SUFISM AND TAOISM: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts
by Toshihiko Izutsu 1983
First published 1983 by Iwanami Shoten, Publishers, Tokyo
This edition is published by The University of California Press, 1984,
Rev. ed. of: A comparative study of the key philosophical concepts in Sufism and Taoism. 1966-67.
=====
First published 1983 by Iwanami Shoten, Publishers, Tokyo
This edition is published by The University of California Press, 1984,
Rev. ed. of: A comparative study of the key philosophical concepts in Sufism and Taoism. 1966-67.
=====
Contents
Preface by T. Izutsu
Introduction
Part I - Ibn 'Arabi
1 Dream and Reality
II The Absolute in its Absoluteness
III The Self-knowledge of Man
IV Metaphysical Unification and Phenomenal Dispersion
V Metaphysical Perplexity
VI The Shadow of the Absolute
VII The Divine Nam es
VIII Allah and the Lord
IX Ontological Mercy
X The Water of Life
XI The Self-manifestation of the Absolute
XII Permanent Archetypes
XIII Creation
XIV Man as Microcosm
XV The Perfect Man as an Individual
XVI Apostle, Prophet, and Saint
XVII The Magical Power of the Perfect Man
Part II - Lao-Tzii & Chuang-Tzu
I Lao-Tzu and Chuang-Tzu
II From Mythopoiesis to Metaphysics
III Dream and Reality
IV Beyond This and That
V The Birth of a New Ego
VI Against Essentialism
VII The Way
VIII The Gateway of Myriad Wonders
IX Determinism and Freedom
X Absolute Reversai of Values
XI The Perfect Man
XII Homo Politicus
Part III - A Comparative Reftection
I Methodological Preliminaries
II The Inner Transformation of Man
III The Multistratified Structure of Reality
IV Essence and Existence
V The Self-evolvement of Existence
===
XI The Perfect Man
Most of the characteristic features of the Perfect Man have already
been mentioned explicitly or implicitly in the foregoing chapters.
Sorne of them have been folly discussed, while others have been
touched upon in a cursory manner. Besides, we have repeatedly
pointed out that the Perfect Man as understood by Lao-tzu and
Chuang-tzu is nothing else than the personification of the Way
itself. The Perfect Man is 'perfect' because he is an exact persona!
imago of the Way. In this sense, by describing the nature and the
activity of the latter we can be said to have been describing the
former. Thus in a certain respect, all the preceding chapters may be
regarded as a description of the characterizing properties of the
Perfect Man. We are already quite familiar with the Taoist concept
of the Perfect Man. And the present chapter will necessarily take
the form of a mere systematic recapitulation of what has been
discussed in the course of this book concerning the Perfect Man.
Let us begin by repeating the most basic observation about the
concept of the Perfect Man, namely, that he is a man who is
completely unified and united with the Way. When a man in the
course of his spiritual discipline reaches the ultimate stage of
Illumination, a stage at which there remains no trace of his 'ego',
and therefore no discrepancy between 'himself and the Way-that
marks the birth of a Perfect Man. Lao-tzu calls this stage 'embracing
the One' .1
The 'sacred man' embraces the One, and thereby becomes the
exemplar for all things under Heaven. 2
Controlling his vacillating soul, (the Perfect Man) embraces the One
in his arms and is never separated therefrom. 3
The opening clause4 of this second quotation is interesting because
of its shamanic reminiscence. In ancient China, what corresponds to
the English 'soul' ( Greek psyche) was held to consist of two sep ara te
substances, one of them beinghun,5 and the other p'o.6 Or we could
say that man was believed to possess two souls. The former was the
The Perfect Man 445
superior or spiritual soul, the principle of mental and spiritual
fonctions. The latter was the inferior or physical (or animal) soul,
charged with bodily and material fonctions. When a man died, the
hun was believed to ascend to Heaven, while the p' o was to go down
into Earth.7 As for the phrase ying p'o, here translated as 'the
vacillating (physical) soul', it is significant that exactly the same
combination is found in the famous shamanic poem 'Traveling
Afar' (Yüan Yu) of the Elegies of Ch'u:
Controlling my vacillating soul, 1 ascend to a misty height,
And riding on the floating clouds, 1 go up and ever higher.8
But of course the Perfect Man knows how to put under contrai his
fretfol and unstable soul by 'sitting-in-oblivion', so that he might
ascend to the height of Unity and embrace the One, never to quit it.
The Perfect Man is no longer harassed by the fretfolness of his
soul. On the contrary, he always main tains his soul unperturbed.
What do 1 mean by the 'true man'? (1 am thinking of) the 'true men'
of ancient times. They did not revoit against scarcity (i.e., adverse
fortune). They did not become haughty in favorable conditions. They
did not make positive plans with the intention of accomplishing
things.
Such a person does not repent though he might commit an error; he
does not fall into self-complacency though he might meet with
success.
Such a man does not become frightened even if he ascend to the
highest place. He does not get wet even if he enters the water. He is
not burnt even if he enters the tire.
All this is the result of the (true) Wisdom having attained to the
ultimate point of perfection in (being unified with) the Way. 9
The Taoist principle of 'unperturbedness' is best illustrated by the
attitude taken by the Perfect Man toward his own Life and Death.
The problem has been folly discussed in earlier contexts. Here we
shall be content with giving one more passage in translation, which
would seem to provide a good summary of the whole argument
concerning this idea.
The 'true men' of ancient times knew nothing of loving Life and
disliking Death. They came out (into this world) without any particu-
lar delight. They went in (i.e., died) without any resistance. Calmly
they came, calmly they went. They did not forget how they had begun
to exist (i.e., that the beginning of their Life was due to the natural
working of the Way). Nor did they worry about the end of their
existence.
They simply received (Life) and they were happy (to live that Life).
But (when Death came) they simply gave (their Life) back and forgot
it.
li111
''.I
Il
446 Sufism and Taoism
This is what 1 would call: not revolting against the working Of the Way
by the use of Reason, and not interfering with what Heaven does by
straining (petty) human (efforts).
Such is the 'true man'. 10
Such an inner state cannot but produce its effect on the physical
conditions of the Perfect Man. His cairn unperturbed mind is
reftected by the very peculiar way in which his bodily fonctions are
performed. The Perfect Man is different from the common people
not only in his spiritual state, but also in his physical constitution.
The 'true men' of ancient times did not dream when they slept. They
felt no anxiety when they were awake. They did not particularly
enjoy food when they ate.
Their breathing was cairn and deep. They used to breathe with their
heels. 11 The corn mon people, on the contrary, breathe with their
throats (i.e., their respiration is shallow). You know those who are
cornered in argument - how desperately they try to vomit out the
words sticking in their throats. (Compared with the breathing of the
Perfect Man, the breathing of ordinary people is just like that.) (This
is due to the fact that, unlike the Perfect Man who has no desire, the
corn mon people) are deep in their desires, and shallow in their
natural spiritual equipment. 12
The common people are here characterized as being 'deep in their
desires' and 'shallow in their natural equipment'. In this respect
they represent exactly the opposite of what Lao-tzii emphasizes as
the ideal of the Taoist mode of human existence: 'no-wisdom and
no-desire' (wu-chih wu-yu) 13 • 'Wisdom' here means the exercise of
Reason.
We know already that purifying the Mind of physical and material
desires by 'closing up all openings and doors' is the first necessary
step toward the actualization of the idea of the Perfect Man.
The five colors make man's eyes blind. The five musical notes make
man's ears deaf. The five flavors make man's taste dull. (Garnes like)
racing and hunting make man's mind run mad. Goods that are hard to
obtain impede man's right conduct.
Therefore the 'sacred man' concentrates on the belly (i.e., endeavors
to develop his inner core of existence) and does not care for the eye
(i.e., does not follow the dicta tes of his senses). Thus he abandons the
latter and chooses the former. 14
We have already seen above how, in the view of Lao-tzii and
Chuang-tzii, Reason obstructs the free activity of Nature. Reason in
its lowest form is the 'sound' or 'normal' common sense. The mode
of living of the common people goes against the natural course of
things because they are at the mercy of Reason and common sense.
Boundless desire and the argumentative Reason constitute the
.. .
i
The Perfect Man 447
core of the 'ego'. And the 'ego', once formed goes on growing ever
stronger until it dominates the whole existence of a man; all his
actions are dictated by it, and ail his feelings, emotions, and thinking
are subjugated toits supreme command. This is why it is extremely
difficult for an ordinary man to 'nullify his own self' .15
Reason makes man 'stiff' and 'inflexible'. Desire induces him
forcibly to fight against the naturally given conditions and to
'intend' to obtain the objects of desire. This is the exact opposite of
the Taoist ideal of conforming to the natural course of things,
without reasoning and without desiring anything, and thus becom-
ing completely unified with Nature. Lao-tzii finds in the 'infant' an
apt symbol for his ideal.
He who possesses within himself the plenitude of Virtue may be
compared to an infant.
Poisonous insects dare not sting it. Ferocious animais dare not
pounce upon it. Birds of prey dare not strike it.
Its bones are frail and its sinews tender, yet its grip is firm. It does not
know yet of the union of male and female, yet the whole body is full of
energy .16 This is because its vitality is at its height.
It howls and cries all day long, yet does not become hoarse. This is
because the natural harmony in it is at its height.
To know the natural harmony is to be (one with) the eternal Reality
(ch'ang). And to know the eternal Reality is to be illumined (ming). 11
Thus the infant is 'naturally' at the stage of Illumination, because it
is 'naturally' one with the Way. And the 'weakness' or 'softness' of
the infant is a living image of the creative activity of the Way, which
is eternally supple, soft and lissom. It is a symbol of real Life.
Man, at his birth, is tender and weak, but, when dead, he is hard and
Stiff.
The ten thousand things, grass and trees, are tender and fragile while
alive, but once dead, they are dry and stiff.
Thus the hard and stiff are companions of Death, while the tender
and weak are companions of Life.
Thus an army which is too powerful is liable to lose the battle, and a
tree that is too rigid is breakable.
The powerful and mighty end by being cast down, whereas the soft
and weak end by occupying higher places. 18
The following passage is remarkable in that it gathers together the
majority of Lao-tzii's favorite symbols for 'ftexibility', 'softness',
'being low', 'being simple', in short, the virtue of Negativity.
He who knows the 'male', yet keeps to the rôle of the 'female', will
become the 'ravine' of the whole world.
And once he has become the 'ravine' of the whole world, then the
eternal Virtue will never desert him. And he will again return to the
state of 'infancy'.
i
448 Sufism and Taoism
He who knows the 'white', yet keeps to the rôle of the 'black', will
become the model for all under Heaven.
And once he has become the model for all under Heaven, then the
eternal Virtue will never fail him. And he will again return to the Limitless.
He who knows the 'glorious', yet keeps to the rôle of the 'ignoble' will
become the 'valley' of all under Heaven.
And once he has become the 'valley' of all under Heaven, then the
eternal Virtue will be complete. And he will again return to the state
of 'uncarved wood'.
'Uncarved wood' (in its 'simplicity' contains potentially all kinds of
vessels); when it is eut out, it becomes various vessels. Likewise, the
'sacred man', by using it (i.e., the virtue of 'uncarved wood'),
becomes the Lord over all officiais. The greatest carving is
non-carving.
The highest key term in the particular semantic field of Negativity is
the wu wei, Non-Doing, which we have met several times in the
foregoing. As we have noticed, the most basic meaning of Non-
Doing is the negation of all 'intention', all artificial (or 'unnatural')
effort on the part of man. And the Perfect Man is able to maintain
this principle constantly and consistently because he has no 'ego',
because he has 'nullified himself'. But the 'nullification' of the 'ego'
as the subject of all desires and all intentional actions implies at the
same time the establishment of a new Ego - the Cosmic Ego - which
is completely at one with the Way in its creative activity.
Heaven is long lasting and Earth is long enduring. The reason why
Heaven and Earth are long lasting and long enduring is that they do
not strive to go on living. Therefore they are able to be everlasting.
In accordance with this, the 'sacred man' puts himself in the rear, and
(precisely because he puts himself in the rear) he cornes (naturally) to
the fore. He remains outside, and because of that he is always there.
Is it not because he possesses no 'self' (i.e., the small ego) that he can
thus establish his Self? 20
Thus the Perfect Man is in every respect a Perfect image of Heaven
and Earth, i.e., the Way as it manifests itself as the world of Being.
The Perfect Man exists by the very same principle by which Heaven
and Earth exist. And that principle common both to the Perf ect
Man and the activity of the Way is the principle of Non-Doing or
'being-so of-itself'. The conscious effort on the part of man to live
or to procure his purpose violates this supreme principle and ends
by bringing about a result which is just the contrary of what he intended to achieve. ·
He who stands on tiptoe cannot stand firm.
He who strides cannot walk far.
He who displays himself does not shine.
The Perfect Man 449
He who considers himself right cannot be illustrious.
He who praises himself cannot achieve real success.
He who places too great confidence in himself cannot endure.
From the point of view of the Way, such attitudes are to be called
'superfluous food and useless tumors'. They are detested by all.
Therefore, he who possesses (i.e., is unified with) the Way never
takes such an attitude. 21
Therefore, the 'sacred man' keeps to the principle of Non-Doing, and
practises the teaching of No-Words. 22
If one pursues knowledge, knowledge goes on increasing day by day.
If one pursues the Way, (what one obtains) goes on decreasing day by
day.
Decreasing, and ever more decreasing, one finally reaches the state
of Non-Doing. And when one practises Non-Doing, nothing is left
undone. Therefore even an empire is sure to be gained by practising
(the principle of) There-Is-Nothing-To-Do. If one adheres to (the
principle of) There-Is-Something-To-Do, one can never gain an
empire. 23
Without going out of the door, one can know everything under
Heaven.
Without peeping out of the window, one can see the working of
Heaven.
The further one goes out, the less one knows.
Therefore the 'sacred man' knows (everything) without going out.
He has a clear view of everything without looking. He accomplishes
everything without 'doing' .24
What 1 have translated here as the 'working of Heaven' is in the
original t'ien tao meaning literally the 'way of Heaven'. lt means the
natural activity of Heaven. And 'Heaven' here means the Way as it
manifests itself in the form of Nature, or the 'being-so of-itself' of
everything. Heaven, in this sense, is constantly active; it works
without a moment's intermission; it 'does' innumerable things. lts
'doing', however, is essentially different from the in ten tional 'doing'
of man. Heaven 'does' everything without the slightest intention on
its part to 'do' something. lts 'doing' consists in the ten thousand
things being or becoming what they are 'of themselves'. Heaven, in
other words, exemplifies in the most perfect form the principle of
Non-Doing.
Commenting upon Chuang-tzii's statement:
He who knows what Heaven does (i.e., the 'way of Heaven') ... is at
the highest limit (of human Wisdom). For he who knows what
Heaven does lives in accordance with (the same principle as)
Heaven, 25
Kuo Hsiang makes the following interesting and important remark:
\
450 Sufism and Taoism
'Heaven' in this passage means Nature ('being-so of-itself'). He who
'does doing' (i.e., does something with the intention or consciousness
of doing it) cannot 'do' anything (in the real sense of the word).
(Real) 'doing' is that the thing 'does itself' (i.e., it is done 'of itself',
according toits own nature). Likewise, he who 'does knowing' (i.e.,
tries to know something intentionally and consciously) cannot 'know'
anything (in the real sense of the word). (Real) 'knowing' consists in
(the thing) coming to 'be known of itself'. The thing 'becomes known
of itself', I say. So (real 'knowing' is, in truth), 'non-knowing'. It is
'non-knowing', I say. So the ultimate source of 'knowing' is 'non-
knowing'.
In the sa me way, 'doing' consists in the thing 'being do ne of itself'. So
(real 'doing', in truth,) is 'non-doing'. It is 'non-doing', I say. So the
ultimate source of 'doing', is 'non-doing'.
Thus,' non-doing' must be considered the principle of' doing'. Like-
wise, 'knowing' originates in 'non-knowing', so that 'non-knowing
must be considered the basis of' knowing'.
Therefore, the 'true man' leaves aside 'knowing', and thereby
'knows'. He 'does not do', and thereby 'does'. Everything cornes into
being 'of itself', (and that is the meaning of the 'doing' of the 'true
man'). He simply sits, oblivious of everything, and thereby obtains
everything.
Thus (with regard to the 'true man') the word 'knowing' loses its
applicability, and the term 'doing' disappears completely. 26
This is, indeed, an excellent explanation of the key term 'Non-
Doing' as understood by Lao-tzii and Chuang-tzii, so much so that it
makes ail further efforts to clarify the concept superfluous.
There is, however, one more thing which must be mentioned here
not in order to clarify the concept of Non-Doing, but rather in order
to clarify a peculiarity of Lao-tzii's way of thinking. 1 have
repeatedly pointed out as something typical of Lao-tzii the 'sym-
bolic' way in which he develops his thinking. In the majority of
cases, particularly in dealing with problems which he considers of
crucial importance, he develops and elaborates his thought by
means of imagery. 'Water' is one of his favorite symbols. He uses it
in reference to the supreme power of Non-Doing. The empirical
observation of the activity of water provides at once conclusive
evidence for his theory of Non-Doing and a picturesque presenta-
tion of the way in which Non-Doing produces its effect.
The softest of ail things in the world (i.e., water) dominates over the
hardest of ail things in the world (like stones and rocks). Having no
definite form of its own, it penetrates even into that which has no
crevices.
By this I realize the value of Non-Doing.
However, the teaching through No-Words (i.e., the word-less teach-
ing given by the Perfect Man, himself remaining silent but his per-
The Perfect Man 451 sonal influence affecting 'naturally' ail about him) and the effect of Non-Doing - few in the whole world can understand them. 27 In this passage no explicit mention is made of water. But that Lao-tzii means water by 'the softest of ail things' is made clear by the following passage. There is under Heaven nothing softer and weaker than water. And yet in attacking things hard and strong, nothing can surpass it. For there is nothing that can destroy it. 28 The weak overcomes the strong, and the soft overcomes the hard. This everybody in the world knows, yet no one is able to put this (knowledge) into practice. 29 The 'positive passivity' or the 'powerful weakness' of water is for Lao-tzii one of the most appropria te images of the Way and, there- fore, of the Perfect Man. The highest goodness is like water. Water benefits the ten thousand things, yet it never contends with anything. It stays in (low) places loathed by ail men. But precisely because of this, it is closest to the Way (and the 'sacred man').30 'Never-contending-with-anybody' which is suggested by the nature of water is another highest principle that governs the conduct of the Perfect Man. An excellent warrior does not use violence. An excellent fighter does not lose himself in anger. He who excels in defeating does not treat his enemy as an enemy. He who excels in employing men humbles himself before them. This I would call the Virtue of 'non-contending'. This may also be called making the best use of the ability of others. And such a man may rightly be regarded as being in perfect con- formity with the Supreme Principle of Heaven. 31 The 'sacred man' ... never contends with anybody. This is why nobody under Heaven contends with him.32 Thus the Perfect Man does not contend with anybody or anything. Like a good fighter he does not allow himself to be roused and excited. In this respect, he may be said to lack ordinary human emotions and feeling. In fact, he is nota 'man', if one understands by this word an ordinary human being. He is, in reality, an infinitely large cosmic being. Concerning this problem Chuang-tzii bas left an interesting record of a discussion between himself and the Dialecti- cian Hui-tzii to whom reference was made earlier. We do not know for sure whether the dialogue is fictitious or real. But, whether fictitious or real, it is a valuable document for us in that it elucidates one important aspect of the connotation of the Perfect Man.
452 Sufism and Taoism
The discussion starts when Chuang-tzii makes the following
statement:
The 'sacred man' has the physical form of a man, but no emotion of a
man. Since he has the form of a man, he lives among other human
beings as one of them. But since 'he has no emotion of a man, 'right'
and 'wrong' (or likes and dislikes) cannot have access to him.
Ah how insignificant and small he is, in so far as he belongs to
common humanity! But infinitely great is he, in so far as he stands
unique (in the world) in perfecting Heaven in himself! 33
Against this statement, Hui-tzii raises a serious question. And the
question provokes a theoretic discussion over the theme between
Chuang-tzii and Hui-tzii.
Hui-tzü:
Chuang-tzü:
Hui-tzü:
Chuang-tzü:
Hui-tzü:
Chuang-tzü:
Hui-tzü:
Chuang-tzü:
Is it at all possible that a man should be without
emotions?
Yes, it is.
But if a man Jacks emotions, how could he be called a
'man'?
The Way has given him human features. And Heaven
has given him a bodily form. How, then, should we
not call him a 'man'?
But since you call him a 'man', it is inconceivable that
he should be without emotions.
What you mean by 'emotions' is different from wha t 1
mean by the same word. When 1 say 'he is without
emotions', 1 mean that the man does not let his inner
self be hurt (i.e., perturbed) by likes and dislikes, and
that he conforms to the 'being-so of-itself' of every-
thing, never trying to increase his vital energy.
If he does not try to increase his vital energy (i.e., by
eating nutritious food, clothing himself, etc.),34 how
could he preserve his body alive?
The Way has given him human features. And Heaven
has given him a bodily form. (And as a result, he has
corne into existence as a 'man'.) This being the case,
all he has to do is not to let his inner self be hurt by
likes and dislikes. (This is what 1 mean by 'not trying
to increase life' .)
You 'externalize' your spirit (i.e., you constantly send
out your spirit toward the external objects in the
world) and wear out your mental energy, sometimes
leaning against a tree, moaning, and sometimes lean-
ing on your desk with your eyes closed.
Heaven itself has selected for you a bodily form. But
you (instead of conforming to the Will of Heaven,
waste your time in) making a fuss about '(a stone)
being hard and white' .35
The Perfect Man 453
Thus it is clear that 'the Perfect Man having no emotions' means
nothing other than his being absolutely unperturbed whatever may
happen to him and whatever may occur before his eyes. And there is
a deep metaphysical reason for this. He can maintain this fonda-
mental attitude under all conditions because he is 'one' with all
things which are themselves ultimately 'one'. Since, as we saw
earlier, all things are metaphysically 'one', the attitude of the Per-
fect Man toward them cannot also but be 'one'.
The concept of the Perfect Man' having no cmotions' is, in this way,
ultimately reducible to the more fondamental idea which is by now
folly familiar tous; namely, that the Perfect Man has no 'ego' of his
own. Having no 'ego' of his own, he makes no distinction between
things. He is, in other terms, constantly 'one'. And his being person-
ally 'one' - which is precisely what is meant by the expression:
'having no emotions' -is based on the objective fact that Reality is
'one'. This, however, does not necessarily mean that the Perfect
Man does not know in any sense the distinction between the
infini tel y variegated things of the phenomenal world. Rather, his
'making no distinction between the things' means only that, being
folly conscious of ail these things as different things, he is possessed
of a spiritual eye with which he intuits behind the kaleidoscope of
the changing forms the metaphysical 'One', of which they are but
various manifestations. And when he looks at these seemingly
different things from such a particular point of view, they disclose
themselves to his eyes as so many repetitions of one and the same
thing 'piled up one upon the other', all being equally 'good'.
(The true man') is 'one', whether he (seemingly) likes something or
dislikes something. He is also 'one', whether he regards all things as
being 'one' or as not being 'one'.
Wh en he takes the position of ( everything being) 'one' he is acting as
a companion of Heaven; (i.e., he is taking the position of Heavenly
Equalization).36 When he takes the position of (all things) not being
'one', he is acting as a companion of Man; (i.e., he is looking at the
phenomenal world of Multiplicity as it appears to the human eye).
Thus in him Heaven and Man do not defeat each other (i.e., he unîtes
in himself harmoniously and without contradiction both the 'abso-
lute' viewpoint of Heaven and the 'relative' viewpoint of Man).
Such indeed is the nature of the 'true man' .37
'Being without emotions' should not be taken to mean that the
Perfect Man does not actually experience anger, delight, sadness,
gladness. He does experience all these and other human emotions.
The only difference between him and ordinary people in this matter
consists in the fact that in the case of the former, there always
remains something unperturbed and unperturbable at the innermost
454 Sufism and Taoism
core of his heart, even while he is experiencing strong emo-
tions, something which is not affected by them, which is not touched
by them. The emotions corne and go in his inner world as naturally
as the four seasons of the year corne and go in the outer world.
His mind is content with being in whatever situation it happens to
be.38 His outward appearance is still and cairn. His forehead is broad
and looks carefree.
Sometimes he is coldly relentless like autumn; sometimes he is
warmly amiable like spring. Joy and anger corne and go as naturally
as the four seasons do in Nature. Keeping perfect harmony with ail
things (which endlessly go on being 'transmuted' one into another)
he does not know any limit. 39
Such being his basic spiritual state, the Perfect Man perceives in the
whole world nothing to disturb his cosmic balance of mind, although
he does notice accurately all things that happen to him and to
others. He does participate in the activities of the world together
with all other men, yet at the same time, at the very core of his heart,
he remains detached from the clamor and bustle of the world.
Calmness and tranquillity are the most salient features that charac-
terize both the inside and outside of the Perfect Man.
Attaining to the utmost limit of (inner) 'emptiness', 1 firmly maintain
myself in Stillness.40
(The 'sacred man'), by being limpid and serene, becomes the norm of
ail under Heaven.41
Chuang-tzu, as usual, is less laconic in describing the virtues of
'calmness' and 'tranquillity':
Of ail level things, the most perfect is the surface of water at rest.
Because of this (perfect levelness), it can be used as a standard in
levelling. And (the perfect levelness of still water) is due to the fact
that (water at rest) maintains in its inside (profound calmness) and
shows no agitation outside.
Likewise, Virtue is a (spiritual) state which is attained when a man has
perfected the calmness (of the mind). (In such a case) Virtue does not
corne out in a visible form, (i.e., since the inside of such a man is
perfectly cairn, no agitation cornes out to the surface). But things, on
their part, (are spontaneously attracted by his invisible Virtue and)
cannot separate themselves therefrom.42
Notes
1. pao i, fi!!-.
2. Tao Tê Ching, XXII.
The Perfect Man
3. ibid., X.
4. rtUH!lJ.
5. ïJU.
6 .•.
455
7. Li Chi, Chiao Tê Shêng ( fl'Uê 1 lïJU•'1lf 7(, MIJll!,Al=ft!U Concerning the
p'o we find in the Tso Ch'uan ( "!i:ft, the following statement: 'When a man
is born, (we see) in his first bodily function what is called the p'o'.
8. ril1t(Jllffiïlllüf5, This interpretation of the word ying ( is cor-
roborated by another verse in the same poem, in which the shaman-poet describes
the instability and fretfulness of his soul-this time the word hun is used instead ofp'o
- which keeps him awake ail through the night:
9. Chuang-tzü, IV, p. 226.
10. ibid., IV, 229.
11. The expression: 'they breathed with their heels' indicates the incomparable
depth and tranquillity of their respiration. The vital energy contained in the inhaled
air is made to circulate ail through the body, in such a way that one is left with the
impression that the breathing naturally welled up from the heels.
12. op. cit., VI, p. 228.
13. Tao Tê Ching, III.
14. Tao Tê Ching, XII.
15. ibid., XIII.
16. 1 Yü Yüeh <•• VIII) thinks that the word is a mistake for
meaning 'hidden place', i.e., the genitals. The sentence would then mean: 'yet its
male member is full of force'. In some other editions we find - and Mt used instead of
17. op.cit.,LV.
18. ibid., LXXVI.
19. ibid., XXVIII.
20. ibid., VII.
21. ibid., XXIV.
22. ibid., Il.
23. ibid., XLVIII.
24. ibid., XLVII.
1111
1
456 Sufism and Taoism
25. Chuang-tzu, VI, p. 224.
26. 1-7(* ffiîmÊJAlt..A:m*1'tl€:m, îffi:m§:mit. It•
1':m&, /f.&.
t& tJ/fAA±· t&tJ/f:mA*' /fAîfiïA. ÊI
t&:m Mfê, p. 224.
27. Tao Tê Ching, XLIII.
28. r Jb:ZJ The character J1, here stands meaning 'conquering the barbarians'.
The idea evidently is that even the sharpest sword cannot eut water and 'kill' it.
29. op. cit., LXXVIII.
30. ibid., VIII.
31. ibid., LXVIII.
32. ibid., XXII.
33. Chuang-tzu, V, p. 217.
34. Here again, Hui-tzu misunderstands what Chuang-tzu means by 'not trying to
increase lif e'.
35. op. cit., V, pp. 220-222. 'A stone being bard and white' is a reference to the
famous sophistic thesis that a 'bard and white stone' is really two things, not one,
because 'bard' and 'white' are two entirely different attributes; see above, Chapter
IV. Note 18.
36. See above, Chapter VI, Note 17.
37. ibid., VI, pp. 234-235.
38. r;tt.c.,,ii\;-:J The last word ,1;: is explained by Kuo Hsiang as 'being contented with
whatever place it happens to be in' (lffl-.@îfiïîè. Aiif.J ). See Shuo Wên: r;t,
ùZ.ffl-2.itl.J. There are many scholars who think that it is a mistake for;€; (See, for
example, Hsüan Ying liif., f:('f;B, ), meaning 'forgetful' or
'oblivious' (of the essential distinctions between the ten thousand things).
39. op. cit., VI, pp. 230-231.
40. Tao Tê Ching, XVI.
41. ibid., XLV.
42. Chuang-tzu, V, pp. 214-215.
