SUFISM AND TAOISM: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts
by Toshihiko Izutsu 1983
First published 1983 by Iwanami Shoten, Publishers, Tokyo
This edition is published by The University of California Press, 1984,
Rev. ed. of: A comparative study of the key philosophical concepts in Sufism and Taoism. 1966-67.
=====
First published 1983 by Iwanami Shoten, Publishers, Tokyo
This edition is published by The University of California Press, 1984,
Rev. ed. of: A comparative study of the key philosophical concepts in Sufism and Taoism. 1966-67.
=====
Contents
Preface by T. Izutsu
Introduction
Part I - Ibn 'Arabi
1 Dream and Reality
II The Absolute in its Absoluteness
III The Self-knowledge of Man
IV Metaphysical Unification and Phenomenal Dispersion
V Metaphysical Perplexity
VI The Shadow of the Absolute
VII The Divine Nam es
VIII Allah and the Lord
IX Ontological Mercy
X The Water of Life
XI The Self-manifestation of the Absolute
XII Permanent Archetypes
XIII Creation
XIV Man as Microcosm
XV The Perfect Man as an Individual
XVI Apostle, Prophet, and Saint
XVII The Magical Power of the Perfect Man
Part II - Lao-Tzii & Chuang-Tzu
I Lao-Tzu and Chuang-Tzu
II From Mythopoiesis to Metaphysics
III Dream and Reality
IV Beyond This and That
V The Birth of a New Ego
VI Against Essentialism
VII The Way
VIII The Gateway of Myriad Wonders
IX Determinism and Freedom
X Absolute Reversai of Values
XI The Perfect Man
XII Homo Politicus
Part III - A Comparative Reftection
I Methodological Preliminaries
II The Inner Transformation of Man
III The Multistratified Structure of Reality
IV Essence and Existence
V The Self-evolvement of Existence
===
XI 1 Homo Politicus
Throughout the preceding chapters we have been describing the
Taoist Perfect Man as a man of absolute transcendence. He wholly
transcends the world of ordinary men and ordinary things in the
sense that he is 'oblivious' of ail distinctions between them, that
nothing perturbs bis mind, and that, consequently, he sits alone in
the midst of the profound 'tranquillity' of being one with the One.
He is 'without-or above-human emotions', accepting the good as
'good' and also the non-good as 'good'. He holds fast to the princi-
ple of Non-Doing, and does not meddle with the natural course of
things. Instead, he leaves the ten thousand things alone as they
corne into being, grow, and th en disappear in accordance with the
'times' and 'turns' of each of them. He is 'indifferent' just as Heaven
and Earth are 'indifferent' to the ten thousand things, treating them
all as if they were 'straw dogs'.
The Perfect Man in this respect is a man of absolute Negativity.
And ail these and still other 'negative' properties belong to him
because he is completely unified with the 'way' (i.e., natural, spon-
taneous working) of Heaven, and ultimately with the Way itself. In
comporting himself in this manner, the Perfect Man embodies the
Way.
But it is very important to remember that pure negativity or
passivity does not exhaust the activity of the Way. In fact, the
passivity of the Way is not 'passivity' as ordinarily understood. It is a
'passivity' with 'positivity'. Or perhaps we should say that
the Way is- or looks-'passive' precisely because it is too positive to
be just 'positive' in the generally accepted sense. Non-Doing, for
example, is certainly a passive and negative principle, but it is in
reality a positive force in that it 'leaves nothing undone'. This fact is
an exact counterpart of the Way being described as 'Nothing' not
because it is purely negatively and passively 'nothing', but because it
is over-plenitude of Being.
The Perfect Man, as a perfect embodiment and personification of
the Way, must necessarily reftect this 'positive' - or 'supra-positive'
- aspect of it, too. Just as the Way itself is positively- and more than
Il
1
1•1 458 Sufism and Taoism
positively- engaged in the administration of the created world and
governs, through the very principle of Non-Doing, the whole pro-
cess of Nature to the minutest details of individual events, sois the
Perfect Man positively interested in governing the world, again
through the principle of Non-Doing.
Besides, it is, more generally speaking, very characteristic of
philosophical thinking in ancient China that it is vitally concerned
with the problem of governing the people. Homo Politicus has, in
fact, always been a central theme of all the major schools of Chinese
thought. Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu are no exception to this general
mie. It is extremely interesting to notice in this respect that a man
like Lao-tzu who develops, on the one hand, a sophisticated
metaphysics of the Way and describes the ideal man as an absolutely
unworldly-minded man living high above the noise and fuss of
everyday life, shows himself so keenly interested in the art of ruling
an empire. For Lao-tzu, the Perfect Man cannot be really 'perfect',
unless he stands at the head of an empire as the supreme Ruler of its
people. The Perfect Man is at once a philosopher and a politician.
This, of course, does not mean that the Perfect Man must posi-
tively strive to gain political power or to conquer the world. He does
not even try to make himself conspicuous.
He does not display himself. Therefore he is conspicuous.
He does not justify himself. Therefore he is illustrious.
He does not praise himself. Therefore his merit is recognized. 1
He does not try to make himself conspicuous. But due to that
'negative' attitude toward himself - and more basically, because he
is 'perfect' - he 'naturally' becomes conspicuous. He does not do
anything on his part to attract attention, but the people sponta-
neously gather around him. He keeps himself in the rear, but the
people spontaneously, and even without being conscious of it, push
him to the fore. The Tao Tê Ching is filled with expressions referring
to this peculiarity of the Perfect Man. The most famous and most
typical of them all is probably 'softening the glare and falling into
line with the dust (of the common people)'.
(The 'sacred man') blunts his sharpness, unfastens his knots, softens
his glare, and falls into line with the dust. Such 1 would call the state of
Mysterious Indistinction.
Such a man cannot be approached too intimately. Nor can one
remain too remote from him. One cannot bestow benefit upon him,
nor can one harm him .. One cannot ennoble him, nor can one humili-
ate him.
Thus he becomes the noblest of all beings under Heaven. 2
The 'Mysterious Indiscrimination' (hsüan t'ung) 3 is a very
significant expression. The Perfect Man, as a human being, lives
Homo Politicus 459
among ordinary people as a member of society. He exists there in
the midst of everyday life, quietly and calmi y, behind and beneath
other men. He 'levels' himself with the common people, without
'discriminating' himself from other men. Outwardly he seems to be
exactly the same as ordinary people. But this is, in reality, a very
peculiar 'sameness', for in his spiritual structure; he is soaring like
the Bird P' êng in the azure of absolu te freedom and independence.
And it is through the spontaneous activity of such a man that the
Virtue of the Way materializes in the form of a perfect political mie.
According to the pattern of thought peculiar to Lao-tzu and
Chuang-tzu, the Perfect Man, because of his spiritual 'perfection',
spontaneously occupies the highest place in the spiritual world; and
because he occupies the highest place in the spiritual world he must
necessarily occupy the highest place in the world of reality. He must
be the 'lord over the officiais' .4
Thus here again we corne across the paradoxical way of thinking
which characterizes the Taoist sages. For according to them, the
Perfect Man is a man who 'freely roams beyond the realm of dust
and dirt, and enjoys wandering to his heart's content in the Village
of There-Is-Absolutely-Nothing'. But exactly because he exists
permanently beyond the world of dust and dirt, he can actually keep
himself in the very midst of the dust and dirt of the real, material
world. By remaining absolutely 'indifferent' to petty interests in the
world, he is interested in the great problems of the actual world.
Surely, he is nota man 'whose ability is good enough to make him
conspicuous in the politics of one state.' 5 But he is good enough to
be the absolu te ruler of an empire, or even of 'ail un der Heaven'.
What, then, are the politics of the Perfect Man? From the point of
view of common sense, Chuang-tzu says, the most ideal form of the
management of political affairs consists in that 'the ruler should
devise all the mies and regulations for his own self, and thereby
govern his people, for, in such a case, who would <lare to disobey
him and not to be "transformed" by his virtue?' .6
Chuang-tzu declares that such a thing is nothing other than a
'deceptive virtue' .7 'To govern the world by means of such a princi-
ple is like trying to wade through the ocean, to dig a large river with
one's own hands, or tolet a mosquito carry on its back a mountain!' 8
The Perfect Man does not govern the world by means of man-
made laws, which are but external matters designed to contrai only
the external aspects of human life. He governs the world by 'govern-
ing himself', that is, by perfecting his inner Virtue.
When the 'sacred man' is in the position of the ruler, how could he
conceivably be interested in governing the external life of the people?
460 Sufism and Taoism
What he is interested in is that he should rectify his 'inside', (i.e.,
bring his inner Virtue to perfection) and then govern (his people). He
is exclusively interested in firmly establishing his own affair.
(Thus he leaves ail other things in charge of their own natures.) Just
think of a bird ftying high in the sky, escaping thereby the danger of
being shot down by a stringed arrow; or of a little mouse living in a
deep hole under the sacred hill, avoiding thereby being dug out or
smoked out. (Every living being has its own natural wisdom by which
it knows instinctively how to live safely .) Do human beings possess
less knowledge than these two little creatures?9
What Chuang-tzü means by 'rectifying one's inside' is explained by
himself in more concrete terms as follows:
Let your mind wander freely in (the field of) Simplicity (where there
is not even a trace of desires), unify your vital energy with the
limitless Tranquillity, and follow the natural course (lit. 'being-so
of-itself') of ail things without letting your 'ego' interfere with it.
Then the whole world will be governed (spontaneously). 10
Briefty stated, this means that when the Perfect Man in the real
sense of the word is actualized, the world becomes governed 'of
itself'. Not that the Perfect Man positively governs the world by
instituting severe laws and enforcing them. The right ordering of the
world is spontaneously actualized as the Perfect Man, on his part,
'rectifies his inner state'. It is clear that this is nothing but putting
into practice the fondamental principle of Non-Doing. And that is,
for Lao-tzü, and Chuang-tzü, the highest and most ideal form of
poli tics.
Lao-tzii describes the situation in the following terms:
Astate may well be governed by 'rectitude' .11 A war may well be won
by tactics. The empire, however, can be obtained only by Non-
Action.12
How do 1 know that it is so? By the following observation.
The more restrictions and prohibitions there are in the world, the
poorer the people.
The more civilized instruments the people possess, the more con-
fused the land.
The more skills and crafts the people have, the more bizarre (useless)
objects will be produced.
The more laws and regulations are promulgated, the more thieves
and robbers there will be.
Therefore the 'sacred man' says: 1 remain in Non-Doing, and the
people are (morally) fransformed of themselves. 1 enjoy quietude,
and the people become righteous of themselves. 1 do not meddle with
anything, and the people become prosperous of themselves. 1 remain
free from desires, and the people of themselves become like the
'uncarved block of wood' 13
Homo Politicus 461
As 1 have repeatedly emphasized, this supreme ability of the Perfect
Man as a statesman is due to the fact that in practising Non-Doing,
he is a perfect copy of the Way itself.
The Way in its absolute reality is inactive (i.e., 'non-doing'), yet it
leaves nothing undone.
If lords and kings abide by this principle, the ten thousand things will
grow up and develop of their own accord.
But if in the process of growth, desire (to act positively, against
Nature) should arise (on the part of some of the ten thousand things),
1 would cairn it down by the weight of the 'nameless' (simplicity of)
'uncarved wood' .14 The 'nameless' (simplicity of) 'uncarved wood'
will take things back to the (original) state of desirelessness.
And if (the people) become 'desireless' and, consequently, 'tranquil',
the whole world will of itself become peaceful.15
The Way in its absolute reality is 'nameless'. (lt is in this respect like
'uncarved wood'). 16 The 'uncarved wood' may look insignificant, but
nothing under Heaven is able to subjugate it.
If lords and kings abide by the principle (of' uncarved wood'), the ten
thousand things will of themselves corne to pay bornage to them.
Heaven and Earth will join their forces to send down sweet dew, and
the people will of themselves become peacefully governed, even if no
decrees and ordinances are published. 17
Thus the Perfect Man in the capacity of a statesman exercises his
rule in accordance with the principle of Non-Doing. 'He does
nothing other than doing-nothing.' 18 But by 'doing-nothing' he is in
truth doing a great thing. For'doing-nothing' means in his case to do
nothing against the natural course of all things. Therefore his
'doing-nothing' is tantamount to 'assisting' the natural and spon-
taneous development of all things.
The 'sacred man' dcsires to be desireless. He learns not to learn. 19
He thereby turns back constantly to (the Ultimate Source) which is
passed by unnoticed by the common people.
He assists the spontaneous being of the ten thousand things. He
refrains from interfering with it by his own action.20
Many other passages could be adduced from the Tao Tê Ching, in
which the idea of Non-Doing is extolled as the supreme principle of
Taoist poli tics. But for our particular purposes what has been given
is quite sufficient.
There is, however, one more point to make in connection with
Non-Doing as a political idea. In the foregoing we have been
concerned mainly with the attitude of the Perfect Man in governing
the empire in accordance with the principle of Non-Doing. We have
not yet dealt with the problem of the inner state or attitude of those
who are governed, the common people as the subjects over whom
the Perfect Man rules.
462 Sufism and Taoism
Already in some of the above-quoted passages it has been sug-
gested that the ideal rule of the Perfect Man encounters hindrance if
his subjects happen to have 'desire' and 'knowledge'. The Perfect
Man himself may be absolutely above all human 'desires' - because
he is 'without emotions' - and above petty 'knowledge' to be
acquired by the exercise of the rational faculty of the mind- because
he has completely 'chaotified' his mind. But however Perfect he
may be in this respect, he is not in a position to realize the ideal of
ruling by the principle of Non-Doing unless the people, on their
part, be also perfectly prepared for accepting his rule. And they are
perfectly prepared for accepting his rule only when they are purified
of 'desire' and 'knowledge'. Thus the act of purifying the people of
these obstacles constitutes part of the politics of Non-Doing.
If (the mler) does not hold the (so-called) wise men in high esteem,
the people will be kept away from contending with one another.
If he does not value goods that are hard to obtain, the people will be
kept away from committing thefts.
If he does not display things that are Iiable to excite desires, the minds
of the people will be kept undisturbed.
Therefore, the 'sacred man' in governing the people empties their
minds, 21 while making their bellies full; weakens their wills 22 while
rendering their bones strong.
In this way, he keeps his people always in the state of no-knowledge
and no-desire, so that the so-called 'knowers' might find no occasion
to interfere (and influence the people).
If he thus practises Non-Doing, the world cannot but be governed
well. 23
From of old those who excel in the practice of the Way do not try to
make the people wise and clever. Rather they try to keep the people
in the (simple) state of knowledgelessness. If the people are difficult
to mie it is because they have too much 'knowledge'.
He who mies a state by (giving the people) 'knowledge' damages the
country. He who mies astate by depriving (the people) of 'know-
Iedge' brings prosperity to the country.
To know (the difference between) these two (forms of government)
belongs to the standard measure (of the mler). And to know the
standard measure in every matter is what 1 would call the Mysterious
Virtue. How profound and far-reaching the Mysterious Virtue is! (Its
profundity is shown by the fact that) it works contrariwise to the
nature of things, yet ultimately turns back to the Great Conformity; 24
(i.e., at first sight the working of the Mysterious Virtue looks as if it
were against the natural order of things, but in reality it is in confor-
mity with the very working of the Great Way). 25
The Great Conformity which is to be achieved by the practice of
Non-Doing represents the highest degree of perfection among the
various possible forms of goveming the state. It is the art of gov-
Homo Politicus 463 emment peculiar to the Perfect Man. And judged by this standard, all the remaining political forms are found to be imperfect in varying degrees. The highest of ail types of the mler is such that the people un der him are only aware of his presence. The next is the mler to whom they feel attached and whom they praise. The next is the mler whom they fear. The next is the ruler whom they despise. If (the ruler) is not trusted enough, it is because he is not truthful enough. If (on the contrary) the ruler is cautious and weighs the words he utters, then his task will be accomplished, his work done, and the people will ail say: 'Ali this we have done naturally, by ourselves.' 26 The people feel this way because the Perfect Man rules over them by the principle of Non-Doing. They are vaguely conscious of his presence over them, but they do not notice that things run so smoothly because of his being their ruler. It is very interesting to observe that the second of the types of the ruler enumerated in this passage, namely, the case in which the people feel attached to the ruler and greatly praise him, evidently refers to the Confucian ideal of goveming the people with 'benevol- ence'. We would do well to recall in this connection the words of Lao-tzu which we have quoted earlier. 27 'Only when the great Way declines, do "benevolence" and "righteousness" arise.' The impli- cation is that the highest ideal of politics from the point of view of Confucius and his school is, from the point of view of Lao-tzu, not only the second-best, but something indicative of the decline of the great Way. Only when the great Way declines, do 'benevolence' and 'righteous- ness' arise. Only when cleverness and sagacity emerge in the world, do wiles and intrigues arise. Only when the six basic kinship relations are out of harmony do filial sons make their appearance. Only when the state is in confusion and disorder, do loyal subjects make their appearance. 28 If the ruler abolishes 'cleverness' and abandons 'intelligence', the benefit received by the people will increase a hundredfold. If he abolishes 'benevolence' and abandons 'righteousness', the people will (spontaneously) return to 'filial piety' and 'paternal love' .29 If he abolishes artifice and abandons (the pursuit of) profit, there will be no more thieves and robbers. If with these three (principles) alone one should think adornments are too scanty, let there be, then, something additional. Show out- wardly the plainness of undyed silk and embrace inwardly the sim- plicity of uncarved wood. Reduce selfishness and lessen desires. 30
464 Sufism and Taoism
In one of the passages quoted above, we saw how in Lao-tzu's view
the highest type of government is represented by the ruler who
governs the country so 'naturally' that the 'people' are conscious
only of there being a ruler over them', without attributing to him
any particular virtue or merit. Chuang-tzu unreservedly agrees with
Lao-tzu on this point. It goes without saying that, according to both
Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu, in such a form of ideal government not
only do the people not notice the merit of the ruler, but the ruler
himself is not conscious of his own merit.
Lao-tzu:
The 'sacred man' is such that he does great things, yet does not
boast of bis own achievement; he accomplishes bis task, yet does not
stick to his own merit. Is this not because he does not wish to display
his superiority over others? 31
And Chuang-tzu:
When an 'illumined king' reigns over the world, bis merit covers ail
under Heaven. But he is not conscious of the merit as something
proceeding from himself.
His transforming power affects the ten thousand things. But the
people do not feel dependent upon him.
There is 'something' occurring (in the world, because of his presence
as the ruler), but no one could definitely name it. (The existence of
that 'something' is clearly shown only by the fact that) it actually
renders ail things spontaneously happy and contented.
He himself stands in (the spiritual state of) the Unfathomable, and
wanders to bis heart's content in the There-Is-Nothing,32
I shall bring this chapter to a close by quoting from the Tao Tê Ching
a passage in which Lao-tzu pictures in an idyllic tone an imaginary
state which is govemed by a 'sacred man' - astate based on the
principle of Non-Doing, in which the highest ideal of Taoist politics
is actualized in a concrete form. It is by no means a grand-scale ideal
state like the Republic of Plato. It is almost a village. Yet, who
knows? The people of this small country may possibly be even
happier and more contented than the inhabitants of the Platonic
state.
A small country, with small population. There are (in this country)
various tools of war, but the people are not tempted to use them. The
people (are so happy and contented that) they regard death as no
slight matter (i.e., they are reluctant to die because life is so enjoy-
able ). Nor do they want to move to distant places. Though there are
ships and carts, there is no place to go with them. Though there are
armor and weapons, there arises no occasion to display them.
The people are taught to go back to (the Simplicity of immemorial
antiquity) using knotted cords (instead of the complicated system of
writing).
l
Homo Politicus 465
They find relish in their food, and beauty in their clothes. Happy and
contented with their own homes, they find delight in their old cus-
toms.
The neighbouring country is just there, within sight. The people of
this country can hear even the cocks crowing and dogs barking in that
country. And yet, the inhabitants of the two countries grow old and
die without ever visiting one another.33
Notes
1. Tao Tê Ching, XXII.
2. ibid., LVI; see also IV.
3. :P.:lîiJ. It may be translated also as 'Mysterious Levelling'.
4. op. cit., XXVIII.
5. Chuang-tzu, I, p. 16.
6. ibid., VII, p. 290.
7. ittf§, ch'i tê.
8. ibid., VII, p. 291.
9. ibid., VII, p. 291.
10. ibid., VII, p. 294.
11. This is an ironical reference to the Confucian idea of the ideal politics. A man
once asked Confucius about the art of ruling the state. Confucius replied: 'Ruling'
(chêng i3l:) means 'rectitude' (chêng IE). If you (govern the people) by 'rectifying'
yourself in the first place, no one would venture to act against 'rectitude' -Analects,
XII, 17.
12. 1!\1;$'., wu shih, synonymous with wu wei. Shih is defined by Hsün-tzii as 'doing
something in expectation of getting a profit' (ïEfiJlfiîAmz•), tfiî-, IE:ga XXII.
13. Tao Tê Ching, LVII.
14. i.e., I, the ruler, would cairn down the desire of the people, not by supressing it by
laws and edicts, but by disclosing myself to them as a living embodiment of the Way in
its aspect of absolute 'simplicity', that is, the state of being completely purified of ail
desires and passions.
15. op. cit., XXXVII.
16. Because it is not yet carved into various vessels, each of which is distinguished
from others by a special 'name' .
17. op. cit., XXXII.
466 Sufism and Taoism
18. A1!!0$, (ibid., LXIV).
19. Ordinary men try hard to study and learn in order to increase their knowledge.
The Perfect Man, on the contrary, learns to be without learning, so that at the
ultimate stage of the decrease of knowledge he might be unified with the 'simplicity'
of the 'uncarved wood' .
20. op. cit., LXIV.
21. It is the 'mind' that insatiably seeks for 'knowledge'.
22. The 'will' drives man toward gratifying his limitless desires.
23. op. cit., III.
24. *li-
25. ibid., LXV.
26. ibid., XVII.
27. See Chap. I, Note 6.
28. op. cit., XVIII.
29. This may be thought to contradict what we have read in the preceding passage.
In reality, however, there is no contradiction. For there, the point at issue was 'filial
piety' and 'paternal love' being verbal/y emphasized. Here Lao-tzu is simply talking
about the natural state of 'filial piety' and 'paternal love' which is actualized in the
minds of the people, without there being anybody who 'emphasizes' the importance
of these virtues.
30. op. cit., XIX.
31 Tao Tê Ching, LXXVII.
32. Chuang-tzu, VII, p. 296.
33. Tao Tê Ching, LXXX.
