys. Usually less expensive clay or wooden images are
discarded after worship. Images made of more expensive and durable
material are repeatedly used.
The Indo-Aryans used fire as the symbol of God during the Vedic
period. Since God is present everywhere, anything existing in the universe
can be chosen as His symbol. They chose fire, the dispeller of darkness, the
symbol of purity, the giver of warmth, as the symbol of God.
It is in the very nature of true love to want to offer to the beloved what
is most dear to the lover. During worship the Vedic Aryans used to offer to
God browned butter, oats, sesame seeds, fruits, and other foods they were
fond of. After the offering was consumed by fire they had the psychological
satisfaction that God had accepted their offering. Yet they were fully aware
that God never really needs any food. God, being perfect, is not wanting in
anything. They also knew that they could not offer to God anything which
did not already belong to Him.
This ancient tradition of worshiping God by using fire as His symbol is
still followed by some Hindus, although various other forms of ritualistic
worship were later introduced by sages in the post -Vedic period. The
highest form of worship, however, is mental worship or meditation, where
no external symbols or images are used.
Some images used by Hindus to worship God have several arms, or
more than one head. The images also have different colors. To portray
God’s various powers many arms are used, each arm symbolizing a
different power of God. Some images have one hundred, or even one
thousand arms, to indicate that God has infinite powers. For the same
reason, Hindus sometimes put more than one head on images. The blue
color of an image indicates the unfathomable and infinite nature of God.
Similarly, other colors may symbolize other aspects of God.
Divine Mother Durga
RITUALISTIC WORSHIP
As mentioned above, mental worship or meditation is thought to be the
best form of worship in Hinduism. But the vast majority of worshipers may
not find mental worship that appealing or easy to perform. The scriptures
prescribe external ritualistic worship for such worshipers. Through
ritualistic worship they gradually make spiritual progress and become ready
for mental worship or meditation.
In order to keep the body and mind alert during worship, the worshiper
is advised not to worship with a full stomach. Therefore, some worshipers
fast until they have finished their worship. But such fasting is not
obligatory. Those who are unable to fast can take a light meal such as a
small quantity of fruits and milk before worship.
In external ritualistic worship the worshiper uses flowers, water, light,
a hand fan and a piece of cloth as symbols of the five elements which,
according to Hinduism, constitute this entire universe. Different foods and
other kinds of gifts are also offered to God.
The worship starts with purification. Every item used in the worship
has to be purified by the thought of the worshiper. Holy words associated
with God, called mantras, are chanted by the worshiper along with thoughts
of purification such as “May the flowers be pure and holy; may the water be
pure and holy.” In this manner he purifies every item used for worship.
Then he purifies every part of his own body. After that he has to think of the
divinity present in himself. He prays to God that, by God’s grace, his
inherent divinity becomes manifest and thus he may become fit to worship
God. According to Hinduism, only a person who has been able to manifest
his inherent divinity can really appreciate and adore God. The worshiper
then offers flowers to God as a symbol of his love and devotion. He offers
food and other gifts, and last of all he presents the symbols of the five
elements to God as though to make the statement that he cannot offer to
God anything that does not already belong to Him. By using those five
symbols he offers the entire universe to God. This offering is called Arati or
Aratrika. The worshiper also prays to God for the well-being of all the
creatures in the world, as well as for his own spiritual illumination.
Throughout the course of this worship, the worshiper has the opportunity to
constantly think of purity and holiness. As a result, through repeated
ritualistic worship he gradually becomes holy; because what one thinks, that
one eventually becomes.
Animal sacrifice in ritualistic worship
In some forms of Hindu ritualistic worship, particularly those
influenced by the disciplines of Tantra, animal sacrifice is sometimes
permitted. Keeping in mind the important scriptural injunction, “Do not
commit violence to any being,”- one may wonder how the sacrifice of
animals, no matter how infrequently, can be allowed by Hinduism.
Not only animals, but all forms of life are sacred to Hinduism. It does
not encourage violence towards anything. Hinduism considers every food
impure because it is directly or indirectly connected with violence. For
instance, food grains such as wheat and rice have life in them. The same is
true for other kinds of food, animal or vegetable. Eating them is no other
than destroying life or committing violence. Even honey, which seems such
an innocent food, is acquired by robbing bees of the fruits of their hard
labor. For these reasons, Hindus are expected to offer whatever they eat to
God first, either mentally or ritually, in order to purify that food.
According to Hinduism, any food offered to God with love and
devotion is sanctified by God. It becomes free from defect or impurity. A
Hindu is supposed to eat only sanctified food for his physical and spiritual
well-being.
In ancient times most Indo-Aryans ate meat with certain restrictions
about which animals could be killed and eaten.- Rather than recklessly
butchering animals and eating their meat, it was considered better to
sacrifice the a nim al as an offering to God and then eat that sanctified meat.
Any meat from animals not offered to God would be treated as inedible.- In
this manner some restraint was imposed on the wanton killing of animals
for human consumption. In addition, a nim al sacrifice in the presence of
God was supposed to be interpreted as killing the animality or lower nature
of the worshiper in order to manifest the worshiper’s higher nature or
inherent divinity.
It should be clearly understood that even though Hinduism sometimes
allows animal sacrifice, it never encourages it. Even the scriptures of Tantra
allow other symbols, such as a pumpkin, ash gourd, squash or any other
fruit, to represent the worshiper’s lower nature or animality. Such symbolic
fruits can be sacrificed instead of animals in the presence of God.
In today’s India, animal sacrifice is very rare. The vast majority of the
Hindus are vegetarians and they do not want animals to be killed for any
reason. The small number of Hindus who eat meat buy it from butcher
shops as is done in the West.
HINDU RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
There are numerous major and minor festivals in Hinduism.- The same
religious festivals are not observed in all parts of India. Deepavali, or
Diwali, and Mahashivaratri are two major festivals observed all over India.
Deepavali is also called “the festival of lights.” Holi or Dol Purnima is
another important festival observed during the advent of spring all over
northern and eastern India. In eastern India, particularly in Bengal, Durga
Piija, Kali Puja and Sarasvati Piija are the most important festivals. Durga
Piija lasts for four days. In the northeastern part of India, particularly in the
state of Assam, Bahag Bihu, Kati Bihu and Magh Bihu are the major
festivals. Gamesh Piija or Ganesh Chaturthi is a major festival in western
India. In southern India Deepavali, Navaratri and Pongal are the important
festivals. Navaratri lasts for nine days. Northern and central India also
observe Navaratri as a major festival.
In Nepal one of the major Hindu festivals is Bhratri Dvitiya, or
Brother’s Day. This festival, also known as Bhai Duj, is also very popular
all over northern and eastern India. In addition to these festivals,
JanmashtamT, Ram NavamT, Raksha Bandhan, Ratha Yatra, Chhat Parab,
Vaishakhi and the birth anniversaries of various saints are observed in
different parts of India.
The minor festivals are too numerous to mention. Every county in
India has its own special minor worships or festivals. During some of the
major festivals, such as DeepavalT, Navaratri, Durga Puja and Bhratri
Dvitlya, gifts are exchanged as is done during Christmas in western
countries.
Footnotes for Chapter XVI
L Na himsyat sarvabhutani in Sanskrit. Mahabharata ( Shantiparva ) 269/5.
f The Laws of Manu, V/l 8, 22-23.
3. The term in Sanskrit is vritha mansa.
4 See “Ap pendix B ” for a list of the major Hindu religious festivals.
XVII
MANTRAS AND SACRED SYMBOLS
INTRODUCTION
During a religious discourse, a Hindu saint told the assembled group
that a person who chants a mantra (the holy name of God) regularly for
many years, develops a pure mind which enables him to see God. At this,
someone in the audience stood up and said, “Sir, I can’t believe in the
efficacy of mantras. A mantra is just a word. How can it have the power to
purify anyone’s mind and give him God-vision?” “What! You don’t believe
in the power of mantras ?” exclaimed the saint, “You’re the worst fool I’ve
ever seen in my whole life!”
Since the saint had called him a fool in the presence of the entire
audience, the man felt extremely humiliated. His face reddened and he
started shaking with suppressed anger. Pointing out his reaction, the saint
said, “You don’t believe in the power of words, but look at the power of the
word ‘fool’—what a strong effect it’s had on you! And yet you deny the
power of mantras ?”
In Hinduism, a mantra is not like any other word; it is special. Its
association with God makes it sacred and spiritually beneficial. By chanting
a mantra repeatedly with love and devotion a person can become spiritually
illumined. The derivative meaning of the word mantra is “something by
reflecting on which a person is saved (from danger or the bondage of this
world).”
In India, spiritual aspirants want to receive mantras from saints or holy
men. Such mantras are considered far more effective than mantras picked
from a book. The following hypothetical case will explain why.
Let us suppose a patient has gone to his doctor for a checkup. The
doctor detects some malignancy in the patient’s body. As a result, the
patient becomes very worried and upset. Then he returns home and gives
the bad news to his wife. Seeing him extremely upset, his wife says to him,
“Darling, don’t be upset. It’s lucky your cancer has been detected so early;
you’ll be cured.” Her words, however, cannot relieve her husband of his
worry and anxiety.
A few days later the patient goes to see the best cancer specialist in
town. The specialist examines him carefully and says, “You’re indeed
lucky, the type of cancer you have can be completely cured.” Like magic
the specialist’s words instantly relieve the patient’s anxiety.
Both the specialist and the patient’s wife have said that he would be
cured, but the specialist’s words have far more telling effect. His medical
training and years of experience in treating cancer have made his words
more convincing and effective.
In the same way, a mantra given by a spiritually illumined teacher has
his entire life’s spiritual experience behind the mantra. A mantra picked by
a student from a holy book will undoubtedly help, but not nearly as
effectively as a mantra obtained from an illumined teacher.
In addition, a mantra which already has helped someone to have God-
realization acquires great spiritual potency. Such a mantra is called a siddha
mantra. A siddha mantra , if given by a teacher to a student, is more
effective than others.
THE SACRED SYMBOL OM
OMovAUM
Among the sacred mantras or holy words of Hinduism, the
monosyllabic word OM is the most ancient and undoubtedly the most
important. This holy syllable, which signifies God, has been frequently
mentioned in the Vedas and other scriptures of Hinduism. The syllable OM
can also be spelled as AUM. It is also called Pranava. Each of the three
letters A, U and M has a special meaning. According to one interpretation,
“A” stands for creation, “U” stands for preservation, and “M” indicates
destruction or dissolution. As God in Hinduism is the creator, preserver and
destroyer of this universe, OM or AUM is a suitable name of God.
According to another interpretation, the three letters forming A UM indicate
the three lokas (planes of existence) of this universe—both gross and subtle
—Svarga (heaven), Martya (earth) and Patala (netherworld). As the
omnipresent God is immanent in these three lokas, AUM is considered a
symbol of God.
AUM is also a sonic or auditory symbol of God. All the words
produced by the human vocal organ can be represented by A UM. The vocal
organ of a person starts with the throat and ends with the lips. “A” is
produced in the back of the throat, “U” in the center of the mouth, and “M”
by the lips. Therefore, AUM is a symbol of all the words which the vocal
organ can produce. Then again, all that exists in this universe can be
represented by words, and all words are produced by the vocal organ. Thus
the entire universe can be represented by A UM. As God covers the entire
universe with His presence, A UM symbolizes God.
A UM is a non-personal as well as a nondenominational symbol. It can,
therefore, be used by Hindus of all sects and denominations. Just like the
cross in Christianity or the menorah in Judaism, the pictorial image of A UM
is used as a symbol of Hinduism.
THE GAYATRTMANTRA
The GayatrT Mantra is also known as the SavitrT Mantra. It is one of
the most important mantras in the Hindu scriptures. It is found in the Rig-
Veda.- The mantra is in the form of a prayer: MUM, we meditate on the
effulgence of that Adorable Divine Being, who is the source and projector
of the three worlds—the earthly plane ( Bhurloka ), the subtle ethereal plane
(Bhuvarloka), and the heavenly plane ( Svarloka ). May that Supreme Divine
Being stimulate our intelligence in order that we may realize the Supreme
Truth.”- This mantra is recited daily by Hindus of the three upper castes
after they have been invested with the sacred thread (UpavTta).
Each Vedic mantra is addressed to a deity. Also, each Vedic mantra is
associated with the name of the sage to whom the mantra was first
revealed. Every Vedic mantra, like a verse, has a meter. The SavitrT Mantra
(revealed to the Sage Vishwamitra) is composed in the meter GayatrT, this
is why its other name is GayatrT Mantra.
MANTRAS mu YANTRASIN THE DISCIPLINE OF TANTRA
Mantras are very important in the discipline of Tantra. Any mantra of
the Tantra tradition, among other things, has two important ingredients: (1)
the vi ja (seed) and (2) shakti (power). The vTja is a monosyllabic word
endowed with great spiritual potency. The vTja is also called a v! ja-mantra.
There can be many vTja-mantras- suitable for different deities. Every
mantra of the Tantra tradition starts with a vTja-mantra. The Tantra system
claims that a mantra accompanied by a vTja has great spiritual potency.
Repetition of such a mantra received from a guru enhances the prospect of
God-vision. It is also believed that whenever any offering is given to a deity
by chanting such a mantra, the deity immediately accepts that offering.-
Yantras are mystic holy diagrams associated with the worship rituals of
Tantra. Som Qyantras are used as symbols of God in the Tantrika- worship.
Yantra of the Divine Mother
Footnotes for Chapter XVII
L Rig-Veda 111/62/10.
2. In Sanskrit: “ AUM bhur-bhuvah-svah-tat-savitur-varenyam-bhargo devasya dhimahi dhiyo yo
nah prachodayat.” For more details about Gayatri Mantra please read Swam! Mukhyananda, OM,
Gayatri and Sandhya (Mylapore, Madras, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1989).
3. Examples of vlja-mantras are bring, kling, shling, etc.
4. Swam! Swahananda, Meditation and Other Spiritual Disciplines (Calcutta, India: Advaita
Ashrama, 1983), 14.
V Tdntrika is an adjective derived from the word Tantra
XVIII
TEMPLES
INTRODUCTION
During the Vedic period, God was worshiped by the Hindus using fire
as His symbol. Under the open sky, they would erect a platform, light a holy
fire on it, and offer oblations into the fire. They did not need temples for
their worship.
Scholars are not exactly sure when the Indo-Aryans first started using
temples. It is very likely that the first temples were made of mud or wood.
For obvious reasons, temples made out of these materials did not survive
long. Later, more durable materials such as brick and stone were used to
build the temples. Studying the ancient temples, scholars have concluded
that some of them were probably built around the first century A.D., if not
earlier.
TEMPLE SITES
Hindu temples are usually built in places of great scenic beauty: on
river banks, in the hills, on the shores of lakes or by the sea. There are also
beautiful cave temples carved out of cliffs.
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of Hindu temples is varied, but they have in common:
(1) a dome or a steeple, (2) an inner chamber where the image of the deity
is installed, (3) a hall meant for the audience to sit in, (4) a front porch and
(5) a man-made reservoir of fresh water within the temple precincts, if the
temple is not close to a natural water source such as a river or a lake. Fresh
water is needed to keep the temple floor clean and for temple rituals. The
reservoir is also used by some devotees to take a purificatory bath before
entering the temple.
Khajuraho Temple
The steeple or the dome is called shikhara or summit. The shikhara is
meant to represent the mythological mountain Meru, thought to be the
highest of all mountains. The inner chamber of the temple is called garbha-
griha, which literally means “womb-chamber.” This chamber resembles a
cave. The audience hall is called nata-mandira which means the hall for
temple-dancing. In the past, women dancers called devadasis (handmaids of
God) used to perform dance rituals in the audience hall for the
entertainment of the deity.
The shikhara, which is the highest point of the temple, symbolizes the
worshiper’s desire to ascend to the highest peak of spiritual experience. The
womb-chamber represents the cave or sanctuary of the worshiper’s heart
where God has to be made manifest through worship.
Only the temple priests are usually allowed to enter the garbha-griha.
Devotees sit in the audience hall, chant the scriptures or the holy name of
God, meditate, or simply watch the priests perform the ritualistic worship.
The garbha-griha usually does not have any windows. Instead, it has a
wide front door, which when left open allows the devotees sitting in the
nata-mandira to watch the ritualistic worship being performed in the
garbha-griha. In some temples, however, the audience hall is a separate
building not connected to the garbha-griha. The audience hall and the
garbha-griha usually have images of different deities in niches in their
walls.
Some temples have a walkway around the walls of the garbha-griha
for circumambulation by devotees. Circumambulation is traditionally done
around the deity in a clockwise direction. It is meant to show respect and
honor to the deity. On the front porch of some temples a big metallic bell
hangs from the ceiling. The devotees usually ring this bell once or twice
while entering or leaving the temple.
Vimana Style Temple
Great variety is noticed in Hindu temple architecture. Some temples
are rectangular, some octagonal, some semicircular and others of different
shapes and sizes. The shape of the dome also may differ. In South India
vimana style domes are used. In North India they are usually of nagara
style. Some South Indian temples have rectangular or square compound
walls with tall pagoda-shaped ornate gates. Such gates are called eo vurams .
Nagara Style Temple
PRIESTS AND THEIR DUTIES
Hindu temple priests are salaried workers, hired by the temple
authorities to perform ritualistic worship. They are not to be confused with
swamls (all renouncing sannyasins ), who do not work for money. Priests are
family men who are adepts in ritualistic worship. Traditionally they come
from the Brahmin or priestly caste, but lately, in some South Indian
temples, worship is performed by priests belonging to non -Brahmin castes.
Some of the temples in India are owned by individual families, but the
public usually has access to them. Other temples are owned by non-profit
organizations, or religious trusts, as they are called in India. Trustees of the
non-profit organizations manage those temples.
The priest’s duty is to perform worship rituals on behalf of the temple
trustees or the owners of the temple. The worship starts at daybreak and
continues intermittently till 9 or 10 o’clock in the evening. During the
worship the priest offers various services to God, just as one would do in
regard to someone who is highly loved and adored. As the human mind
cannot think other than in human terms, God is looked upon as a person—
no matter how glorified—and offered food, drink, flowers, perfume, etc.
The priest is fully aware that God does not really need any of these things,
because He is not wanting in anything. Nevertheless, he offers them to God
as a token of his employer’s love and adoration. Devotees who are neither
owners nor trustees of the temple can also bring food to be offered to the
deity. In such cases the priest takes the food from the devotees and offers it
to God on their behalf. The consecrated food, called prasada, is freely
distributed by the priest—depending on the policy of the temple authorities
—to the devotees, wandering monks or nuns, and the poor. Eating prasada
is considered spiritually beneficial; therefore, devotees sometimes go to
temples especially for this food. Some temples sell consecrated food to
devotees who have not brought any food offering for the deity. It is also a
tradition to give the deity a ritual bath every day. The bath water is
considered very holy. Small quantities of that water are drunk by devotees
for their mental and physical purification. It is stored in a metallic cup
inside the temple for their use. This water is called mahasndna-jala or
charanamrita in Sanskrit.
THE ROLE OF TEMPLES IN HINDU SOCIETY
Visiting temples is not obligatory for Hindus. Every Hindu home
usually has a shrine, no matter how small, where daily prayers are offered.
Hindus generally go to their temples only during important religious
festivals. As a result, temples do not have as much hold on Hindus as
Christian churches or Jewish synagogues have over their members. They
are not the hubs of social activity. Temples usually have religious activities
only. Marriages and funeral services, commonly conducted in churches, are
not held in Hindu temples. But Hindu temples often organize kirtanas
(devotional singing) and religious discourses for the public.
A Gopuram or temple gateway
XIX
THE THREE GUNAS
PRAKRITI OR MOTHER NATURE IS COMPOSED OF THE THREE
GUNAS
The concept of the gunas plays a very important role in Hinduism.
Guna usually means quality, but in the context of Hindu philosophy it has
another, more technical meaning. This second meaning of the word has its
source in the Sankhya school of philosophy. According to this school, the
world has two parts:- spirit and matter. The matter part of the world has its
source in Prakriti or Mother Nature, from which this world has evolved.
Prakriti is composed of three extremely subtle and intangible
substances called sattva, rajas and tamas. If Prakriti is compared to a rope,
these three substances constituting Prakriti are its three strands. A strand or
a string is called guna in Sanskrit. That is why these substances are called
sattva-guna, rajo-guna and tamo-guna.-
The spiritual domain of the world, however, contains innumerable
sentient entities, each one infinite and perfect. Such an entity is called a
Purusha. What we call in layman’s terms a “soul” is called Purusha in
Sankhya philosophy. There are as many Purushas as there are beings in the
universe.-
THE GUNAS CONSTITUTE THE UNIVERSE
Before the creation of the world, sattva, rajas and tamas remain in a
state of perfect equilibrium. If we compare the pre-creation state of Prakriti
to a river, then sattva , rajas and tamas are three streams flowing side by
side in it. At that state there is perfect harmony between them; they flow
without overlapping one another.
When they start intermingling and overlapping, the state of harmony is
lost and creation starts.- Following an evolutionary process, Prakriti
gradually becomes this manifold universe. Everything which exists in this
world in the form of matter, energy or mind is no other than an evolved
form of Prakriti. As Prakriti is composed of the three gunas, everything in
this world is also composed of them. The Bhagavad Gita says (18/40),
“There is no such entity in this world, or in heaven, where live the Devas
with shiny bodies, which can be free from the three gunas bom of Prakriti .”
One may wonder how these extremely subtle gunas through the
process of evolution can become this gross and tangible world. Its
possibility is corroborated by today’s physics, which says that something as
subtle as energy can be transformed into solid matter. Some physicists also
are of the opinion that the primary building blocks of this manifold universe
are most probably three types of extremely subtle quarks.
THE EXISTENCE OF THE GUNAS CAN ONLY BE KNOWN
INDIRECTLY
These intangible gunas are so subtle and fine that compared to them
even the photons or the sub-atomic particles like electrons and neutrinos are
relatively gross. The gunas are finer and subtler than anything that we know
of in this world. And yet, according to Sankhya philosophy, everything in
this world is composed of the three gunas.
Their existence cannot be directly perceived because of their extreme
subtlety. Just as we cannot see electricity and yet we know its presence by
seeing its manifestation in electrical appliances, so also we can know the
presence of the gunas indirectly by seeing their various manifestations.
Each guna has its own distinctive qualities or characteristics; they manifest
themselves through objects in the world. By seeing these characteristics the
presence of the gunas can be inferred.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GUNAS
Sattva-guna is light or buoyant, bright or illuminating. It is of the
nature of pleasure or joy; and it has the ability to reveal or make things
known. The luminosity of light, the ability of the mind and the senses to
know things, the reflecting power of a mirror, and the transparency of glass
and crystals are all due to the presence of sattva-guna in them. Similarly, if
we see happiness, contentment, satisfaction, joy or bliss in a mind, we
should know that it is due to the presence of sattva in it. In the same manner
the lightness or buoyancy of cork or similar substances can be explained in
terms of the presence of sattva-guna.
Rajo-guna causes activity, movement and restlessness. Avarice,
hankering, anger, egoism, vanity, and the wish to dominate over others are
also characteristics of rajo-guna. It also is of the nature of pain and
suffering; it is the cause of all types of painful experiences. In this world,
wherever we see activity, movement or restlessness, pain or suffering, we
should know that it is due to rajo-guna.
The characteristics of tamo-guna are inertia, passivity, sluggishness,
heaviness and negativity. It resists activity or movement. It renders the mind
incapable of knowing things clearly by making it sluggish. It causes
confusion, mental depression, bewilderment and ignorance. It induces
drowsiness and sleep.
The gunas share one common characteristic. They are in perpetual
conflict with one another, each one trying to subdue the others in order to
become predominant.- At the same time they cooperate with one another. A
candle flame exists through the cooperation of the wick, wax and fire. The
flame will cease to exist without such cooperation. Similarly, the world
exists owing to the cooperation of the three gunas. Before creation the
gunas remain in a state of perfect equilibrium with none of them claiming
preponderance. After the dissolution of the world, they regain that original
state of equilibrium. But it is lost when the next cycle of creation begins
(see Chapter XXV
GOD-VISION IS POSSIBLE WITH THE HELP OF SATTVA-GUNA
A preponderance of sattva-guna is conducive to a person’s spiritual
growth. One endowed with a predominance of sattva-guna acquires a
divine nature and is blessed with God-vision. According to the Bhagavad
Gita, such a person is fearless, is of pure mind, has steadfast knowledge
about his inherent divine Self, has control over his external organs, is fond
of scriptural study, has mental and physical endurance, and is
straightforward at all times. Non-injury, truthfulness, absence of anger,
renunciation of sensual pleasures, absence of the habit of vilification,
kindness to creatures, non-covetousness, gentleness, modesty, lack of
restlessness, vigor, forgiveness, fortitude, freedom from malice, and
absence of haughtiness are the other qualities of a person endowed with a
preponderance of sattva-guna.-
Sattva-guna gives spiritual liberation. Rajo-guna causes bondage
through attachment to action.- Tamo-guna causes confused thinking or
senseless violence. The following parable of Shri Ramakrishna beautifully
expresses these ideas.
As a rich man was passing through a forest one day, he fell into the
hands of three robbers, who stole all his money. Then one of the robbers
said, “What’s the use of keeping this man alive? Let’s kill him.” Saying
this, the robber was about to kill the man with his sword, when the second
robber said, “There’s no point in killing him unnecessarily. Let’s tie his
hands and feet and leave him here. Then he won’t be able to tell the police.”
Accordingly, the robbers tied the man with a rope and, leaving him there,
went away.
After a while the third robber returned to the man and said, “I’m sorry
you had to go through all this trouble. Come, I’m going to release you.” He
then set the rich man free and led him out of the forest. When they came
near the highway, the robber said, “Follow this road; this will lead you to
your village.” The rich man felt grateful and invited the robber to come
with him to his home. But the robber said, “It’s not possible for me to go
there. There is a police station in your village; if I go there the police will
arrest me.” So saying, the robber went away.
The first robber, who wanted to kill the rich man, is tamo-guna. Tamo-
guna creates confused thinking and causes unnecessary violence. The
second robber is rajo-guna, which binds a man to the world and entangles
him in numerous activities. Rajo-guna makes a person forget God. The
third robber represents sattva-guna. Sattva-guna alone shows the way to
God and causes liberation from the bondage of the world. For the rich man
arriving home is like reaching God. Sattva-guna can lead a person to God,
but it itself cannot go there. God, being Spirit, is beyond matter or the three
gunas. This explains why the t hir d robber could not go to the rich man’s
home.
LIBERATED SOULS GO BEYOND THE THREE GUNAS
To attain spiritual liberation, a spiritual aspirant has to transcend these
three gunas. In the Bhagavad Gita Shri Krishna, a Divine Incarnation, says
to his student Arjuna, “Go beyond the three gunas.”- In other words, go
beyond matter and manifest your divine spirit.
Footnotes for Chapter XIX
L See in Chapter XX, “ Sankhya Theory of Creation ."
2. According to Sanskrit rules of compounding words, rajas and tamas after combining with the
word guna become “ rajo ” and “tamo,” hence, rajo-guna and tamo-guna.
3. See here .
4. See here .
5. Bhagavad Gita 14/10.
A Bhagavad Gita 16/1, 16/2, 16/3 and 16/5.
7. Bhagavad Gita 14/7.
8. Bhagavad Gita 2/45.
XX
CREATION
INTRODUCTION
Hinduism presents more than one theory about the creation of this
world. The various schools of Hindu religious philosophy, such as Sankhya,
Vaisheshika, MTmamsa, Vedanta and others, have different theories about
creation. Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Vedanta consider creation
to be both beginningless and endless, and have the concept of an infinite
series of successive creations and dissolutions of the world.- Before
creation the entire world remains in a potential state or seed-form in God.
This is called the avyakta or unmanifested state of the world. The world
becomes manifest when God projects the world out of Himself. The world
after manifestation or creation still remains inside God and undergoes a
process of evolution. The evolved world is allowed to exist for a certain
length of time, lasting billions of years, until God decides to withdraw it
back into Himself. After its withdrawal the world goes back again to its
seed or unmanifested state. The projection of the world, its temporary
existence, and its withdrawal back into God comprise a kalpaov a cycle.-
An analogy will make this idea clear. Let us suppose a man goes to his
doctor for his annual checkup. An X-ray shows that a benign tumor is
forming inside his stomach. The tumor grows bigger and bigger until it
becomes as large as a chicken egg and stays that way for a while. Then,
without any treatment, the tumor gradually shrinks and disappears
completely.
In this particular analogy the man represents God and his tumor
symbolizes the world. Just as after its projection from God the world goes
on evolving inside Him and eventually is withdrawn back into Him, so also
the tumor appears inside the man’s body, starts evolving and getting bigger
inside him, and eventually goes back to where it came from. The
appearance of the tumor, its gradual growth and continuance, and its final
disappearance symbolically constitute a kalpa or a cycle. According to
Hinduism, there is an infinite series of such cycles or kalpas. That is why
creation is thought to be without any beginning or end in Hinduism. Every
kalpa is believed to be identical to the other kalpas either preceding or
succeeding it.
Questions have been raised in Hinduism about God’s motive for
creation. Every action is prompted by a sense of want. As God is not
wanting in anything, why should He act? Or, in other words, why should He
create? One scriptural text gives a rather poetic reply to this question, as
though echoing the voice of God, saying, “I shall be many. May I manifest
Myself numerously.”- This means that God, even though the one and only
reality, wanted to “become” this manifold universe; hence the creation. His
wish to become this world was not generated by any “real” feeling of want.
From His standpoint creation is only a “game,” or lila.-
Has God really become the world? In reply to this question some
schools of Hindu philosophy say that God has really become this manifold
universe, just as milk really becomes yogurt. Other schools say that God
only appears to have become this world; He has not really become the
world. A rope in partial darkness may appear to become a snake to an
observer, so also God has apparently become the world. He has not really
transformed Himself into the world.
Hinduism, as a religion, has the unique ability to accommodate both
theistic and atheistic ideas. For instance, the Sankhya school of Hindu
philosophy, which is atheistic, is accepted by Hinduism side by side with
other schools of philosophy which believe in the existence of God. The
Sankhya system, although atheistic, can help people attain spiritual
liberation. How the Sankhya system explains the creation of this world in
the absence of a creator God may be of interest to readers.
Sankhya theory of creation
The Sankhya system is the most ancient of all the schools of Hindu
philosophy. This system recognizes two types of ultimate reality: (1)
Purusha and (2) Prakriti.
Purusha is pure consciousness or pure sentience. It is uncaused,
changeless, eternal and all-pervading. It is pure spirit, and as such it is
totally devoid of matter. It is also entirely passive. There are innumerable
Purus has. There are as many Purus has as there are conscious beings.
Objections have been raised by other schools about the Sankhya concept of
many Purushas. According to them, since Purusha is all-pervading, the
idea of many Purushas occupying the same space is not acceptable. The
Sankhya reply to this objection is that Purushas have no difficulty
coexisting, just as the light from different candles can occupy the same
space without any conflict. The Sankhya school also argues in favor of the
plurality of Purushas by pointing out that had there been only one Purusha ,
the birth or death of one conscious being would also cause the birth and
death of all other conscious beings. But that is not the case. Therefore, there
must be many Purushas.
Prakriti , as opposed to Purusha , is unconscious primordial matter.
Even though Prakriti is uncaused, it is the cause of everything in this
universe, whether matter, energy, or even mind. Hindu psychology very
clearly states that mind, no matter how subtle, is no other than a material
substance. It also should be remembered here that Purusha, being pure
spirit, has not been caused by Prakriti.
According to the Sankhya school, Prakriti is composed of three
extremely subtle substances called sattva, rajas and tamas. The process of
creation starts when Prakriti borrows consciousness from Purusha and
starts acting like a conscious entity. The first sign of Prakriti s conscious
activity is seen in its tendency to change itself. It undergoes a process of
gradual transformation, the final outcome of which is this manifold world.
In other words, primordial matter, Prakriti, becomes the world through a
process of evolution.
The Process of Creation ( Sankhya School)
The first product of the evolution of Prakriti is Mahat or cosmic
intellect. Ahankara or cosmic ego is the second product of Prakriti.
There are three types of cosmic ego: (1) ego in which the Sattva
substance is predominant, (2) ego in which the Rajas substance is
preponderant and (3) ego with the preponderance of Tamas substance. From
the first are evolved the five sense organs, the five motor organs and the
mind. From the third are evolved the five subtle physical essences or
tanmatras. The second—that in which Rajas is predominant—provides the
energy to the first and the third to evolve.
From the tanmatras are evolved the five gross physical elements or
mahabhiitas : (1) akasha —the space element, (2) vayu —the air element, (3)
agni —the fire element, (4) ap —the water element, (5) kshiti or prithivl —
the earth element. These elements mingle in different proportions following
certain rules of permutation and combination and become the manifold
universe. -
Creation according to the Vedanta school of philosophy
The non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy accepts God as the
creator of this world. But it holds the view that the world is only an
apparent transformation of God.
An analogy is used by the non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy
to explain how God has created this world. Let us suppose a magician has
cast a hypnotic spell on his audience. By hypnotic suggestion he creates an
apple tree on the stage. The entire audience will see that apple tree, but not
the magician, since he is not under the spell of his own hypnotic power.
Similarly, God (Ishvara), using His power of magic or maya, has created
this world. This world is real to those who are under the spell of God’s
maya. It is not real to God. From His standpoint He has not really created
the world. To us who are under the sway of His maya the world appears to
be real. And, from our point of view, God the Creator also seems to be real.
The Creation Hymn of the Rig-Veda beautifully expresses this idea.
Not non-existent was it nor existent was it at that time;
There was not atmosphere nor the heavens which are beyond.
What existed? Where? In whose care?
Water was it? An abyss unfathomable?
Neither mortal was there nor immortal then;
Not of night, of day was there distinction:
That alone breathed windless through inherent power.
Other than That there was naught else.
Darkness it was, by darkness hidden in the beginning:
an undistinguished sea was all this.
The germ of all things which was enveloped in void,
That alone through the power of brooding thought was born.
Upon That in the beginning arose desire,
which was the first offshoot of that thought.
This desire sages found out to be the link
between the existent and the non-existent,
after searching with the wisdom in their heart.
Straight across was extended their line of vision:
was That below, was That above?
Seed-placers there were, powers there were:
potential energy below, impulse above.
Who, after all, knows?
Who here will declare whence it arose,
whence this world?
Subsequent are the gods
to the creation of this world.
Who then, knows whence it came into being?
This world—whence it came into being,
whether it was made or whether not —
He who is the overseer in the highest heavens
surely knows —
or perhaps He knows not 16
In the above Rig- Vedic hymn doubts have been raised in the last stanza
about the real creation of this world. The “overseer in the highest heavens”
is no other than Ishvara or God the Creator. He is all-knowing. He must
know if the world has been created. If He does not know, then it may mean
that from His point of view no world has really been created. For what is
not really there, the question of knowing its existence cannot arise.
Therefore, it does not contradict Ishvara’s omniscience.
Nevertheless, from the point of view of mortals under the sway of rndyd
(God’s power of creating illusion), the world is real, and it must have a
cause or a Creator. From their standpoint, God by mere thought created the
first being called Hiranyagarbha. Even though created by God,
Hiranyagarbha is endowed with almost divine powers. He has infinite
powers of knowledge, will and action. Through meditation Hiranyagarbha
comes to know everything about the previous kalpa or cycle. Then by his
thought he creates the rest of the world exactly following the order of the
previous kalpa.
First akasha or the space element is created. Then in succession are
created vayu the air element, agni the fire element, ap the water element,
and prithivi the earth element. In Sanskrit, something which has come into
being is called a bhuta, and these five manifested elements are called
bhutas. These elements are extremely subtle. The Sanskrit counterparts of
the words five and subtle are respectively pancha and sukshma. Therefore,
these five subtle elements are called Pancha sukshma-bhutas.-
These five subtle elements then mingle together in five different ways
to produce the five gross (in Sanskrit: sthula) elements. These five gross
elements are called pancha sthula-bhutas. The process of mixing the five
subtle elements to produce the five gross elements is called panchTkarana in
Sanskrit. The process of such mixing is given below:
1/2 subtle space + 1/8 subtle air + 1/8 subtle fire + 1/8 subtle water + 1/8
subtle earth produce “gross ” space element.
1/2 subtle air + 1/8 subtle space + 1/8 subtle fire + 1/8 subtle water + 1/8
subtle earth produce “gross ” air element.
1/2 subtle fire + 1/8 subtle space + 1/8 subtle air + 1/8 subtle water + 1/8
subtle earth produce “gross ’’fire element.
1/2 subtle water + 1/8 subtle space + 1/8 subtle air + 1/8 subtle fire + 1/8
subtle earth produce “gross ” water element.
1/2 subtle earth + 1/8 subtle space + 1/8 subtle air + 1/8 subtle fire + 1/8
subtle water produce “gross” earth element.
The subtle body of man is made of the five subtle elements, and his
gross body and all gross objects of nature arise by the mixture of the five
gross elements.
The Evolution of the Gross Elements
from the Subtle Elements (Vedanta School)
PRALAYA OR THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WORLD
As a created being, no matter how glorified or endowed with power,
Hiranyagarbha has limited longevity. One day of his life, called a kalpa, is
equal to 4,320,000,000 human years, and he lives for 100 years according
to this time scale.- According to another view one kalpa consists of
8,640,000,000 human years.- The life span of Hiranyagarbha is called a
maha-kalpa(36,500 kalpas).—
When Hiranyagarbha goes to sleep after his day’s work, there is
cosmic dissolution or pralaya. This is called naimittika pralaya. When he
wakes up, the creation of the world starts all over again. This process of
alternate creation and dissolution continues until Hiranyagarbha dies at
the end of the maha-kalpa.
When Hiranyagarbha dies, he merges into God and becomes one with
Him. In other words, he becomes liberated and will not be born again. At
the death or liberation of Hiranyagarbha the world undergoes dissolution,
which is calledprakrita pralaya, and the maha-kalpa ends.
By the will of God when the next cycle of creation starts, another
exalted mortal being appears as Hiranyagarbha by virtue of the
extraordinary merits earned by him in the previous kalpa or cycle of
creation. Thus the process of repeated creation, continuance and
dissolution of the universe goes on forever.
AN OBJECTION REGARDING THE HINDU THEORIES OF CREATION
AND ITS REFUTATION
It may seem that Hindu cosmogony is not sure about the origin of this
world. Had it been sure, it would have offered only one theory of creation.
As it presents more than one theory, one may argue that either all the
theories are wrong, or only one is correct.
Yet such an objection does not pose any problem for the non-dualistic
school of Vedanta philosophy. Shankara, the great saint and non-dualist
philosopher of India, says that this world has empirical existence, but no
ultimate existence. In other words, the world is real for the time being only;
it is not ultimately real. In the final analysis when the unreality of the world
is established, every theory of creation will automatically be proved to be
invalid and meaningless. Therefore, it does not matter if there are numerous
theories or just one theory about creation.
To understand Shankaras non-dualistic position, one should be
acquainted with the meaning of the word “real” in Hindu philosophy.
According to Hindu philosophy, whatever is real must be eternal and
changeless.
For instance, if someone saw a dinosaur appear in his backyard, stay
there for one minute, and then suddenly vanish into thin air, he would
realize that what he saw was not real. He would realize that his sighting of
the dinosaur must have been caused by either an optical illusion or his
heightened imagination. On the other hand, had the dinosaur existed
forever, it would be considered real by him. In that case his judgment of the
“reality ” of the dinosaur would be based on its perpetuity.
Now let us suppose that an observer is seeing a creature which keeps
on changing its form every minute. The first minute it is a dog, then it
becomes a weasel, then a raccoon, and then something else. Owing to its
ever changing nature the observer is not able to determine the true identity
of the creature; he does not know what it “really ” is. Had the creature not
changed at all, there would be no difficulty in ascertaining the true or
“real” identity of the creature. It would be known in terms of the
“changelessness ” of the creature.
The world has a beginning in time. Therefore, it cannot be eternal; it
must be transitory. Being transitory it cannot be real. The unreality of the
world can also be determined by its ever-changing character.
To explain the illusory and unreal character of the world, Shankara
uses the analogy of a rope, which when seen in the dark, is seen as a snake.
The “reality” is the rope, but it is being observed as a snake. As long as the
illusion lasts, the so-called snake seems to be real. When the darkness goes,
the so-called snake disappears. The observer comes to realize that even
though the snake appeared to exist for a while, it actually was never there.
According to Shankara, the rope represents Nirguna Brahman or
Impersonal God, and the snake represents the world. Nirguna Brahman,
being eternal and changeless, is the only reality that exists. To a person who
has come to know Nirguna Brahman, the world is not real to him anymore.
He also comes to know that the world was never created. Therefore, the
question about the origin or creation of an “uncreated” world cannot arise.
Footnotes for Chapter XX
L The Sanskrit words for creation and dissolu tion are srishti and pralaya respectively.
Z The Sankhya school, which is atheistic, has a different concept of creation, but it accepts the
kalpa theory of creation.
Z In Sanskrit bahu syam prajdyeyeti (Chhandogya Upanishad 6.2.3)
J This Sanskrit word Ilia means “play acting” or “play. ”
Z S. Chatterjee and D. Datta, An Introduction To Indian Philosophy, 7th ed. (Calcutta, India:
University’Of Calcutta, 1968), 267-274.
(L Walter H. Maurer, trans., Pinnacles Of India ’s Past, Selections from the Rgveda
(Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1986), 283-284.
Z. They are also called tanmdtras.
& John Dowson, A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History
and Literature (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1953), 145.
9. John Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy (Albany: State University of New York
Press, 1989), 166.
10. Amal Bandopadhyay, Pauranika, vol. I (Calcutta: Firma K.L.M. Pr: Ltd.,1978), 248-249.
XXI
MOKSHA OR LIBERATION FROM SAMSARA
INTRODUCTION
The derivative meaning of the Sanskrit word samsara is “the repeated
passing of souls through different worlds—gross or subtle.” In other words,
samsara means going through the cycle of repeated births and deaths.
According to Hinduism the goal of human life is to be free or liberated from
repeated births and deaths. Such liberation is called moksha or mukti in
Sanskrit. Moksha can be attained only through God-realization.
The various schools of Hindu philosophy (darshana) hold differing
views about moksha. Some schools say that moksha can be achieved by
people only after their death, others claim that it can be achieved even while
they are alive. There are also differences of opinion regarding the nature of
moksha. The following paragraphs will introduce the reader to these views
and concepts.
MOKSHA ACCORDING TO THE DVAITA SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
The Dvaita, or dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy, believes in
post-mortem liberation only. A person who has gone through rigorous
ethical and moral disciplines followed by right knowledge, right action,
non-attachment, and devotional meditation on the Personal God (Vishnu),
becomes fit for release or moksha through Ishwara’s loving grace.
According to this school, there are four gradations or levels of moksha : (1)
sdlokya, (2) samipya or sannidhya, (3) sarupya, and (4) sayujya. Among the
four, the first one is the lowest and the last one is the highest. Depending
upon his spiritual progress the departed soul may achieve any one of the
four kinds of moksha.
In sdlokya-mukti the departed soul goes to ishta-loka (the abode of the
Personal God, such as the abode of Vishnu), and stays there blissfully
enjoying His presence; in samipya or sannidhya-mukti the departed soul
enjoys the bliss of extreme proximity to the Personal God; in sarupya-WM^i
the departed soul acquires the form of the Personal God and enjoys intense
bliss; in sayujya-mukti the departed soul becomes blissfully absorbed in the
Personal God.
MOKSHA ACCORDING TO THE ADVAITA SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
The Advaita, or non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy, believes
that one can have liberation from samsara even when alive. Such release or
liberation is called jlvanmukti in Sanskrit. According to this school, a
spiritual aspirant has to first go through various moral and ethical practices,
worship {upasana) of the Personal God, etc. These observances gradually
purify his mind and make it ready for intense meditation on the Impersonal
Divine Reality (Nirguna Brahman). Such meditation enables him to have
atmajnana or the knowledge of his inner Divine Self. Atmajnana destroys
the mantle of ignorance ( avidya) that covers the knowledge of the Reality.
Release will come as soon as his ignorance is annihilated. Then he becomes
a jivanmukta (one who has had jlvanmukti). After attaining jlvanmukti he
can no longer think of himself as an embodied being. To a jivanmukta, the
body—like the rest of the world—appears illusory. The illusory body of the
jivanmukta continues to exist as long as his prarabdha karma lasts. When
the prarabdha is exhausted and the illusory body dies, the jivanmukta
attains his disembodied release called videha-mukti.
According to one view, a jivanmukta may totally lose interest in his
illusory body immediately after attaining jlvanmukti. As a result, his body
drops off in a matter of days causing his sadyomukti or “immediate
release.
Other scholars say that the term jlvanmukti, from the standpoint of
those who have attained atmajnana, means sadyomukti or immediate
liberation. After attaining atmajnana, these liberated souls can no longer
identify with their bodies, which along with the rest of the world have
become illusory and unreal. So far as they are concerned, their bodies are
not really there. Therefore, from their standpoint they have attained
sadyomukti. However, observers who see such souls may call them
jlvanmuktas.
There is another concept about liberation called kramamukti or
avantara-mukti (liberation through stages). According to this concept, a
person who has intensely meditated on Saguna Brahman using the sacred
sound symbol AUM or other prescribed methods of meditation such as
dahara-vidyd , shandilya-vidya, etc., goes to Brahma-loka after death.
There he attains the knowledge of Nirguna Brahman under the guidance of
Hiranyagarbha. When the entire universe is dissolved at the end of the
kalpa he becomes one with Brahman and is not born again. This type of
liberation from samsara is called krama-mukti or avantara-mukti.
MOKSHA ACCORDING TO THE VISHISHTAD VAITA SCHOOL OF
PHILOSOPHY
The Vishishtadvaita, or school of qualified non-dualism of Vedanta
philosophy, does not accept the idea of jivanmukti. A person can be
liberated only after his death. Moksha means living blissfully in vaikuntha,
which is the realm of the Personal God. A person who has attained moksha
lives blissfully in vaikuntha in a spiritual body in the presence of God. He
acquires many divine powers such as omniscience, etc., but unlike God he
cannot create, sustain or dissolve the world. In spite of his exalted state he
has to remain subservient to God.
According to this school, liberation cannot be attained by dtmajndna as
is maintained by the Advaita system. This school also says that Karma Yoga
and Jnana Yoga are only aids to Bhakti Yoga. One can be liberated from the
bondage of this samsara only through God’s grace. Bhakti Yoga practices
are the only means of obtaining divine grace.
MOKSHA ACCORDING TO THE SANKHYA SCHOOL OF
PHILOSOPHY
In this system, the soul or the spirit is Purusha, and the body-mind
complex is an evolved form of unconscious primordial matter, Prakriti.
Purusha is pure consciousness; Prakriti , although inherently unconscious,
functions by borrowing consciousness from Purusha. The bondage of
Purusha is caused by aviveka or Purusha s false identification with Prakriti
and its evolved products like mind, body, etc. Such false identification is
caused by Purusha s ignorance. While in bondage, Purusha suffers mental
and physical pain because of its false identification with the body-mind
complex. In order to get rid of this false identification and consequent pain
and suffering, Purusha must acquire the knowledge that, as spirit, it is
completely different and distinct from Prakriti and its evolved product—the
body-mind complex. This knowledge is called viveka-jnana. In the Sankhya
system, moksha (also called kaivalya ) means the complete cessation of
suffering and pain. It is viveka-jnana which causes Purusha’s moksha by
disentangling Purusha from Prakriti.
The Sankhya system, like the Advaita system, accepts the idea of
jivanmukti or emancipation of the soul while living in the body. When a
jivanmukta dies, he attains videha-mukti.
MOKSHA ACCORDING TO THE PURVA-MlMAMSA SCHOOL OF
PHILOSOPHY
This school believes only in after-death liberation of the soul. It does
not believe in jivanmukti. Moksha can be achieved through the right
performance of rituals as enjoined by the Vedas. The concept of moksha in
the early Purva-Mlmamsa system is that the liberated soul goes to heaven
and enjoys heavenly bliss forever. But the later Purva-Mlmamsa school
describes moksha as a state devoid of the possibility of rebirth, and thus free
from the possibility of consequent pain and suffering. It does not speak of
moksha as a state of heavenly bliss.
MOKSHA ACCORDING TO THE NYAYA AND THE VAISHESHIKA
SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY
These two schools are similar in their concept of moksha. These
schools say that liberation (. Apavarga ) is a separation from all qualities.
Liberation is a state beyond pleasure, happiness, pain, or any experience
whatsoever. It is achieved by cultivating ethical virtues and acquiring the
right knowledge of reality. After liberation there is no rebirth.
Footnote for Chapter XXI
L Committing suicide by a spiritually unenlightened person is condemned by Hinduism because it
causes him intense after death suffering. However, according to the scriptures, a jivanmukta whose
lack of interest in his body causes its death is not adversely affected by the loss of his body.
According to Shrl Ramakrishna, most of those who attain jivanmukti through niivikalpa samadhi
cannot bring down their minds anymore to the plane of this earthly existence. Their minds remain
immersed in Rra/rmmt-consciousness. In that state they totally lose their body-consciousness. As a
result, their bodies cannot get nourishment and drop off after a few days.
XXII
CONCLUDING REMARKS
HINDUISM IS REALISTIC—IT IS NEITHER OPTIMISTIC NOR
PESSIMISTIC
Some scholars are of the opinion that Hinduism is a pessimistic
religion. According to them, Hinduism has a pessimistic view towards this
world, tending to put more emphasis on the other world, ignoring the world
we live in. But the most authentic scriptures of Hinduism, such as the Rig-
Veda and the Yajur-Veda, give us a completely different view. We come to
know from them that the Aryans of the Vedic period enjoyed a very high
standard of material comfort. To them this world was good and enjoyable; it
was not evil. According to the Isha Upanishad, “(man) should wish to live
for one hundred years.” The Aryans wore fine clothes and gold jewelry,
enjoyed music, dancing, good food and wine. Milk cows, their main wealth,
were numerous. There is mention of heaven but practically no mention of
hell. 1
An unbiased study of Hinduism reveals that it is neither pessimistic
nor overly optimistic. Too much optimism causes frequent disappointments,
while pessimism robs people of their initiative. Neither is encouraged by
Hinduism. Hinduism is purely realistic. It encourages its followers to
recognize the true nature of the world and act accordingly.
Hindu scriptures speak of two goals pursued by man: (1) the pleasant
and (2) the good. What is pleasant may not necessarily be good, and what is
good may not be pleasant. Besides, that which is pleasant now may become
unpleasant later. Eating a chocolate cupcake may be a pleasant experience,
but if a person is forced at gunpoint to eat eight chocolate cupcakes in quick
succession, it becomes torture. To an alcoholic, drinking liquor may be
pleasant, but it certainly is not good for him. Getting daily physical exercise
is not necessarily pleasant, but it is undoubtedly good for one’s health.
Similarly, certain mental and physical indulgences may be pleasant, but
they are neither good for the body nor the mind. Hinduism asks its
followers to give up such indulgences. It does not encourage its followers to
live in an unreal fantasy world where bad is painted as good, and what is
harmful is imagined as beneficial simply because it is pleasant. It exhorts its
followers to be realistic and hold on to what is good, giving up what may be
pleasant but not good.
HINDUISM IS NOT FATALISTIC
Hinduism does not believe in fatalism. According to the doctrine of
karma, a person’s future is his or her own creation. The good or bad actions
done in the present will cause enjoyment or suffering in the future. To
create a better future one must wisely utilize the present moment by
performing good activities. Blaming someone else for one’s own suffering
is not condoned by Hinduism. The worker must take full responsibility for
his or her good or bad actions and consequent pleasure or pain.
HINDUISM’S POSITION IN REGARD TO MORTIFICATION OF THE
BODY
Purposeless and neurotic mortification of the body is not encouraged
by mainstream Hinduism.- Physical austerity is necessary as much as it
helps to strengthen the mind. A person who is not easily affected by heat or
cold, pleasure or pain, is mentally a stronger person. He is more likely to
handle the various problems in his life without being defeated by them. Too
much identification with the body makes a person mentally weak. Hinduism
clearly forbids its followers to go to any extreme. Neglecting the body is
not considered necessarily a virtue. Shanramadyam khalu
dharmasadhanam —“The body is the primary instrument to practice
religion or dharma ”—says Hinduism. The body therefore has to be taken
care of. Hindu scriptures also teach that the body is the temple of God,
because the soul or the indwelling Divine Self resides in it.
IDEA AND PRACTICE OF NONVIOLENCE IN HINDUISM
Although Hinduism considers nonviolence the greatest virtue, it is not
blind to the fact that we must put up with one or another kind of violence
merely to survive.- Thousands of microscopic lives are destroyed every
time we breathe. Each food grain we eat has life in it. It is impossible to
completely avoid committing violence. All that Hinduism expects its
followers to do is to consciously minimize violence as much as is
practicable to get rid of the violent attitude of mind.
However, violence justified by a noble cause may sometimes be
condoned by Hinduism. Such justification must come from the dictates of
the scriptures; not from any other source. If an enemy attacks a country, the
soldiers must fight in order to repel, subdue or kill that enemy. It is the
religious duty of the soldiers to defend the country. Killing a fleeing,
wounded, defenseless, or incapacitated enemy is not permitted by the
scriptures. A soldier who escapes from the battlefield out of fright, and
wants to justify his cowardice by extolling the virtue of nonviolence, has
failed in his duty and is a hypocrite.
Ideally speaking, a truly nonviolent person is not supposed to hurt
anyone by his body, mind or speech. Total nonviolence is possible for a
spiritually-illumined soul only. Such a soul loses his false identification
with his body-mind complex and comes to know his true divine identity. He
experiences God as the essence of all things and all beings, including
himself. Therefore, he cannot hate or harm anyone.
He alone can love his enemies, because he does not see an enemy
anywhere. All that he experiences is the manifestation of God. As he can no
longer identify with his psycho-physical complex, he cannot hold himself
responsible for whatever his body or mind does. He loses his sense of
agency, the awareness that he is the doer of things. Thus, he goes beyond
violence. The Bhagavad Gita (18/17) says, “He who does not have the sense
of agency or egoism, whose intellect does not hold itself responsible for
action performed by the body and the senses, he does not kill, nor does he
become bound by the result of such killing.
THE IDEA OF THE HARMONY OF RELIGIONS IS INHERENT IN
HINDUISM
The spirit of religious tolerance in Hinduism is rooted in this statement
from the Rig-Veda, Ekam sad vipra bahudha vadanti —“One (God) alone
exists. Sages call That by different names.” The idea that God can be
realized through different spiritual paths has been taught through the ages
by many saints and godmen of India. But the idea that all religions lead to
the same God is mainly the contribution of the 19th century Hindu saint
Shri Ramakrishna. He is known as the prophet of the harmony of religions.
No book on Hinduism can be written today without acknowledging his
contribution. Some of his relevant teachings are recorded below with the
hope that they may help, no matter in what small way, in promoting peace
and understanding between the religious people of our strife-torn world.
Shri Ramakrishna
Many are the names of God and infinite are the forms through which
He may be approached. In whatever name and form you worship Him,
through that you will realize Him.
God has made different religions to suit different aspirants, times and
countries. All doctrines are so many paths; but a path is by no means God
Himself. Indeed, one can reach God if one follows any of the paths with
whole hearted devotion. One may eat a pastry with icing either straight or
sidewise. It will taste sweet either way.
A truly religious man should think that other religions are also so
many paths leading to the Truth. One should always maintain an attitude of
respect towards other religions.
Different creeds are but different paths to reach the same God.
Various types ofjewelry are made of gold. Although they are made of
the same substance they have different forms, and they are given different
names. So also the one and the same God is worshiped in different
countries under different names and forms.
Every man should follow his own religion. A Christian should follow
Christianity, a Muslim should follow Islam, and so on. For a Hindu, the
ancient path, the path of the Aryan sages, is the best.
Dispute not. As you rest firmly on your own faith and opinion, allow
others also the equal liberty to stand by their own faiths and opinions. By
mere disputation you will never succeed in convincing another of his error.
When the grace of God descends, each one will understand his own
mistakes.
God Himself has provided different forms of worship. He who is the
Lord of the Universe has arranged all these forms to suit different men in
different stages of knowledge. The mother cooks different dishes to suit the
stomachs of her children. Suppose she has five children. If there is a fish to
cook, she prepares various dishes from it—pilau, pickled fish, fried fish, and
so on—to suit their different tastes and powers of digestion.
God is formless and yet He can assume forms. One monk went to visit
the temple of Lord Jagannath in the holy city of Puri. While inside the
temple, doubts came to his mind. He started wondering if God had form, or
He was formless. As he was a wandering monk, he was carrying a staff in
his hand. With his staff he wanted to touch the image of Lord Jagannath. He
put one end of his staff to the left of the image and moved it to the right. The
staff passed unobstructed through the image, as if it was not there. But
when he tried to move the staff from right to left, the image obstructed it.
Thus, he realized that God is formless and yet He can have form.
A man went to a forest. There, for the first time in his life, he saw a
chameleon sitting on a tree. Later he said to someone, “Brother, in that
forest I saw a strange creature on a tree. It s red in color. ” The other man
said, “I’ve also seen that creature, it certainly isn’t red. It’s green. ” Another
person said, “Why should it be green? I’ve seen it too, it’s yellow.”
Someone else claimed that it was violet, while others insisted that it was
either blue or black. Thus they started quarreling. Then they decided to go
back to that tree and found a man sitting under it. That man said, “I live
under this tree; I know this creature very well. What you all have been
saying is quite true. It is sometimes red, sometimes green, sometimes yellow
and sometimes blue. ” One who contemplates God all the time—he alone
knows what God is really like. He alone knows that God reveals Himself in
so many different ways. God sometimes assumes different forms. Sometimes
He has attributes, sometimes none. One who lives under the tree alone
knows that the chameleon has many colors. He also knows that sometimes it
doesn’t have any color at all. Others who don’t know, quarrel and suffer
unnecessarily. God has form, then again He is formless. He is like the
infinite ocean. The cooling influence of the spiritual aspirant s devotion for
God causes the water to freeze and become ice. But when the sun of true
knowledge rises, the ice melts and becomes formless water again.
Footnotes for Chapter XXII
L See the article “The Vedic Culture” by C. Kunhan Raja, D. Phil. (Oxon), Head of the Department
of Sanskrit, Madras University, in the book The Cultural Heritage Of India, Vol. I, published by the
Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Gol Park, Calcutta.
2 The Bhagavad Gita 17/6 says, “Those who, being non-discriminating, torture all the organs in
the body as also even Me (i.e. God) who reside in the body—know them as possessed of demonical
conviction. ”
2 The Sanskrit saying sarvam atyanta garhitam means “too much of anything is bad. ”
P Ahimsaiva hi sarvebhyo dharmebhyo jyayasi matd—“Nonviolence is considered the greatest of
all virtues. ” Mahdbhdrata (Shdntiparva) 257/6.
2 It has to be understood that a person in such an exalted spiritual state can never “consciously ”
kill or commit violence.
Appendix A
WORLD THINKERS ON HINDUISM AND INDIAN CULTURE
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), German philosopher, said about the
Upanishadic scriptures of Hinduism: “In the whole world there is no
study... so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been
the solace of my life; it will be the solace of my death.”
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), renowned American poet, essayist
and philosopher, wrote: “In all nations there are minds which incline to
dwell in the conception of the fundamental Unity. The raptures of prayer
and ecstasy of devotion lose all being in one Being. This tendency finds its
highest expression in the religious writings of the East and chiefly in the
Indian scriptures, in the Vedas, the Bhagavat Geeta, and the Vishnu
Purana.”
The famous American essayist, poet and naturalist Henry David Thoreau
(1817-1862) wrote: “What extracts from the Vedas I have read fall on me
like light of a higher and purer luminary, which describes a loftier course
through a purer stratum—free from particulars, simple, universal. It rises on
me like the full moon after the stars have come out, wading through some
far summer stratum of the sky.”
Friedrich Max M. Muller (1823-1900), the famous philologist and
mythologist of England, said: “If one would ask me under what sky the
human mind has most fully developed its precious gifts, has scrutinized
most profoundly the greatest problems of life, and has, at least for some,
provided solutions which deserve to be admired even by those who have
studied Plato and Kant, I would indicate India.
“And if one would ask me which literature would give us back (us
Europeans, who have been exclusively fed on Greek and Roman thought...)
the necessary equilibrium in order to make our inner life more perfect, more
comprehensive, more universal, in short, more human, a life not only for
this life, but for a transformed and eternal life, once again I would indicate
India.”
He also said: “Philosophy in India is what it ought to be, not the denial,
but the fulfillment of religion; it is the highest religion; and the oldest name
of the oldest system of philosophy in India is Vedanta, that is, the end, the
goal, the highest object of the Vedas.”
The well-known British historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee (1889-1975)
said: “At this supremely dangerous moment in human history, the only way
of salvation is the Indian way. The Emperor Ashoka’s and the Mahatma
Gandhi’s principle of non-violence and Sri Ramakrishna’s testimony to the
harmony of religions; here we have the attitude and the spirit that can make
it possible for the human race to grow together into a single family....”
Appendix B
MAJOR HINDU RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
Deepavall or Diwalv. Autumn festival of lights. Observed all over India.
Maha-Shivaratri : Nocturnal worship of God as Lord Shiva; held in spring.
Observed all over India.
Pongal or Makar Sankranti : Worship of God at the time of the winter
solstice. Observed in southern and eastern India.
Navaratri : Nine-day worship of God as the Divine Mother; observed in
autumn. Observed in northern, central and southern India.
Ganesh Piija/Ganesh Chaturthi or Vinayak Chaturthi: Worship of God as
the giver of success; observed in early autumn. Observed in western India,
particularly the state of Maharashtra.
Ratha Yatra : Festival during which a symbolic image of God in a chariot is
pulled by devotees; held in summer. Observed in eastern India, particularly
in the states of Orissa and Bengal.
Holi : Festival celebrating an event of the Divine Incarnation Lord Krishna’s
life. Along with His worship, devotees throw bright colored liquid and
powder at each other; held in spring. Observed in northern and eastern
India.
Chhat Puja : Worship of God in winter using the Sun as a symbol. Observed
in eastern India, particularly in the states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
Bahag Bihu, Kati Bihu and Magh Bihu : Seasonal festivals held respectively
in spring, autumn and winter. Observed in northeastern India, particularly in
the state of Assam.
Durga Puja : Four-day worship of God as the Divine Mother Durga; held in
autumn. Observed in eastern India, particularly in the state of Bengal.
Kail Puja : Nocturnal worship of God as the Divine Mother Kali; held three
weeks after Durga Puja. Observed in eastern India, particularly in the state
of Bengal.
SarasvatT Puja : Worship of God as the Divine Mother Sarasvati, the
bestower of success in education, music and other arts; held in winter.
Observed in eastern India, particularly in the state of Bengal.
Shri Krishna Janmashtaml : Birthday celebration of the Divine Incarnation
Lord Krishna; observed in late summer. Observed all over India.
Rakshd Bandhan : Festival during which sisters put colorful cotton wrist
bands on their brothers as a token of their sisterly love; held in summer.
Observed in northern India.
Ram NavamT: Birthday celebration of the Divine Incarnation Lord Rama;
observed in spring in northern India.
Bhratri Dvitiya or Bhai Duj : Festival known as Brother’s Day during which
sisters pray to God for the long life of their brothers; held in winter.
Observed in northern and eastern India and Nepal.
VaishakhI or Navavarsha: Festival in spring celebrating the advent of the
New Year according to the Indian Lunar Calendar. Observed in northern
and eastern India.
Lakshmi Puja : Worship of God as the Divine Mother Lakshml, the giver of
wealth and prosperity; held on the first full moon day after Durga Puja in
autumn, particularly in the state of Bengal.
Appendix C
SUGGESTED READING
Advanced History of India, R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychaudhuri and K. K.
Datta
Bhagavad Gita, Swami Gambhirananda
Bhakti Yoga, Swami Vivekananda
Essentials of Hinduism, Swami Vivekananda
The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Swami Nikhilananda
Hindu View of Life, S. Radhakrishnan
Hinduism at a Glance, Swami Nirvedananda
Hinduism, M. Monier Williams
Hinduism, R. C. Zaehner
Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, Swami Nikhilananda
Indian Philosophy, 2 vols., S. Radhakrishnan
Introduction to Indian Philosophy, S. Chatterjee and D. M. Datta
Jnana Yoga, Swami Vivekananda
Karma Yoga, Swami Vivekananda
Mahabharata, Kamala Subramaniam
Meditation, Mind and Patanjali s Yoga, Swami Bhaskarananda
Outlines of Indian Philosophy, M. Hiriyanna
Primer of Hinduism, D. S. Sarma
Primer of Hinduism, J. N. Farquhar
Raja Yoga, Swami Vivekananda
Religion of the Hindus, K. W. Morgan (ed)
The Upanishads—Breath of the Eternal, Swami Prabhavananda
Vivekananda, the Yogas and other Works, Swami Nikhilananda and
Frederick Manchester
What is Hinduism?, D. S. Sarma
The Wonder That Was India, A. L. Basham
Yoga for Beginners, Swami Jnaneswarananda
GLOSSARY
-A-
Acharya: A spiritual teacher; also teacher of secular education.
Adroha: Freedom from malice.
Advaita: A school of Vedanta philosophy, teaching the oneness of
God, soul and the universe.
Agama: A class of literature pertaining to Tantra.
AgamT Karma: The effects of the deeds of the present life to be
experienced in the future; also called Kriyamana Karma.
Agni: The fire-element.
Agnihotra: A kind of ritualistic worship where fire was used as the
symbol of God.
Ahimsa: Nonviolence.
Ajnana: A term in Vedanta philosophy, meaning ignorance of the
Divine Reality. According to the Advaita school of philosophy ajnana
is responsible for man’s bondage and suffering in this world.
Akasha: The sky-element.
Alolupta: Non-covetousness.
Ananda: Bliss.
Antevasin: A student.
Ap: The water-element.
Apaishuna: Refraining from vilification and backbiting.
Aparigraha: Non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts from others.
Aratrika (Arati): Ritualistic worship of God by using symbols of the
five elements which according to Hinduism constitute this world.
Incense, water, light, a hand fan, and a piece of cloth are used as
symbols to represent the elements earth, water, fire, air and ether
(sky). They are waved in front of the image of the deity.
ArdhanginT: (lit., a half body) A wife.
Arjava: Straightforwardness.
Arjuna: A heroic prince of the Mahabharata who was the son of the
King Pandu and a friend and student of Krishna.
Artha: Wealth, one of the four goals of human life.
Arya: Indo-Aryan.
Arya dharma: Religion of the Indo-Aryans.
Arya Samaj: A reformist Hindu organization started by SwamT
Dayananda SarasvatT. See “Dayananda SarasvatT. ”
Aryavarta: The land of the Indo-Aryans.
Asana: Sitting posture related to Raja Yoga.
Atman: The Self; Soul; Indwelling Spirit.
Atyantika Pralaya: Absolute dissolution of the universe.
Avatara: Incarnation of God.
Avantara mukti: Liberation achieved through stages; also known as
krama-mukti.
Avidya: A term of Vedanta philosophy meaning ignorance. See
“ajnana. ”
Avyakta: The unmanifested state of the universe.
-B-
Bhakti Yoga: The Path of Love; one of the four fundamental types of
spiritual discipline.
Bhagavad GTta: A well-known Hindu scripture which forms a part of
the epic Mahabharata.
Bhagavata: One of the Puranas.
Bhuta: (lit., what has come into being) Any of the five elementary
constituents of the universe, namely, akasha, vayu, agni, ap and
kshiti.
Brahman: Impersonal God; the Absolute Reality.
Brahma: God as the Creator; the name of the creator aspect of God.
Brahmacharya: The first stage of Hindu life; the stage of studentship.
Also means celibacy.
Brahmaloka: The highest plane of existence.
Brahmin: One who belongs to the priestly caste.
Brahmo Samaj: A theistic organization of India, founded by Raja
Rammohan Roy.
Buddha: One of the incarnations of God; also the founder of
Buddhism.
Buddhism: A religion which is an offshoot of Hinduism. It is atheistic
and sets the goal of spiritual life as complete cessation of misery.
-C-
ChandT: A scripture in which the Divine Mother is described as the
Ultimate Reality. ChandT forms a part of the Markandeya Purana.
Chidakasha: “Knowledge” space.
Chit: Consciousness, knowledge.
-D-
Dama: The control of the external organs.
Darshana: Hindu philosophy.
DashnamT Order: A monastic order which was started by the great
Hindu saint and philosopher Shankaracharya. See
“Shankaracharya. ”
Dasya: The attitude of a devotee expressing the relationship of a
servant to God.
Dayananda SarasvatT: The founder of the Arya Samaj (1824- 1883).
Deva: (lit., That which shines): A being with a body that gives out
light; a god.
Devi: (Feminine form of Deva) A goddess.
Dharana: Fixing the mind on a single object.
Dharma: (lit., that which holds up the existence of anything)
Essential quality; religion; code of duties; duty.
Dhruva: A saint in Hindu mythology.
Dhyana: Meditation; the state of uninterrupted concentration of the
mind on a single object.
Divine Mother: God looked upon as mother.
DoI Purnima/Holi: The Hindu spring festival associated with
Krishna’s life.
Durga: A name of the Divine Mother.
Durga POja: The worship of Durga. See Durga.
Dvaita: The philosophy of Dualism; a sub-school of Vedanta. Four
stages of Aryan life: Brahmacharya (life of an unmarried student),
garhasthya (life of a married householder), vanaprasthya (life of a
retired householder), and sannyasa (life of a monk).
-G-
Gafurov, Bobodzhan: A native of Tajikstan, he specialized in the
history of Middle Asia and Asia Minor. He was the Director of the
Institute of Oriental Studies, Moscow, and a member of the Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.
GargT: A great woman scholar of the Vedic period.
Garhasthya: The second stage of Hindu life; the stage of a family
man.
GayatrJ Mantra: A sacred verse of the Rig-Veda recited daily by
Hindus of the three upper castes after they have been invested with
the sacred thread (UpavTta); also known as SavitrT Mantra.
Guna: Property or characteristic trait; any of the three subtle
substances which constitute Prakriti or Mother Nature. According to
Sankhya philosophy, Prakriti consists of three gun as known as
sattva, rajas, and tamas. Tamas stands for inertia or dullness; rajas
for activity or restlessness; sattva for balance, harmony or
righteousness.
Guru: Spiritual teacher; also one who gives secular education.
-H-
Hatha Yoga: A school of yoga that aims chiefly at physical health
and well-being.
Hiranyagarbha: The first created being through whom God projects
the physical universe. Also called Brahma.
Householder: A family man or woman; a person who is not a
monastic.
HrT: Modesty.
-I-
Ishvara: God the Creator; Saguna Brahman; Personal God.
-J-
Japa: Repetition of a holy name.
Jatyantara Parinama: Transformation of one genus or species into
another.
JTvanmukta: One who has become liberated even while alive.
JTvanmukti: The state of a jTvanmukta.
Jnana Yoga: The Path of Knowledge; one of the four fundamental
types of spiritual discipline.
-K-
Kalki: Name of the last of the ten divine incarnations mentioned in
the Puranas.
Kalpa: A periodic cycle of Creation and Dissolution.
Kamalakanta: A saint of Bengal.
Karma: Action, deed, work; result or effect of action.
Karma Yoga: The Path of Right Action; one of the four fundamental
types of spiritual discipline.
Karmaphala: (lit., the fruit of an action) The consequences of deeds
which come back to the doer in the shape of pain or pleasure.
Karmaphala is of three kinds — prarabdha, sanchita and kriyamana
(also called agami).
Krishna: An Incarnation of God.
Kriyamana: (lit., what is being done) The effect of the deeds of the
present life to be experienced in the future.
Kshama: Forgiveness.
Kshatriya: A person belonging to the military caste.
Kshiti: Earth element.
KundalinT: The dormant spiritual power of man which resides
between the base of the sexual organ and the anus. When
awakened through spiritual practice, it enters the sushumna channel
which is inside the backbone and starts coursing upward toward the
brain. Inside the sushumna channel there are six different centers of
spiritual awareness called Chakras. They are, in ascending order: (1)
Muladhara, (2) Svadhishthana, (3) Manipura, (4) Anahata, (5)
Vishuddha and (6) Ajna. These Chakras are visualized by the Yogis
as so many lotuses. The Muladhara Chakra, situated near the anus,
is a four-petalled lotus. The Svadhishthana Chakra, situated at the
base of the sexual organ, has six petals. The Manipura Chakra,
which is in the region of the navel, is a ten-petaled lotus. The
Anahata Chakra, located in the region of the heart, contains twelve
petals. The Vishuddha Chakra, near the base of the throat, has
sixteen petals. The Ajna Chakra, situated in between the two
eyebrows, is a two-petaled lotus. Muladhara is the seat of the
KundalinT power. After being awakened, this power passes through
these six Chakras and reaches the cerebrum where the Sahasrara,
the thousand petaled lotus is located. The Sahasrara is the seat of
God (Shiva). When the awakened KundalinT power reaches the
Sahasrara, the spiritual aspirant becomes illumined.
-L-
LakshmT: The Deity who is the giver of wealth and prosperity. The
Puranas mention LakshmT as the Consort of Lord Vishnu and also as
the Goddess of Fortune.
Lila: Sport; Divine Play
-M-
Madhura: The attitude of a devotee who looks upon God as the
Beloved.
Madhvacharya: A famous Hindu saint and philosopher of South India
(1199-1278); also known as AnandatJrtha; founder of the school of
Dualistic Vedanta philosophy (Dvaita Vada).
Mahanirvana Tantra: A classic Tantric scripture.
Mahatma Gandhi: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi; well known
political leader of India renowned for his nonviolent political
movement; considered by many Indians as the father of the nation.
Mahavakyas: Important sentences in the Vedas which speak of the
divinity of man and the nature of God.
Manava Dharma: Religion of Man; one of the several names of the
religion of the Indo-Aryans.
Mantra: A sacred formula to be uttered in connection with rituals;
also a set of holy words.
Mardava: Gentleness.
Marga: Path.
Maya: God’s power of creating illusions.
Meera Bai: A great medieval woman saint of North India (1504-
lb 50).
Moksha: Liberation from all kinds of bondage; liberation attained
through spiritual enlightenment.
Mukti: Same as moksha.
-N-
Naimittika Pralaya: Cyclic Cosmic Dissolution during
Hiranyagarbha’s sleep.
Nata-mandira: The audience hall in a Hindu temple.
Nididhyasana: Deep concentration on Self-Knowledge.
Nigama: A class of literature pertaining to Tantra.
Nirguna Brahman: Impersonal God; God without any attributes.
Nirvikalpa Samadhi: A super-conscious state during which the
aspirant realizes his absolute oneness with the Universal Spirit or
Nirguna Brahman.
Nivritti Marga: The path of renunciation of sensual desires.
Nrisimha: (lit., Man-lion) A Divine Incarnation mentioned in the
Puranas.
Nyaya: Indian Logic; one of the six systems of Hindu philosophy.
-O-
OM: The most sacred word of the Vedas, also written as AUM. It is a
symbol of God.
-P-
Pancha rina: Five debts.
PanchTkarana: (lit. quintupling) According to the Vedanta school a
particular process by which the five elements constituting the
universe are said to be compounded with one another to form this
universe.
Panini: A famous grammarian of ancient India.
ParvatT: Another name of Shakti.
Patanjali: Founder of the Yoga system of Hindu philosophy.
PathyasvatT: A great woman scholar of the Vedic period.
Pingala: A nerve channel in the spinal column.
Prahlada: A great devotee of Vishnu whose life is mentioned in the
Puranas.
Prakriti: Primordial Nature, which in association with Purusha creates
the universe. It is one of the categories of the Sankhya school of
philosophy.
Prakrita Pralaya: Cosmic Dissolution at the end of Hiranyagarbha’s
life span, when he becomes liberated.
Pralaya: Cosmic Dissolution.
Pranayama: A kind of breathing exercise helpful in gaining mental
concentration.
Pranava: The holy syllable OM of Hinduism.
Prarabdha: The karmic force that determines one’s present life.
Prasada: Food or drink that has been offered to the Deity.
Pratyahara: The process of withdrawing one’s mind from sense
objects.
Pravritti Marga: The Path of Permitted Sensual Desires, suitable for
householders.
PrithivT: The earth element, also called kshiti.
Puranas: Hindu mythology.
Purl Order: One of the branches of the DashnamT monastic order
founded by Shankaracharya.
Purusha: (lit., a man) A term of the Sankhya philosophy, denoting the
eternal Sentient Principle; according to Sankhya, there are many
Purushas.
POrva-Mimamsa: One of the six major systems of Hindu philosophy.
-R-
Rajas: One of the three subtle substances constituting Prakriti or
Mother Nature.
Raja Yoga: The Path of Mental Concentration; one of the four
fundamental types of spiritual discipline.
Rama: A Divine Incarnation; the epic Ramayana is the story of his
life.
Ramakrishna: A 19th century Hindu saint (1836-1886) known as the
saint of the harmony of religions; also regarded as a Divine
Incarnation by many.
Ramanujacharya: A famous saint and philosopher of South India, the
founder of the school of Qualified Nondualism (Vishishtadvaita
Vada).
Ramayana: A famous Hindu epic authored by ValmTki.
Ramprasad: A well-known saint of Bengal; composer of many songs
about the Divine Mother (1723-1803).
Rishi: Seer of God, sage.
Rita: Eternal moral order.
-s-
Saguna Brahman: Brahman with attributes; Impersonal God seen
through maya as Personal God; the Creator, Preserver, and
Destroyer of the universe.
SahadharminT: A wife.
Sahasrara: The thousand-petalled lotus in the cerebrum. See
KundalinT.
Sakhya: The attitude of a devotee who looks upon God as a friend.
Samadhi: Mental concentration par excellence.
Samhita: One of the two primary sections of each of the Vedas
containing hymns and sacred formulas (mantras).
Sanatana Dharma: (lit., the eternal religion) One of the names of the
religion of the Indo-Aryans.
Sannyasa: The 4th stage of Hindu life; the stage of complete
renunciation.
Sannyasin: An all-renouncing monk, who belongs to the fourth stage
of Hindu life.
Satchidananda: The ocean of Existence, Knowledge and Bliss; a
metaphorical expression suggesting the indescribable Absolute
Reality or Nirguna Brahman.
Savikalpa Samadhi: A kind of Samadhi in which one retains a trace
of one’s ego. See Samadhi.
SavitrT Mantra: See GayatrT Mantra.
Shaiva: A Hindu sect worshiping God as Shiva.
Shaiva Agama(s): A class of scriptural texts of the Shaiva sect.
Shakta: A Hindu sect worshiping God as the Divine Mother; a
member of this sect; pertaining to this sect.
Shankaracharya: The great saint and Vedantist philosopher of South
India (c. 700-740).
Shanta: The unemotional attitude of a devotee contemplating the
infinite glories of Personal God.
Shanti: Peace.
Shaucha: Purification of body and mind.
Shiva: The Destroyer aspect of God.
Shraddha: Implicit faith in one’s teacher or other respected people.
Shrlmad Bhagavata: One of the Puranas.
Shruti: (lit., anything heard) Revealed knowledge; the Vedas.
Shudra: One who belongs to the caste of farmers, artisans, etc.
Siddhi(s): Supernatural power(s).
Smriti(s): (lit., anything remembered) Any scripture other than the
Vedas, especially one laying down social and domestic laws.
Snataka: A student who has completed his education.
Srishti: Creation.
Sthiti: Continued existence—the state of the universe during the
interval between Creation and Dissolution.
Sthula: Gross; physical, as opposed to subtle (sukshma).
Sukshma: Fine; subtle.
-T-
Tamas: One of the three subtle substances constituting Prakriti or
Mother Nature.
Tanmatra(s): The elementary constituents of the universe.
Tantra: A class of scriptural texts, not derived directly from the
Vedas, presenting God as Shiva and Shakti.
-U-
Upanishad(s): Scriptures, very rich in philosophical content, which
form a part of the Vedas.
Upasana: Worship of God.
-V-
Vaishnava: A Hindu sect worshiping God as Vishnu.
Vaishya: One who belongs to the traders’ caste.
Vanaprasthya: The third stage of Aryan life; the stage of a retired
person.
Varanasi: One of the holiest cities of India.
Vatsalya: The attitude of a devotee expressing a parental
relationship with God, looking upon Him as a child.
Vayu: Air element.
Vedanta: (lit., the end of the Vedas) The Upanishads; also one of the
six systems of Hindu philosophy.
Vidyasagar, Ishvar Chandra: A great educator, reformer and
philanthropist of Bengal (1820-1891).
VTja Mantra(s): The sacred syllable(s), signifying God.
Virat: The presiding Deity of the physical universe.
Vishistadvaita (Qualified Nondualism): A sub-school of Vedanta
philosophy founded by Ramanuja, according to which the soul and
nature are the modes of Brahman, and the individual soul is part of
Brahman.
Vishwamitra: Sage to whom the GayatrT Mantra was revealed.
Vishnu: The Preserver aspect of God.
Vivekananda, SwamT: Renowned Hindu monk; founder of the
Ramakrishna Order of monks and the Ramakrishna Mission; first
effective preacher of Hinduism in the West (1863- 1902).
Vyasa: Also known as Vadarayana. The great sage of the Vedic
period; the compiler of the Vedas, and the author of the Brahma
Sutras and the Hindu epic Mahabharata.
Yama: A preliminary course of moral discipline prescribed in Raja
Yoga.
-Y-
Yoga: (lit., union with God); any course of spiritual discipline that
makes for such union.
Yogi: One who practices Yoga.
INDEX
A
Acharya, A
(see Teacher)
Action, Path of Right, A, B±
(see Karma Yoga)
AdhikarT Purus has, A±
Adhishthatri Deva, A
AdhishthatrT Dew" A
Adroha (freedom from malice), A
Advaita (non-dualistic Vedanta philosophy), A, B
moksha according to A±
Agama texts, A
(see Tantra)
AgamT karma
(see Kriyamaria karma)
Agni, A
Agni Purana, A
Agnihotra, A
Ahankara, A, B
(see Cosmic ego)
Ahimsa (nonviolence), A
(see Nonviolence)
Aitareya Upanishad, A
Akrodha (absence of anger), A
Animal sacrifice, A±
Antevasin, A
Apaishuna (refraining from vilification and backbiting), A
Apala, A
Aparigraha, A
Apastamba, A
Apaurusheya, A
Arabs, A
Arati, A
Aratrika
(see Arati)
ArdhanginT, A
Arjava (straightforwardness at all times), A
Arjuna, A, B, C
Artha, A
Arya Samaj, A
Aryan(s), A, B
clans, A
four stages of Aryan life, A
gotra, A
tribes, A
Aryas, A
Arya varta, A
Asamprajnata samadhi, A
is the goal of Yoga, A
Asana, A, B
Ascetic, A±
Ashtasiddhi, A
anima, laghima, vyapti, prakamya, mahima, Tshitva, vashitva,
kamavasayita, A
Atharva-Veda, A
Atmajnana, A±
Vishishtadvaita position in regard to atmajnana, A±
Atman, A
highest meaning of the word dharma, 98A
like a wave in ocean of Brahman, A
is the Self of man, A
Attachment, A±
Attitudes toward God, A±
Attributeless Impersonal and Attributeless God, A
(see Nirguna Brahman)
AUM/OM, A±
also called Pranava, A
letters in AUM indicate Svarga, Martya and Patala, A±
most ancient and important mantra, A
as nondenominational symbol, A
pictorial image of, A
sonic symbol of God, A
symbolizes God, A
Avatara (a Divine Incarnation), A
Avidya (ignorance), A
B
Balarama, An
Baudhayana, A, B
Beef eating, A±
Bender, Harold H., A, Bn
Bhagavad GTta, A, B, C, D
nonviolence according to, A
references to reincarnation in, A
teachings about food in, A±
Bhagavata Purana (ShrTmad Bhagavata), A
possibility of innumerable Divine Incarnations, A
Bhakti Yoga (path of devotion), A±
Vishishtadvaita school of philosophy and, A±
Bharadvaja, A
Body-mind-complex, A
Bongard-Levin, G. M., A, Bn
Brahma
another name of Hiranyagarbha, A
represents creator aspect of Tshvara, A
Brahma Yamala, A
(see Tantra literature)
Brahmacharya
first stage of ancient Ayran life, A±
control of carnal desires and passions), A
(see also Celibacy, Nivritti Marga, Vyakti-dharma)
Brahmaloka, An
attaining, A
Brahman, A
compared to the ocean, A
creator of the world, A
Eternal Brahman, A
in Vedic Sanskrit, A
oneness of Brahman in Vedic texts, A
(see God, Impersonal and Attributeless God, Tshvara, Maya,
Nirguna Brahman, Saguna Brahman)
Brahmana (section of the Vedas), A
Brahmasutra (also known as Vedanta Darshana), A
Brahmin, A
(see also Castes)
Brahmo Samaj, A
Brihad-Brahma, one of the Pancharatra, Samhitas, A
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, A, B
British, A, B, C
Buddha, A, Bn
Buddhism, A
Burial, A±
water-burial, A
C
Caste system, A±
how to cure the degraded caste system, A±
Castes, four, A
highest, A
lowest, A
Celibacy
benefits of, A
during Brahmacharya stage, A
monk avowed to, A
(see also Brahmacharya, Nivritti Marga, Vyakti-dharma)
Chain of repeated births and deaths, A
Chaitanya, ShrT, A
Chakras, A
Seven levels in Raja Yoga: muladhara, svadhishthana,
manipura, anahata, vishuddha, ajna, sahasrara, A
ChandT (DevTmahatmyam), A
Chanting (Japa)
benefits of chanting a mantra, A
different types of japa , A
God’s holy name, A
(see also Mantra(s))
Chhandogya Upanishad, A
story of Satyakama, A±
Chidakasha, A
Child, Divine (see God)
Children
abuse of, A
treatment of, A±
Chittakasha, A, B
Christianity, A
Christmas, A
Class system, A
Codes of Conduct, A, B
(see Dharma)
Conscious thoughts, A
Cosmic ego (Ahankara), A
Cosmic energy, A
Cosmic intellect (Mahat) A
(see Hiranyagarbha)
Creation
according to Vedanta school, A±
avyakta (unmanifested) state before, A
beginningless and endless, A
God as creator in Vedanta school, A
as God’s ilia (game), A
God’s motive for, A±
how creation starts, A
Hymn of Creation (NasadTya Hymn), A, B±
objection to various theories of, A±
Shankara’s refutation of objection, A±
Sankhya theory of, A±
various theories about, A
Creator, A
Creator as Overseer in Creation Hymn, A
Vedanta school accepts God as, A
of the world, A
Creeds, A
Cremation, A, B
(see also Funerals)
Cycle of repeated births and deaths, A
D
Dahara-vidya, A
(see also Moksha)
Dama (control of the external organs), A
Darshanas, A±
DashnamT Order, A
Dasya (attitude of a servant), A
Dating, A
Day a (kindness and compassion), A
Death
in childhood, A
and the lokas, A±
by suicide, A
(see also Funerals)
Debts
(see Five Debts)
DeepavalT, A
Deities, A
Denominations, or sects, A
Devas, A
Adhishthatri Deva, A
DevTmahatmyam (Chandi), A
Devotion, Path of
(see Bhakti Yoga)
Dharana, A, B
(see also Raja Yoga)
Dharana shakti, A
(see also Celibacy)
Dharma, A±, B, C±
different types of Dharma:
vyakti (individual)-dharma, A±
parivarika (family)-dharma, A±
samaja (society)-dharma, A, B
rashtra (nation)-dharma, A, B
manava (mankind)-dharma, A, B
role in ethics, A
usually means religion, A
Dhruva, A
Dhyana, A, B
(see also Raja Yoga)
Disciple, A
Divine
Child, A
grace, A
husband, A
Mother, A, B, C
Self, A, B
Spirit, A
Sweetheart, A
Truths, A
(see also Incarnations)
Divine Mother, A, B, C
(see also Kamalakanta, Ramprasad, Ramakrishna)
Divinity, A
Divorce, A
legalization of, A
DiwalT, A
Doctrine of karma (Karmavada), A+
karmaphala, A
Doctrine of predestination, A±
Doctrine of reincarnation
(see Reincarnation)
Dowry
in marriage, A
(see Marriages, Sanatkumara)
Dream
-space, A
-state, A
-time, A
Drona, A±
Dvaita school of philosphy, A±
four levels of moksha, A
E
Ecosystem, A
Educational system, A
Ekalavya, A±
Elderly, A
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, A
Enlightened selfishness, A
Eternal Brahman, A
Eternal moral order, A
(see Rita)
Eternal Religion, A
Ethics, A
God—creator and upholder of eternal moral order (rita), A
God—foundation of morality and ethics, A
Evolution
Prakriti evolves as the world, A, B
process of, A
of species, A
(see also Jatyantaraparinama)
Family/Families
extended, A
joint, A
nuclear, A, B
structure, A±
Festivals, A±
religious, A, B
Fire, symbol of God, A
Five Debts (pancha rina)
bhuta-rina (debt to subhuman beings), deva-rina (debt to God),
nri-rina (debt to mankind), pitri-rina (debt to ancestors), rishi-rina
(debt to the sages), A
Fletcher, Dr. Joseph, An
Food
consecrated food (prasada), A
offering of food to God, A
right kinds of, A±
role of, A±
sanctified, A
Four Yogas, A±
French, A
Funeral(s), A
Hindu, A±
not held in temples, A
of saints, A
G
Gafurov, Bobodzhan, A, Bn
Gandharva Marriage, A
(see also Marriages)
Gandhi, Indira, A
Gandhi, Mahatma, A, B
GargI, A
Garhasthya, A, B±
Gautama Buddha, A
Gautama, A
Gayatrl Mantra, A±
also known as Savitrl Mantra, A
Ghosha, A
Girls, A
Gita, A
(see Bhakti Yoga, Singing)
Goals, A
God, A
all religions lead to the same, A
AUM symbol of, A
chanting the holy name of, A
creation is Ilia (game) of, A
as creator and upholder of rita, A
as Creator in Creation Hymn, A±
devotees’ various relationships with, A
as Divine Child, A
as Divine Mother, A, B
food offered to, A
foundation of morality and ethics, A
God’s grace, A±, B
God’s motive for creation, A
God’s transcendental state of existence, A
holy diagrams as symbols of, A
how God acquires a personality, A±
images made of different materials, A
Indo-Aryans used fire as symbol of, A
Vaikuntha, realm of Personal God, A
vision of, A, B, C+
worship of, A±
yantras are symbols of God in Tantrika worship, A
God-realization
attaining liberation through, A
the inevitable goal, A±
only goal for monks, A
reincarnation provides opportunities for, A±
the ultimate goal of human life, A
God-realized soul, A, B
God-vision, A, B, C
Gotama, the founder of Nyaya school, A
Gotra, A±
Gotrapati, A
Great sentences (Mahavakyas), A
Greeks, A
Gross and subtle bodies, A
Guna(s), A±
characteristics of, A±
creation starts when gunas lose their state of equilibrium, A±
different meanings of the word Guna, A
everything is composed of, A
how gunas become the gross world, A
Prakriti (Mother Nature) is composed of, A
presence of extremely subtle gunas indirectly known, A
Sankhya view about, A
sattva-guna, rajo-guna, tamo-guna, A
three, A
Guru, A, B
and disciple relationship, A±
efficacy of mantra from illumined guru, A
spiritual teacher, A, B
Guru Purnima, A±
H
Harmony of religions in Hinduism, A
Henotheistic, A
Hermit, A
Hindu
family, A
funerals, A±
Gour Act, An
Marriage Act, An
marriage(s), A±
Marriage Validating Act, An
Hinduism
founder, A
history, A±
nonviolence in Hinduism, A±
not fatalistic, A±
realistic, A±
a way of life, A
Hiranyagarbha, A±
first being created by God, A
is Cosmic Intelligence, A
his death causes prakrita pralaya, A
his life span is called maha- kalpa, A
his sleep causes naimittika pralaya, A
knows all about previous kalpa, A
one day in his life is a kalpa, A±
the total of all minds is his mind, A
Holy man, A
Holy water (mahasnana jala or charanamrita), A±
Householder and his duties, A±, B
HrT (modesty), A
(see also Vyakti-dharma)
Huns, A
Hymn(s)
Vedic, A
of Creation (NasadTya), A, B±
(see also Creation, Vedic)
I
Ida, A
Ignorance
(see Avidya)
Illumined souls, A
Images, A
Impersonal and attributeless God, A
meditation on, A
(see Nirguna Brahman)
Incarnation(s), Divine, A
beyond karmic forces, A
called Avatara in Sanskrit, A
divinity most manifest in Incarnaton or saint, A
and evolving life forms, A
reason for God’s descent in other than human forms, A
ten divine incarnations, An
India, government of, A
Indo-Aryan(s), A
ate meat, A
origin of, A±
used fire as symbol of God, A
Indra, A
Indus, A
Indwelling Spirit, A
Infinite Bliss, A
Intercaste
hatred, A
marriages, A
Tsha Upanishad, A
quotation from, A, B
Ishta-loka, A
Tshvara, A±
aspects of, A±
certain aspects personified as SarasvatT and LakshmT, A
creator of the world, A, B
devotees’ relationships with, A
as Divine Sweetheart, Divine Child, and Divine Mother, A
originator and upholder of eternal moral order, A
Saguna Brahman, A
vision of, A, B
Ishvara Samhita, one of the Pancharatra Samhitas, A
Tshvarakoti, A
recognized later as Divine Incarnation, A
Islam, A
Itihasa, A
J
Jaimini, An
Purva-MTmamsa school founded by, A
Jainism, A, Bn
Japa
(see also Bhakti Yoga, Chanting, Mantra)
Jatismaras, A
Jatyantara-parinama, A
JTvan-mukti, A
accepted by
