2020/12/05

** 묘법연화경 - 위키백과 / (한국어) 법화경 / Lotus Sutra 영어

묘법연화경 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전

묘법연화경

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
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메트로폴리탄 미술관 소장 《묘법연화경》 2권 변상도(1340년 고려(高麗)에서 간행)

《묘법연화경》(妙法蓮華經, 산스크리트어: सद्धर्मपुण्डरीक सूत्र 삿다르마 푼다리카 수트라 →흰 연꽃과 같은 올바른 가르침) 또는 《법화경》(法華經)은 대승경전의 하나로, 예로부터 모든 경전의 왕으로 생각되었으며, 석가모니의 40년 설법을 집약한 경전으로, 법화사상을 담고 있는 천태종(天台宗)의 근본 경전이다.[1] 초기 대승경전(大乘經典) 중에서 가장 중요한 경전이다.[2]

산스크리트어 원본으로는 영국인 호지슨이 네팔에서 발견한 것을 비롯하여 여러가지의 단편(斷片)이 존재한다. 프랑스어와 영어로 번역이 되어 있으며, 한편 한문, 티베트어, 위구르어, 서하어, 몽골어, 만주어 등으로 번역되어 넓은 지역의 여러 민족에게서 애호되었다.[2]

현존하는 3종의 한문 번역 가운데 구마라집(鳩摩羅什)이 번역한 《묘법연화경(妙法蓮華經)》(T.0262) 7권(후에 8권이 되었음)이 가장 널리 유포되어 있다.

오늘날 학자는 그 성립을 기원 전후에 신앙심이 강하고 진보적인 신자집단에 의해 서북부 인도에서 《소부》(小部)의 것이 만들어졌고 후일에 증보되었을 것이라고 추정한다.[2]

  • 《묘법연화경》에서 부처는 머나먼 과거로부터 미래 영겁(未來永劫)에 걸쳐 존재하는 초월적인 존재이다. 한없이 긴 세월.
  • 그가 이 세상에 출현한 것은 모든 인간들이 부처의 깨달음을 열 수 있는 대도(大道, 一乘)를 보이기 위함이며, 그 대도를 실천하는 사람은 누구라도 부처가 될 수 있다는 주장이 경전의 핵심이다.[2] 

《법화경》은 모두 28개의 품(品, 장)으로 이루어져 있다. 간혹 《무량의경》, 《불설관보현보살행법경》과 함께, 《법화삼부경》(法華三部經)이라고 지칭하기도 한다.[3]


역사[편집]

유포[편집]

법화경은 동쪽으로 전해지기 전에 유라시아 대륙에서는 널리 유포된 경전이었다. 인도의 산스크리트어 경전이 존재했고, 티베트 불교의 게르크파의 개조가 된 총카파는 자신의 저서 보리도차제대론(菩提道次第大論)에서 죄를 멸하는 방편으로써 법화경을 독경하는 것을 권하고 있다. 네팔에서는 구법경전의 하나로써 다룬다. 중국 천태종에서는 법화경을 가장 중요시하여, 저장 성(浙江省)의 천태산 국청사(天台山国清寺)의 천태대사 지의(智顗)는 쿠마라지바가 번역한 묘법연화경을 소의경전으로 삼고 있다. 

400년경 서역에서 중국의 수도 장안으로 온 쿠차 출신의 승려 쿠마라지바가 산스크리트어 경전을 한자로 번역하면서부터 법화경은 중국, 나아가 동아시아 전역으로 퍼져나갔다. 쿠마라지바의 번역에서는 산스크리트어 원전의 진언(真言)이나 인(印)을 생략했는데, 훗날 첨품법화경(添品法華経)에서는 이를 다시 추가시켰다.

법화경은 빠르게 한반도에도 전래되었다. 고구려의 수도(427년 천도 ~ 668년까지)였던 평양의 대성산성(大城山城) 성돌 사이에서 발견된 1천 자 정도의 글자가 남은 묘법연화경이 현재 북한의 조선중앙역사박물관에 소장되어 있다. 《삼국유사》에는 백제의 승려 혜현(惠賢)이 수덕사에서 아침저녁으로 법화경을 독송했다는 기록을 남기고 있고, 신라의 승려 원효는 법화경의 교리를 해설한 《법화경종요》(法華經宗要)를 짓기도 했다.

현재 한국에서 유통되고 있는 《법화경》은 1236년에 간행된 《법화경》과 1467년(세조 13) 간경도감에서 간행된 《법화경》을 제외하고는 거의 대부분이 송나라 계환(戒環)이 1126년(인종 4)에 저술한 《묘법연화경요해》(妙法蓮華經要解) 7권본이다. 《법화경》에 대한 연구 주석서로는 신라 시대 고승들의 저술을 비롯하여 중국 역대 고승들의 저술이 수십 종에 이르고 있다.

이 중 계환의 주해가 우리나라에서 크게 유통된 것은 그 내용이 한국 불교의 흐름과 일치하고 문장이 간결하며 이해가 쉽기 때문이라고 볼 수 있다. 현존 판본을 살펴보면 고려 시대 3종이고, 조선 시대의 것이 117종으로 모두 120종에 이르고 있다. 그리고 현존하고 있는 법화경판은 34종 3,036장이다.

오늘날 학자는 《법화경》을 대승 불교 교단이 소승 불교 교단과 갈라져 나오면서 형성된 경전으로 추정하며, 초기에는 운문의 형태로 암송되어 전래되어 오다가, 후에 서술형 문구와 운문의 형태가 융합된 형태를 띠게 되었으리라 추정한다. 따라서 오늘날 학자는 《법화경》은 《반야경》 이래로 등장한 대승 불교 경전들의 최고 집대성이자 완성된 시기의 경전으로 그 역사적 의미를 부여하고 있다.[4]

설법 장소[편집]

영취산(靈鷲山 · 鷲栖山)은 석가모니가 《법화경》을 설법한 인도 왕사성 근방에 있는 산이다. 《법화경》을 설법할 때 그 모임을 일러 불교에서는 영산회(靈山會) 또는 영산회상(靈山會上)이라고 하며, 이 모임의 장면을 영산회상도라고 하며, 법당의 후불탱화로 많이 사용된다.[5]

구성 및 내용[편집]

구성[편집]

법화경 28품
무량의경(無量義經=開經)
덕행품(德行品)第一
설법품(說法品)第二
십공덕품(十功德品)第三
적문(迹門)14品
서품(序品)第一
방편품(方便品)第二
비유품(譬喩品)第三
신해품(信解品)第四
약초유품(藥草喩品)第五
수기품(授記品)第六
화성유품(化城喩品)第七
오백제자수기품(五百弟子受記品)第八
수학무학인기품(數學無學人記品)第九
법사품(法師品)第十
견보탑품(見寶塔品)第十一
제바달다품(提婆達多品)第十二
권지품(勸持品)第十三
안락행품(安樂行品)第十四
본문(本門)14品
종지용출품(從地涌出品)第十五
여래수량품(如來壽量品)第十六
분별공덕품(分別功德品)第十七
수희공덕품(隨喜功德品)第十八
법사공덕품(法師功德品)第十九
상불경보살품(常不經普薩品)第二十
여래신력품(如來神力品)第二十一
촉루품(囑累品)第二十二
약왕보살본사품(藥王普薩本事品)第二十三
묘음보살품(妙音菩薩品)第二十四
관세음보살보문품(觀世音菩薩普門品)第二十五
다라니품(陀羅尼品)第二十六
묘장엄왕본사품(妙莊嚴王本事品)第二十七
보현보살권발품(普賢菩薩勸發品)第二十八
불설관보현보살행법경(佛說觀普賢普薩行法經)

법화칠비[편집]

《법화경》에는 부처가 되기 위한 길로 7가지의 비유를 들어 설해놓은 것이 있다. 이를 법화칠비(法華七譬) 또는 법화칠유(法華七喩)라 한다.

  1. 삼거화택(三車火宅)의 비유(火宅喩)
  2. 장자궁자(長者窮者)의 비유(窮子喩)
  3. 삼초이목(三草二木)의 비유(藥草喩)
  4. 화성보처(化城寶處)의 비유(化城喩)
  5. 계중명주(契中明珠)의 비유(契珠喩)
  6. 빈인계주(貧人繫珠)의 비유(衣珠喩)
  7. 양의병자(良醫病子)의 비유(醫子喩)

지정 문화재[편집]

국보 제185호[편집]

<nowiki />이 부분의 본문은 상지은니묘법연화경입니다.

《상지은니묘법연화경》(橡紙銀泥妙法蓮華經)은 《묘법연화경》 전 7권을 고려 공민왕 22년(1373)에 은색 글씨로 정성들여 옮겨 쓴 불경이다. 봉상대부 지옥주사 허사청이 발원하여 영암 도갑사에 봉안되어 있던 책이며, 지금은 국립중앙박물관 소장이다.

보물 제961-2호[편집]

<nowiki />이 부분의 본문은 묘법연화경 권4~7입니다.

‘묘법연화경 권4~7(妙法蓮華經卷四~七)’은 불교의 대표적인 대승경전으로 조선 태종 5년(1405)에 전라도 도솔산 안심사(安心社)에서 성달생(成達生, 1376~1444년)과 성개(成槪, ?~1440) 형제가 필사한 것을 새긴 목판본 전 7권 가운데 권4~7의 1책이다.[6]

권수 변상도(變相圖)의 왼편에 정씨(鄭氏)가 죽은 남편 왕씨(王氏)의 초생정토(超生淨土)를 기원하기 위하여 화공(畵工)을 시켜 그림을 그리고, 판각하여 유통시킨다는 조성경위를 밝히고 있다. 권말에는 간행사실을 밝히는 권근(權近, 1352~1409년)의 발문을 갖추고 있어 조선 초기의 불경 간행 방식을 알 수 있는 등 서지학과 불경 연구에 중요한 자료로 평가된다.[6]

보물 제1147-2호[편집]

<nowiki />이 부분의 본문은 묘법연화경 권제1~2입니다.

이 책은 1470년(성종 원년) 4월에 세조의 왕비인 정희대왕대비가 발원하여 돌아가신 세조, 예종, 의경왕의 명복을 빌기 위해 간행한 묘법연화경 7권 가운데 권 1∼2이다. 이 책은 권돈일, 고말종, 장막동, 우인수, 최금동, 이영산, 최덕산 등 당대의 일류 각수(刻手)들에 의해 이루어져 새김이 매우 정교하다. 우리나라에서 유통된 법화경은 대부분 계환의 해석이 붙어 있는 것을 사용하였는데, 이때 새긴 법화경은 천도의식용으로 사용하기 위해 원문만 새긴 것이다. 이와 같은 판본으로 기 지정되어 있는 <묘법연화경 권 제3~4, 5~7> 중 권7 말 김수온 발문에 간행동기 및 간행시기가 밝혀져 있어 왕실불교관련 및 서지학적인 가치가 매우 높은 자료이다.[7]

보물 제1164-2호[편집]

‘묘법연화경 권3~4, 5~7(妙法蓮華經卷三～四, 五～七)’은 조선 전기 왕실에서 주도하여 간행한 불경으로, 김수온(金守溫, 1410~1481년)의 발문에 간행 시기와 연유가 분명하게 남아 있고, 보존상태도 원래의 표지만 결락되었을 뿐 온전하다. 또한 장막동(張莫同), 최금동(崔今同), 고말종(高末終), 이영산(李永山) 등 일류 각수(刻手)들이 참여하여 판각이 정교하고, 정밀하게 인출하여 먹색이 진하고 고르다. 한 책(권5~7)의 서배(書背)에는 비단이 남아 있는 것으로 보아 본래 비단 표지의 포배장 이었을 것으로 추정된다.[6]

묘법연화경은 구마라집(姚秦, 344~413년)이 한역한 불교경전으로 ‘법화경’이라 약칭하기도 하는데, 초기 대승경전 중에서도 가장 중요한 불교경전이다. 천태종의 근본경전으로 한국에서는 일찍부터 불교전문강원의 과목으로 채택되었고 화엄경과 함께 한국 불교사상을 확립하는 데 가장 크게 영향을 미쳤다.[6]

보문사 소장의 묘법연화경은 글자의 깨짐과 계선의 마멸상태로 보아 초인본은 아니고, 성종연간(1470~1494년)에 간행된 후인본으로 보인다. 동일한 판본으로는 보존상태가 온전하고, 인쇄상태와 지질도 뛰어나므로 자료로서의 가치는 높다고 판단된다.[6]

보물 제1194호[편집]

통도사성보박물관 소장 보물 제1194호 《묘법연화경 권2》은 닥종이에 찍은 목판본으로 병풍처럼 펼쳐서 볼 수 있는 형태로 되어있으며, 접었을 때의 크기는 세로 33cm, 가로 10.9cm이다.

간행기록이 없어 정확한 연대는 알 수 없지만『대불정여래밀인수증요의제보살만행수능엄경』권 제9∼10(보물 제1195호)과 글씨체가 같은 것으로 보아 조선 초기에 찍어낸 것으로 보인다.

보물 제1196호[편집]

통도사성보박물관 소장 보물 제1196호《묘법연화경》은 권1에서 권7에 해당하는 책으로 세조 1년(1456)에 동궁(東宮)의 빈(嬪)인 한씨가 좌의정 한확의 부인 홍씨의 명복을 빌기 위해서 간행한 것이다. 닥종이에 찍은 목판본으로 권1에서 권7의 내용을 3책으로 엮었으며 각 권의 크기는 세로 30cm, 가로 17.6cm이다.

표지의 일부가 약간 훼손되었을 뿐 비교적 상태가 양호한 완전본이다. 제목은 붉은 바탕 위에 금색 글씨로 썼으며, 각 권의 첫머리에는 불경의 내용을 요약하여 그린 변상도(變相圖)가 있다.

판에 새긴 후 처음 찍어낸 책은 아니지만, 권1에서 권7까지 완전하게 전해진다는 점에서 귀중한 자료이다.

보물 제1306-1호[편집]

<nowiki />이 부분의 본문은 김천 직지사 묘법연화경입니다.

직지사 성보박물관 소장 《묘법연화경》은 양촌(陽村) 권근(權近)의 발문(跋文)에 의하면, 조계종의 대선(大選), 신희(信希) 등이 기로(耆老)들을 위해 보기에 편리하도록 중자(中字)로 간행하기를 원했는데 성달생(成達生)·성개(成槪) 형제가 상중(喪中)에 이를 듣고 선군(先君)의 추복(追福)을 위해 필사(筆寫)한 것을 도인(道人) 신문(信文)이 전라도(全羅道) 운제현(雲梯縣) 도솔산(兜率山) 안심사(安心社)에 갖고 가서 조선 태종 5년(1405)에 간행(刊行)한 것이다. 2001년 1월 2일 대한민국의 보물 제1306호로 지정[8]되었다가, 2019년 3월 6일 제1306-1호로 문화재 지정번호가 변경되었다.[9]

부산광역시 유형문화재 제116호[편집]

<nowiki />이 부분의 본문은 기장 취정사 묘법연화경입니다.

취정사 소장 《묘법연화경》은 조선시대 명필가인 성달생(成達生, 1376~1444)과 성개(成槪, ?~1440) 형제가 선친의 명복을 기원할 목적으로 정서(精書)한 《법화경》을 판하본(板下本)으로 하여, 1405년(태종 5)에 전라도 도솔산 안심사(安心寺)에서 도인 신문(道人信文)이 주관하여 목판으로 새긴 것을 조선 전기에 후인(後印)한 것이다. 전체 7권3책 중 권1, 2와 권3, 4의 4권 2책만 남아 있는 결본이다.

같이 보기[편집]

각주[편집]

  1. ↑ 한국민족문화대백과사전[깨진 링크(과거 내용 찾기)]
  2. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 라 "종교·철학 > 세계의 종교 > 불교 > 불교의 성전 > 법화경", 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
    "법화경(法華經) 원명을 삿다르마푼다리카 수트라(Saddharmapundarika­sutra)라고 하며 '백련화(白蓮華)와 같은 올바른 가르침'이라는 뜻으로서 예로부터 제경(諸經)의 왕으로 생각되었고, 초기 대승경전(大乘經典) 중에서 가장 중요한 것이다. 산스크리트어 원본은 영국인 호지슨이 네팔에서 발견한 것을 비롯하여 여러가지의 단편(斷片)이 존재하며, 이들의 불역(佛譯)·영역(英譯)이 있는 한편 한역·티베트어역·위구르어역·서하어역(西夏語譯)·몽고어역·만주어역 등이 있어서, 이 경이 매우 넓은 범위에 걸쳐 여러 민족에게 애호되었음을 말해주고 있다. 그 성립 시기는 기원 전후에 신앙심이 강한 진보적인 일단의 사람들에 의해 서북 인도에서 소부(小部)의 것이 만들어졌고 후일에 증광(增廣)되었다고 한다. 현존하는 3종의 한역 중에는 라습(羅什)역의 《묘법연화경》(妙法蓮華經) 7권(후에 8권이 되었음)이 가장 널리 쓰이고 있다. 이 경(經)에서는, 불타는 구원(久遠)한 옛날부터 미래 영겁(未來永劫)에 걸쳐 존재하는 초월적 존재(超越的存在)로 되어 있고, 이 세상에 출현한 것은 모든 인간들이 부처의 깨달음을 열 수 있는 대도(大道, 一乘)를 보이기 위함이며, 그 대도를 실천하는 사람은 누구라도 부처가 될 수 있다는 주장이 그 중심으로 되어 있다."
  3. ↑ 《묘법연화경》은 7권 28품으로 된 불교경전으로 ‘법화경’이라 약칭하기도 한다. 천태종(天台宗)의 근본 경전으로, 불교전문강원의 수의과(隨意科) 과목으로 채택되고 있다. ≪화엄경≫(華嚴經)과 함께 한국불교사상을 확립하는 데 가장 크게 영향을 미친 경전이다. 이 경은 예로부터 모든 경전들 중의 왕으로 인정받았고, 초기 대승경전(大乘經典) 중에서도 가장 중요한 불경이다.매우 넓은 범위에 걸쳐 여러 민족에게 애호되었던 이 경은 기원 전후에 신앙심이 강하고 진보적인 사람들에 의해 서북 인도에서 최초로 소부(小部)의 것이 만들어졌고, 2차에 걸쳐 증보되었다. 한국에서는 여러 종류의 한역본 중 구마라습(鳩摩羅什)이 번역한 ≪묘법연화경≫(妙法蓮華經) 8권이 가장 널리 보급, 유통되었다.
  4. ↑ 틱낫한, 틱낫한 스님이 읽어주는 법화경, Opening, the heart of the cosmos ISBN 8976772059-0322
  5. ↑ “봉정사 산내암자”. 봉정사. 2016년 3월 11일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2008년 11월 29일에 확인함.
  6. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 라 마 문화재청고시제2014-4호, 《국가지정문화재(보물) 지정 및 지정번호 변경》, 문화재청장, 대한민국 관보 제18186호, 32면, 2014-01-20
  7. ↑ 문화재청고시제2008-19호, 《국가지정문화재<보물> 지정 및 지정번호변경》, 문화재청장, 2008-03-12
  8. ↑ 관보 제14693호[깨진 링크(과거 내용 찾기)] 2001년 1월 2일. 문화재청고시제2000-60호 .〈보물지정〉. 2016년 5월 8일 확인함.
  9. ↑ 문화재청고시제2019-27호(국가지정문화재〈국보·보물〉 지정 및 지정번호 변경), 제19452호 / 관보(정호) / 발행일 : 2019. 3. 6. / 144 페이지 / 720KB

Lotus Sutra

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Sanskrit manuscript of the Lotus Sūtra in South Turkestan Brahmi script.
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Mahāyāna Buddhism
A Lotus, one of the eight auspicious symbols in Mahāyāna

 

The Lotus Sūtra (Sanskrit: Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra, lit. 'Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma')[1] is one of the most popular and influential Mahayana sutras, and the basis on which the Tiantai, Tendai, Cheontae, and Nichiren schools of Buddhism were established.

According to British professor Paul Williams, "For many East Asian Buddhists since early times, the Lotus Sutra contains the final teaching of the Buddha, complete and sufficient for salvation."[2]

Title[edit]

Lotus Sutra title inscription (daimoku)

The earliest known Sanskrit title for the sūtra is the सद्धर्मपुण्डरीक सूत्र, Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra, meaning 'Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma'.[3] In English, the shortened form Lotus Sūtra is common. The Lotus Sūtra has also been highly regarded in a number of Asian countries where Mahāyāna Buddhism has been traditionally practiced.

Translations of this title into the languages of some of these countries include:

  • Chinese: 妙法蓮華經; pinyin: Miàofǎ Liánhuá jīng (shortened to 法華經; Fǎhuá jīng).
  • Japanese: 妙法蓮華経, romanized: Myōhō Renge Kyō (short: 法華経, Ho(k)ke-kyō).
  • Korean: 묘법연화경; RR: Myobeop Yeonhwa gyeong (short: 법화경; Beophwa gyeong).
  • Tibetan: དམ་ཆོས་པད་མ་དཀར་པོའི་མདོ, Wylie: dam chos padma dkar po'i mdo, THL: Damchö Pema Karpo'i do.
  • Vietnamese: Diệu pháp Liên hoa kinh (short: Pháp hoa kinh).

Nichiren (1222-1282) regarded the title as the summary of the Lotus Sutra´s teachings. The chanting of the title as a mantra is the basic religious practice of his school.[4][5]

Textual history[edit]

Formation[edit]

In 1934, based on his text-critical analysis of Chinese and Sanskrit versions, Kogaku Fuse concluded that the Lotus Sūtra was composed in four main stages. According to Fuse, the verse sections of chapters 1-9 and 17 were probably composed in the 1st century BCE, with the prose sections of these chapters added in the 1st century CE. He estimates the date of the 3rd stage (ch. 10, 11, 13-16, 18-20 and 27) to be around 100 CE, and the last stage (ch. 21-26), around 150 CE.[6][note 1]

According to Stephen F. Teiser and Jacqueline Stone, there is consensus about the stages of composition but not about the dating of these strata.[8]

Tamura argues that the first stage of composition (ch. 2-9) was completed around 50 CE and expanded by chapters 10-21 around 100 CE. He dates the third stage (ch. 22-27) around 150 CE.[9]

Karashima proposes another modified version of Fuse's hypothesis with the following sequence of composition:[10][11]

  • Chapters 2–9 form the earliest stratum.
    • The first layer of this stratum includes the tristubh verses of these chapters which may have been transmitted orally in a Prakrit dialect.
    • The second layer consists of the sloka verses and the prose of chapters 2-9.
  • Chapters 1, 10–20, 27, and a part of chapter 5 that is missing in Kumarajiva's translation.[12][note 2]
  • Chapters 21–26 and the section on Devadatta in chapter 11 of the Sanskrit version.

Translations into Chinese[edit]

Three translations of the Lotus Sūtra into Chinese are extant.[15][16][17][note 3]

The Lotus Sūtra was originally translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa´s team in 286 CE in Chang'an during the Western Jin Period (265-317 CE).[19][20][note 4] However, the view that there is a high degree of probability that the base text for that translation was actually written in a Prakrit language has gained widespread acceptance.[note 5] It may have originally been composed in a Prakrit dialect and then later translated into Sanskrit to lend it greater respectability.[22]

This early translation by Dharmarakṣa was superseded by a translation in seven fascicles by Kumārajīva´s team in 406 CE.[23][24][25][note 6] According to Jean-Noël Robert, Kumārajīva relied heavily on the earlier version.[26] The Sanskrit editions[27][28][29][30] are not widely used outside of academia.

The Supplemented Lotus Sūtra of the Wonderful Dharma (Tiān Pǐn Miàofǎ Liánhuá Jīng), in 7 volumes and 27 chapters, is a revised version of Kumarajiva's text, translated by Jnanagupta and Dharmagupta in 601 CE.[31]

In some East Asian traditions, the Lotus Sūtra has been compiled together with two other sutras which serve as a prologue and epilogue:

  1. the Innumerable Meanings Sutra (Chinese: 無量義經; pinyin: Wúliángyì jīng; Japanese: Muryōgi kyō);[32] and
  2. the Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra (Chinese: 普賢經; pinyin: Pǔxián jīng; Japanese: Fugen kyō).[33][34] This composite sutra is often called the Threefold Lotus Sūtra or Three-Part Dharma Flower Sutra (Chinese: 法華三部経; pinyin: Fǎhuá Sānbù jīng; Japanese: Hokke Sambu kyō).[35]

Translations into Western languages[edit]

Eugene Burnouf's Introduction à l'histoire du Buddhisme indien (1844) marks the start of modern academic scholarship of Buddhism in the West. His translation of a Nepalese Sanskrit manuscript of the Lotus Sutra, "Le Lotus de la bonne loi", was published posthumously in 1852.[36][37] Prior to publication, a chapter from the translation was included in the 1844 journal The Dial, a publication of the New England transcendentalists, translated from French to English by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody.[38] A translation of the Lotus Sutra from an ancient Sanskrit manuscript was completed by Hendrik Kern in 1884.[39][40][41]

Western interest in the Lotus Sutra waned in the latter 19th century as Indo-centric scholars focused on older Pali and Sanskrit texts. However, Christian missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, based predominantly in China, became interested in Kumārajīva's translation of the Lotus Sutra into Chinese. These scholars attempted to draw parallels between the Old and New Testaments to earlier Nikaya sutras and the Lotus Sutra. Abbreviated and "christo-centric" translations were published by Richard and Soothill.[42][43]

In the post World War II years, scholarly attention to the Lotus Sutra was inspired by renewed interest in Japanese Buddhism as well as archeological research in Dunhuang. This led to the 1976 Leon Hurvitz publication of the Lotus Sutra based on Kumarajiva's translation. Whereas the Hurvitz work was independent scholarship, other modern translations were sponsored by Buddhist groups: Kato Bunno (1975, Nichiren-shu/Rissho-kosei-kai), Murano Senchu (1974, Nichiren-shu), Burton Watson (1993, Soka Gakkai), and the Buddhist Text Translation Society (Xuanhua).[44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51] The translations into French,[52] Spanish[53] and German[54][55] are based on Kumarajiva's Chinese text. Each of these translations incorporate different approaches and styles that range from complex to simplified.[56]

Outline[edit]

The sutra is presented in the form of a drama consisting of several scenes.[57] According to Sangharakshita, it uses the entire cosmos for its stage, employs a multitude of mythological beings as actors and "speaks almost exclusively in the language of images."[58]

The Lotus Sutra can be divided into two parts:

  1. Chapters 1–14 are called the Theoretical Teachings (Japanese: Shakumon).
  2. Chapters 15–28 are referred to as the Essential Teachings (Japanese: Honmon).

The difference between the two lies with the standpoint of who is preaching them. The Theoretical Teachings (ch. 1–14) are preached from the standpoint of Shakyamuni Buddha, who attained Buddhahood for the first time at the City of Gaya in India. On the other hand, Shakyamuni declares in the Essential Teachings (ch. 15–28) that his enlightenment in India was provisional, and that he in fact attained Buddhahood in the inconceivably remote past. As result of this (based on the interpretations of the Tiantai/Tendai school and Nichiren Daishonin), all the provisional Buddhas, such as Amida Nyorai, Dainichi Nyorai, and Yakushi Nyorai, were integrated into one single original Buddha.[59][60]

Chapter 1[edit]

The Eagle Peak near Rajagaha was the Buddha’s favorite retreat and the scene for many of his discourses

Chapter 1: Introduction – During a gathering at Vulture Peak, Shakyamuni Buddha goes into a state of deep meditative absorption (samadhi), the earth shakes in six ways, and he brings forth a ray of light which illuminates thousands of buddha-fields in the east.[note 7][62][63] Bodhisattva Manjusri then states that the Buddha is about to expound his ultimate teaching.[64][65]

Chapters 2-9[edit]

Scholars suggest that chapters 2-9 contain the original form of the text. Chapter 2 explains the goals of early Buddhism, the Arhat and the Pratyekabuddha, as expedient means of teaching. The Buddha declares that there exists only one path, leading the bodhisattva to the full awakening of a Buddha. This concept is set forth in detail in chapters 3-9, using parables, narratives of previous existences and prophecies of enlightenment.[66]

Chapter 2: Expedient Means – Shakyamuni explains his use of skillful means to adapt his teachings according to the capacities of his audience.[67] He reveals that the ultimate purpose of the Buddhas is to cause sentient beings "to obtain the insight of the Buddha" and "to enter the way into the insight of the Buddha."[68][69][70]

Chapter 3: Simile and Parable – The Buddha teaches a parable in which a father uses the promise of various toy carts to get his children out of a burning house.[71] Once they are outside, he gives them all one large cart to travel in instead. This symbolizes how the Buddha uses the Three Vehicles: Arhatship, Pratyekabuddhahood and Samyaksambuddhahood, as skillful means to liberate all beings – even though there is only one vehicle.[72] The Buddha also promises Sariputra that he will attain Buddhahood.

Chapter 4: Belief and Understanding – Four senior disciples address the Buddha.[73] They tell the parable of the poor son and his rich father, who guides him with pedagogically skillful devices to regain self-confidence and "recognize his own Buddha-wisdom".[74][75]

Chapter 5: The Parable of Medicinal Herbs – This parable says that the Dharma is like a great monsoon rain that nourishes many different kinds of plants who represent Śrāvakas, Pratyekabuddhas, and Bodhisattvas,[76] and all beings receiving the teachings according to their respective capacities.[77]

Chapter 6: Bestowal of Prophecy – The Buddha prophesies the enlightenment of Mahakasyapa, Subhuti, Mahakatyayana and Mahamaudgalyayana.

Chapter 7: The Parable of Phantom City – The Buddha teaches a parable about a group of people seeking a great treasure who are tired of their journey and wish to quit. Their guide creates a magical phantom city for them to rest in and then makes it disappear.[78][79][80] The Buddha explains that the magic city represents the "Hinayana nirvana" and the treasure is buddhahood.[81]

Chapter 8: Prophecy of Enlightenment for Five Hundred Disciples – 500 Arhats are assured of their future Buddhahood. They tell the parable of a man who has fallen asleep after drinking and whose friend sews a jewel into his garment. When he wakes up he continues a life of poverty without realizing he is really rich, he only discovers the jewel after meeting his old friend again.[82][83][84][79] The hidden jewel has been interpreted as a symbol of Buddha-nature.[85] Zimmermann noted the similarity with the nine parables in the Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra that illustrate how the indwelling Buddha in sentient beings is hidden by negative mental states.[86]

Chapter 9: Prophecies Conferred on Learners and Adepts – Ananda, Rahula and two thousand Śrāvakas are assured of their future Buddhahood.[87]

Chapters 10-22[edit]

Chapters 10-22 expound the role of the bodhisattva and the concept of the eternal lifespan and omnipresence of the Buddha.[66] The theme of propagating the Lotus Sūtra which starts in chapter 10, continues in the remaining chapters.[note 8]

Chapter 10: The Teacher of the Law – Presents the practices of teaching the sutra which includes accepting, embracing, reading, reciting, copying, explaining, propagating it, and living in accordance with its teachings. The teacher of the Dharma is praised as the messenger of the Buddha.[89]

The floating jeweled stupa; illustrated Lotus Sutra, Japan 1257.

Chapter 11: The Emergence of the Treasure Tower – A great jeweled stupa rises from the earth and floats in the air;[90] a voice is heard from within praising the Lotus Sūtra.[91] Another Buddha resides in the tower, the Buddha Prabhūtaratna who is said to have made a vow to make an appearance to verify the truth of the Lotus Sutra whenever it is preached.[92] Countless manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha in the ten directions are now summoned by the Buddha. Thereafter Prabhūtaratna invites Shakyamuni to sit beside him in the jeweled stupa.[93][94] This chapter reveals the existence of multiple Buddhas at the same time[91] and the doctrine of the eternal nature of Buddhahood.

Chapter 12: Devadatta – Through the stories of the dragon king's daughter and Devadatta, the Buddha teaches that everyone can become enlightened – women, animals, and even the most sinful murderers.[95]

Chapter 13: Encouraging Devotion – The Buddha encourages all beings to embrace the teachings of the sutra in all times, even in the most difficult ages to come. The Buddha prophecies that 6000 nuns who are also present will become Buddhas.[96]

Chapter 14: Peaceful Practices – Manjusri asks how a bodhisattva should spread the teaching. In his reply Shakyamuni Buddha describes the proper conduct and the appropriate sphere of relations of a bodhisattva.[97] A bodhisattva should not talk about the faults of other preachers or their teachings. He is encouraged to explain the Mahayana teachings when he answers questions.[98] Virtues such as patience, gentleness, a calm mind, wisdom and compassion are to be cultivated.

Chapter 15: Emerging from the Earth – In this chapter countless bodhisattvas spring up from the earth, ready to teach, and the Buddha declares that he has trained these bodhisattvas in the remote past.[99][100] This confuses some disciples including Maitreya, but the Buddha affirms that he has taught all of these bodhisattvas himself.[101]

Chapter 16: The Life Span of Thus Come One – The Buddha explains that he is truly eternal and omniscient. He then teaches the Parable of the Excellent Physician who entices his sons into taking his medicine by feigning his death.[102][103]

Chapter 17: Distinction in Benefits – The Buddha explains that since he has been teaching as many beings as the sands of the Ganges have been saved.

Chapter 18: The Benefits of Responding with Joy – Faith in the teachings of the sutra brings much merit and lead to good rebirths.

Chapter 19: Benefits of the Teacher of the Law - the Buddha praises the merits of those who teach the sutra. They will be able to purify the six senses.[104]

Chapter 20: The Bodhisattva Never Disparaging – The Buddha tells a story about a previous life when he was a Bodhisattva called sadāparibhūta ('never disparaging') and how he treated every person he met, good or bad, with respect, always remembering that they will become Buddhas.[105]

Chapter 21: Supernatural Powers of the Thus Come One – Reveals that the sutra contains all of the Eternal Buddha’s secret spiritual powers. The bodhisattvas who have sprung from the earth (ch. 15) are entrusted with the task of propagating it.[106]

Chapter 22: Entrustment – The Buddha transmits the Lotus Sutra to all bodhisattvas in his congregation and entrusts them with its safekeeping.[107][108] The Buddha Prabhūtaratna in his jeweled stupa and the countless manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha return to their respective buddha-field.[109]

Chapters 23-28[edit]

Chapter 22: "Entrustment" – the final chapter in the Sanskrit versions and the alternative Chinese translation. Shioiri suggests that an earlier version of the sutra ended with this chapter. He assumes that the chapters 23-28 were inserted later into the Sanskrit version.[110][111] These chapters are devoted to the worship of bodhisattvas.[112][113]

Chapter 23: "Former Affairs of Bodhisattva Medicine King" – the Buddha tells the story of the 'Medicine King' Bodhisattva, who, in a previous life, burnt his body as a supreme offering to a Buddha.[114][115][116] The hearing and chanting of the Lotus Sūtra' is also said to cure diseases. The Buddha uses nine similes to declare that the Lotus Sūtra is the king of all sutras.[117]

Avalokiteśvara, Ajanta cave no 1, 5th century

Chapter 24: The Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound – Gadgadasvara ('Wonderful Voice'), a Bodhisattva from a distant world, visits Vulture Peak to worship the Buddha. Bodhisattva 'Wonderful Voice' once made offerings of various kinds of music to the Buddha "Cloud-Thunder-King". His accumulated merits enable him to take 34 different forms to propagate the Lotus Sutra.[118][111]

Chapter 25, The Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perciever of the World's Sounds – The Bodhisattva is devoted to Avalokiteśvara, describing him as a compassionate bodhisattva who hears the cries of sentient beings, and rescues those who call upon his name.[119][120][121]

Chapter 26 – Dhāraṇī- Hariti and several Bodhisattvas offer sacred dhāraṇī ('formulae') in order to protect those who keep and recite the Lotus Sūtra.[122][123][note 9]

Chapter 27 – Former Affairs of King Wonderful Adornment - tells the story of the conversion of King 'Wonderful-Adornment' by his two sons.[125][126]

Chapter 28 – Encouragement of the Bodhisattva Universal Worthy- a bodhisattva called "Universal Virtue" asks the Buddha how to preserve the sutra in the future. Samantabhadra promises to protect and guard all those who keep this sutra in the future Age of Dharma Decline.[127]

Teachings[edit]

Portable shrine depicting Buddha Sakyamuni preaching the Lotus Sūtra.[128] The Walters Art Museum.

One vehicle, many skillful means[edit]

This Lotus Sūtra is known for its extensive instruction on the concept and usage of skillful means – (Sanskrit: upāya, Japanese: hōben), the seventh paramita or perfection of a Bodhisattva – mostly in the form of parables. The many 'skillful' or 'expedient' means and the "three vehicles" are revealed to all be part of the One Vehicle (Ekayāna), which is also the Bodhisattva path. This is also one of the first sutras to use the term Mahāyāna, or "Great Vehicle". In the Lotus Sūtra, the One Vehicle encompasses so many different teachings because the Buddha's compassion and wish to save all beings led him to adapt the teaching to suit many different kinds of people. As Paul Williams explains:[129]

Although the corpus of teachings attributed to the Buddha, if taken as a whole, embodies many contradictions, these contradictions are only apparent. Teachings are appropriate to the context in which they are given and thus their contradictions evaporate. The Buddha’s teachings are to be used like ladders, or, to apply an age-old Buddhist image, like a raft employed to cross a river. There is no point in carrying the raft once the journey has been completed and its function fulfilled. When used, such a teaching transcends itself.

The sutra emphasizes that all these seemingly different teachings are actually just skillful applications of the one Dharma and thus all constitute the "One Buddha Vehicle and knowledge of all modes". The Lotus Sūtra sees all other teachings are subservient to, propagated by and in the service of the ultimate truth of the One Vehicle leading to Buddhahood.[16] The Lotus Sūtra also claims to be superior to other sūtras and states that full Buddhahood is only arrived at by exposure to its teachings and skillful means.

All beings have the potential to become Buddhas[edit]

The dragon king´s daughter offers her priceless pearl to the Buddha. The narrative of her instantaneous attainment of Buddhahood was understood as a promise of the enlightenment of women.[130] Frontispiece of a 12th century Lotus Sutra handscroll.[131]

The One Vehicle doctrine defines the enlightenment of a Buddha (anuttara samyak sambhodi) as the ultimative goal and the sutra predicts that all those who hear the Dharma will eventually achieve this goal. Many of the Buddha´s disciples receive prophecies that they will become future Buddhas. Devadatta, who, according to the Pali texts, had attempted to kill the Buddha, receives a prediction of enlightenment.[132][133][134] Even those, who practice only simple forms of devotion, such as paying respect to the Buddha, or drawing a picture of the Buddha, are assured of their future Buddhahood.[135]

Although the term buddha-nature (buddhadhatu) is not mentioned once in the Lotus Sutra, Japanese scholars Hajime Nakamura and Akira Hirakawa suggest that the concept is implicitly present in the text.[136][137] Vasubandhu (fl. 4th to 5th century CE), an influential scholar monk from Ghandara, interpreted the Lotus Sutra as a teaching of buddha-nature and later commentaries tended to adopt this view.[138][139] Based on his analysis of chapter 5, Zhanran (711-778), a scholar monk of the Chinese Tiantai school, argued that insentient things also possess buddha-nature and in medieval Japan, the Tendai Lotus school developed its concept of original enlightenment which claimed the whole world to be originally enlighted.[140][141]

The nature of the Buddhas[edit]

Another key concept introduced by the Lotus Sūtra is the idea of the eternal Buddha, who achieved enlightenment innumerable eons ago, but remains in the world to help teach beings the Dharma time and again. The life span of this primordial Buddha is beyond imagination, his biography and his apparent death are portrayed as skillful means to teach sentient beings.[142][143] The Buddha of the Lotus Sūtra states:

In this way, since my attainment of Buddhahood it has been a very great interval of time. My life-span is incalculable asatkhyeyakalpas [rather a lot of aeons], ever enduring, never perishing. O good men! The life-span I achieved in my former treading of the bodhisattva path even now is not exhausted, for it is twice the above number. Yet even now, though in reality I am not to pass into extinction [enter final nirvana], yet I proclaim that I am about to accept extinction. By resort to these expedient devices [this skill-in-means] the Thus Come One [the Tathagata] teaches and converts the beings.[144]

The Buddhas Prabhūtaratna and Shakyamuni seated side-by-side in the jeweled stupa. Stele, bronze and gold, dated 518 CE

The idea that the physical death of a Buddha is the termination of that Buddha is graphically refuted by the appearance of another Buddha, Prabhûtaratna, who passed long before. In the vision of the Lotus Sūtra, Buddhas are ultimately immortal.

Crucially, not only are there multiple Buddhas in this view, but an infinite stream of Buddhas extending infinitely in space in the ten directions and through unquantifiable eons of time. The Lotus Sūtra illustrates a sense of timelessness and the inconceivable, often using large numbers and measurements of time and space.[citation needed]

According to Gene Reeves, the Lotus Sūtra also teaches that the Buddha has many embodiments and these are the countless bodhisattva disciples. These bodhisattvas choose to remain in the world to save all beings and to keep the teaching alive. Reeves writes, "because the Buddha and his Dharma are alive in such bodhisattvas, he himself continues to be alive. The fantastically long life of the Buddha, in other words, is at least partly a function of and dependent on his being embodied in others."[145] The Lotus Sūtra also teaches various dhāraṇīs or the prayers of different celestial bodhisattvas who out of compassion protect and teach all beings. The lotus flower imagery points to this quality of the bodhisattvas. The lotus symbolizes the bodhisattva who is rooted in the earthly mud and yet flowers above the water in the open air of enlightenment.[146]

Impact[edit]

According to Donald Lopez, the Lotus Sutra is "arguably the most famous of all Buddhist texts," presenting "a radical re-vision of both the Buddhist path and of the person of the Buddha."[147][note 10]

The Lotus Sutra was frequently cited in Indian works by Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, Candrakirti, Shantideva and several authors of the Madhyamaka and the Yogacara school.[148] The only extant Indian commentary on the Lotus Sutra is attributed to Vasubandhu.[149][150] According to Jonathan Silk, the influence of the Lotus Sūtra in India may have been limited, but "it is a prominent scripture in East Asian Buddhism."[151] The sutra has most prominence in Tiantai (sometimes called "The Lotus School"[152]) and Nichiren Buddhism.[153] It is also influential in Zen Buddhism.

China[edit]

Tao Sheng, a fifth-century Chinese Buddhist monk wrote the earliest extant commentary on the Lotus Sūtra.[154][155] Tao Sheng was known for promoting the concept of Buddha nature and the idea that even deluded people will attain enlightenment. Daoxuan (596-667) of the Tang Dynasty wrote that the Lotus Sutra was "the most important sutra in China".[156]

Zhiyi (538–597 CE), the generally credited founder of the Tiantai school of Buddhism, was the student of Nanyue Huisi[157] who was the leading authority of his time on the Lotus Sūtra.[152] Zhiyi's philosophical synthesis saw the Lotus Sūtra as the final teaching of the Buddha and the highest teaching of Buddhism.[158] He wrote two commentaries on the sutra: Profound meanings of the Lotus Sūtra and Words and phrases of the Lotus Sūtra. Zhiyi also linked the teachings of the Lotus Sūtra with the Buddha nature teachings of the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra and made a distinction between the "Eternal Buddha" Vairocana and the manifestations. In Tiantai, Vairocana (the primeval Buddha) is seen as the 'Bliss body' – Sambhogakāya – of the historical Gautama Buddha.[158]

Japan[edit]

The Lotus Sūtra is a very important sutra in Tiantai[159] and correspondingly, in Japanese Tendai (founded by Saicho, 767–822). Tendai Buddhism was the dominant form of mainstream Buddhism in Japan for many years and the influential founders of popular Japanese Buddhist sects including Nichiren, Honen, Shinran and Dogen[160] were trained as Tendai monks.

Calligraphic mandala (Gohonzon) inscribed by Nichiren in 1280. The central characters are the title of the Lotus Sūtra.[161]

Nichiren, a 13th-century Japanese Buddhist monk, founded an entire school of Buddhism based on his belief that the Lotus Sūtra is "the Buddha´s ultimate teaching",[162] and that the title is the essence of the sutra, "the seed of Buddhahood".[163] Nichiren held that chanting the title of the Lotus Sūtra – Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō – was the only way to practice Buddhism in the degenerate age of Dharma decline and was the highest practice of Buddhism.[158] Nichiren described chapters 10-22 as the "third realm" of the Lotus Sutra (Daisan hōmon) which emphasizes the need to endure the trials of life and bodhisattva practice of the true law in the real sahā world.[164]

Dogen, the 13th-century Japanese founder of Sōtō Zen Buddhism, used the Lotus Sūtra often in his writings. According to Taigen Dan Leighton, "While Dogen's writings employ many sources, probably along with his own intuitive meditative awareness, his direct citations of the Lotus Sūtra indicate his conscious appropriation of its teachings as a significant source"[165] and that his writing "demonstrates that Dogen himself saw the Lotus Sutra, 'expounded by all buddhas in the three times,' as an important source for this self-proclamatory rhetorical style of expounding."[166] In his Shobogenzo, Dogen directly discusses the Lotus Sūtra in the essay Hokke-Ten-Hokke, "The Dharma Flower Turns the Dharma Flower". The essay uses a dialogue from the Platform Sutra between Huineng and a monk who has memorized the Lotus Sūtra to illustrate the non-dual nature of Dharma practice and sutra study.[165] During his final days, Dogen spent his time reciting and writing the Lotus Sutra in his room which he named "The Lotus Sutra Hermitage".[167]

The Soto Zen monk Ryōkan also studied the Lotus Sūtra extensively and this sutra was the biggest inspiration for his poetry and calligraphy.[168] The Rinzai Zen master Hakuin Ekaku achieved enlightenment while reading the third chapter of the Lotus Sūtra.[169]

According to Shields, "modern(ist)" interpretations of the Lotus Sutra begin with the early 20th century nationalist applications of the Lotus Sutra by Chigaku Tanaka, Nissho Honda, Seno'o, and Nisshō Inoue.[170] Japanese new religions began forming in the 19th century and the trend accelerated after World War II. Some of these groups have pushed the study of the Lotus Sutra to a global scale.[171][172] While noting the importance of several Japanese New Religious Movements to Lotus Sutra scholarship, Lopez focuses on the contributions made by the Reiyukai and Soka Gakkai[173] and Stone discusses the contributions of the Soka Gakkai and Risshō Kōsei Kai.[174] Etai Yamada (1900–1999), the 253rd head priest of the Tendai denomination conducted ecumenical dialogues with religious leaders around the world based on his interpretation of the Lotus Sutra which culminated in a 1987 summit. He also used the Lotus Sutra to move his sect from a "temple Buddhism" perspective to one based on social engagement.[175] Nichiren-inspired Buddhist organizations have shared their interpretations of the Lotus Sutra through publications, academic symposia, and exhibitions.[176][177][178][179][180]

Influence on East Asian culture[edit]

The Buddhas Prabhūtaratna and Shakyamuni sitting side by side in the jeweled stupa; wall painting, Yulin Caves

The Lotus Sūtra has had a great impact on East Asian literature, art, and folklore for over 1400 years.

Art[edit]

Various events from it are depicted in religious art.[181][182][183] Wang argues that the explosion of art inspired by the Lotus Sutra, starting from the 7th and 8th centuries in China, was a confluence of text and the topography of the Chinese medieval mind in which the latter dominated.[184]

Motifs from the Lotus Sutra figure prominently in the Dunhuang caves built in the Sui era.[185] In the fifth century, the scene of Shakyamuni and Prabhutaratna Buddhas seated together as depicted in the 11th chapter of the Lotus Sutra became arguably the most popular theme in Chinese Buddhist art.[186] Examples can be seen in a bronze plaque (year 686) at Hase-dera Temple in Japan[187] and, in Korea, at Dabotap and Seokgatap Pagodas, built in 751, at Bulguksa Temple.[188]

Literature[edit]

Tamura refers to the "Lotus Sutra literary genre."[189] Its ideas and images are writ large in great works of Chinese and Japanese literature such as The Dream of the Red Chamber and The Tale of Genji.[190] The Lotus Sutra has had an outsized influence on Japanese Buddhist poetry.[191] Far more poems have been Lotus Sutra-inspired than other sutras.[192] In the work Kanwa taisho myoho renge-kyo, a compendium of more than 120 collections of poetry from the Heian period, there are more than 1360 poems with references to the Lotus Sutra in just their titles.[193][194]

Folklore[edit]

The Lotus Sutra has inspired a branch of folklore based on figures in the sutra or subsequent people who have embraced it. The story of the Dragon King's daughter, who attained enlightenment in the 12th (Devadatta) chapter of the Lotus Sutra, appears in the Complete Tale of Avalokiteśvara and the Southern Seas and the Precious Scroll of Sudhana and Longnü folkstories. The Miraculous Tales of the Lotus Sutra[195] is a collection of 129 stories with folklore motifs based on "Buddhist pseudo-biographies."[196]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Chapter numbers of the extant Sanskrit version are given here. The arrangement and numbering of chapters in Kumarajiva's translation is different.[7]
  2. ^ In the Sanskrit manuscripts chapter 5 contains the parable of a blind man who refuses to believe that vision exists.[13][14]
  3. ^ Weinstein states: "Japanese scholars demonstrated decades ago that this traditional list of six translations of the Lotus lost and three surviving-given in the K'ai-yiian-lu and elsewhere is incorrect. In fact, the so-called "lost" versions never existed as separate texts; their titles were simply variants of the titles of the three "surviving" versions."[18]
  4. ^ Taisho vol.9, pp. 63-134.The Lotus Sūtra of the Correct Dharma(Zhèng Fǎ Huá Jīng), in ten volumes and twenty-seven chapters, translated by Dharmarakṣa in 286 CE.
  5. ^ Jan Nattier has recently summarized this aspect of the early textual transmission of such Buddhist scriptures in China thus, bearing in mind that Dharmarakṣa's period of activity falls well within the period she defines: "Studies to date indicate that Buddhist scriptures arriving in China in the early centuries of the Common Era were composed not just in one Indian dialect but in several . . . in sum, the information available to us suggests that, barring strong evidence of another kind, we should assume that any text translated in the second or third century AD was not based on Sanskrit, but one or other of the many Prakrit vernaculars."[21]
  6. ^ The Lotus Sūtra of the Wonderful Dharma (Miàofǎ Liánhuá jīng), in eight volumes and twenty-eight chapters, translated by Kumārajīva in 406 CE.
  7. ^ Sanskrit buddhaksetra, the realm of a Buddha, a pure land. Buswell and Lopez state that "Impure buddha-fields are synonymous with a world system (cacravada), the infinite number of “world discs” in Buddhist cosmology that constitutes the universe (...)."[61]
  8. ^ Ryodo Shioiri states, "If I may speak very simply about the characteristics of section 2, chapter 10 and subsequent chapters emphasize the command to propagate the Lotus Sūtra in society as opposed to the predictions given in section 1 out (sic) the future attainment of buddhahood by the disciples....and the central concern is the actualization of the teaching-in other words, how to practice and transmit the spirit of the Lotus Sutra as contained in the original form of section 1."[88]
  9. ^ Dhāraṇī is used in the "limited sense of mantra-dharani" in this chapter.[124]
  10. ^ Donald Lopez: "Although composed in India, the Lotus Sutra became particularly important in China and Japan. In terms of Buddhist doctrine, it is renowned for two powerful proclamations by the Buddha. The first is that there are not three vehicles to enlightenment but one, that all beings in the universe will one day become buddhas. The second is that the Buddha did not die and pass into nirvana; in fact, his lifespan is immeasurable."[147]

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