KEY FIGURES IN THE HISTORY OF ISLAM
Abbas I, Shah (1588-1629): presided over the zenith of the Safavid Empire in Iran, building a magnificent court at Isfahan and import- ing Shii ulama from abroad to instruct Iranians in Twelver Ortho- doxy.
Abd al-Malik: Umayyad caliph (685-705) who restored Umayyad power after a period of civil war; the Dome of the Rock was com- pleted under his auspices in 691.
Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad ibn (1703-92): a Sunni reformer who tried to effect a radical return to the fundamentals of Islam. Wah- habism is the form of Islam practised today in Saudi Arabia.
Abdu, Muhammad (1849-1905): an Egyptian reformer who sought to modernize Islamic institutions to enable Muslims to make sense of the new Western ideals and reunify the country.
Abdulfazl Allami (1551-1602): Sufi historian and biographer of the Moghul emperor Akbar.
Abdulhamid: Ottoman sultan (1839-61) who issued the Giilhane de- crees which modified absolute rule and made the government de- pendent upon a contractual agreement with Ottoman subjects.
Abu Bakr: one of the first converts to Islam; a close friend of the Prophet Muhammad, he became the first caliph (632-34) after Muhammad's death.
Abu al-Hakam (also known in the Quran as Abu Jahl, Father of Lies): he led the opposition against Muhammad in Mecca.
Abu Hanifah (699-767): a pioneer of ftqh and the founder of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence.
Abu al-Qasim Muhammad: also known as the Hidden Imam. He was the Twelfth Imam of the Shiah, who was said to have gone into hid- ing in 874 to save his life; in 934 his "Occultation" was declared: God, it was said, had miraculously concealed the imam and he could make no further direct contact with Shiis. Shortly before the Last Judgement, he would return as the Mahdi to inaugurate a golden age of justice and peace, having destroyed the enemies of God.
Abu Sufyan: led the opposition against the Prophet Muhammad after the death of Abu al-Hakam (q.v.), but eventually, when he realized that Muhammad was invincible, converted to Islam. He belonged to the Umayyad family in Mecca, and his son Muawiyyah (q.v.) became the first Umayyad caliph.
Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-833): hadith collector, legist and leading figure of the ahl al-hadith. His spirit is enshrined in the Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence.
Ahmad ibn Idris (1780-1836): the Neo-Sufi reformer, active in Mo- rocco, North Africa and the Yemen, who bypassed the ulama and tried to bring a more vibrant form of Islam directly to the people.
Ahmad Khan, Sir Sayyid (1817-98): an Indian reformer who tried to adapt Islam to modern Western liberalism, and who urged Indians to collaborate with the Europeans and accept their institutions.
Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1625): Sufi reformer who opposed the pluralism of the Moghul emperor Akbar (q.v.).
Aisha: the favourite wife of the Prophet Muhammad, who died in her arms. She was the daughter of Abu Bakr (q.v.) and led the Medinan opposition to Ali ibn Abi Talib (q.v.) during the first fitnah.
Akbar: Moghul emperor of India (1560-1605). He established a toler- ant policy of cooperation with the Hindu population, and his reign saw the zenith of Moghul power.
Ali ibn Abi Talib: the cousin, ward and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad and his closest surviving male relative. He became the fourth caliph in 656, but was murdered by a Kharajite extremist in 661. Shiis believe that he should have succeeded the Prophet Muhammad, and they revere him as the First Imam of the Islamic community. His shrine is at Najaf in Iraq, and is a major place of Shii pilgrimage.
Ali al-Hadi: the Tenth Shii Imam. In 848 he was summoned to Samarra by Caliph al-Mutawakkil and placed under house arrest there. He died in the Askari fortress in 868.
Key Figures in the History of Islam . 195
All al-Rida: the Eighth Shii Imam. Caliph al-Mamun appointed him as his successor in 818 in an attempt to court the malcontent Shiis in his empire, but it was an unpopular move, and al-Rida died— possibly murdered - the following year.
Ali Zayn al-Abidin (d. 714): the Fourth Shii Imam, a mystic, who lived in retirement in Medina and took no active role in politics.
Aqa Muhammad Khan (d. 1797): the founder of the Qajar dynasty in Iran.
Aurengzebe: Moghul emperor (1658-1 707) who reversed the tolerant policies of Akbar, and inspired Hindu and Sikh rebellions.
Baibars, Rukn ad-Din (d. 1277): Mamluk sultan who defeated the Mongol hordes at Ain Jalut in northern Palestine, and eliminated most of the last Crusader strongholds on the Syrian coast.
Banna, Hasan al- (1906-49): an Egyptian reformer and founder of the Society of Muslim Brothers. He was assassinated by the secularist government of Egypt in 1949.
Bhutto, Zulfaqir Ali: prime minister of Pakistan (1971-77) who made concessions to the Islamists but was overthrown by the more devout Zia ul-Haqq.
Bistami, Abu Yazid al- (d. 874): one of the earliest of the "drunken Sufis," who preached the doctrine of fanah (annihilation) in God, and discovered the divine in the deepest recesses of his being after prolonged mystical exercises.
Bukhari, al- (d. 870): the author of an authoritative collection of ahadith.
Chelebi, Abu al-Sund Khola (1490-1574): worked out the legal prin- ciples of the Ottoman Shariah state.
Farabi, Abu Nasr al- (d. 950): the most rationalistic of all the Faylasufs, who was also a practising Sufi and who worked as the court musician in the Hamdanid court in Aleppo.
Ghannouchi, Rashid al- (1941-): Tunisian leader of the exiled Renais- sance Party, who describes himself as a "democratic Islamist."
Ghazzali, Abu Hamid Muhammad (d. 11 11): the Baghdad theologian who gave definitive expression to Sunni Islam, and brought Sufism into the mainstream of piety.
Hagar: in the Bible, she is the wife of Abraham and the mother of Abraham's son Ishmael (in Arabic Ismail, q.v.), who became the fa- ther of the Arab peoples. Hence Hagar is revered as one of the ma- triarchs of Islam and remembered with especial reverence in the ceremonies of the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca.
Haqq, Zia ul-: prime minister of Pakistan (1971-77) who pursued a more avowedly Islamic government, which still separated religion from political and economic policy.
Hasan ibn Ali (d. 669): the son of Ali ibn Abi Talib (q.v.) and the grand- son of the Prophet Muhammad. He is revered by Shiis as the Second Shii Imam. After the murder of his father, Shiis acclaimed him as caliph, but Hasan agreed to retire from politics and lived a quiet and somewhat luxurious life in Medina.
Hasan al-Ashari (d. 935): the philosopher who reconciled the Mutazi- lah and the ahl al-hadith; his atomistic philosophy became one of the chief expressions of the spirituality of Sunni Islam.
Hasan al-Askari (d. 874): the Eleventh Shii Imam, who lived and died in the Askari fortress in Samarra, as the prisoner of the Abbasid caliphs. Like most of the imams, he is believed to have been poisoned by the Abbasid authorities.
Hasan al-Basri (d. 728): preacher in Basrah and leader of a religious re- form; he was an outspoken critic of the Umayyad caliphs.
Hidden Imam: see Abu al-Qasim Muhammad.
Husain ibn Ali: the second son of Ali ibn Abi Talib (q.v.) and the grand- son of the Prophet Muhammad. He is revered by Shiis as the Third Imam and his death at the hands of Caliph Yazid (q.v.) is mourned annually during the month of Muharram.
Ibn al-Arabi, Muid ad-Din (d. 1240): a Spanish mystic and philoso- pher, who travelled extensively in the Muslim empire. A prolific and highly influential writer, he preached a unitive and pluralistic theo- logical vision, in which spirituality is fused indissolubly with his phi- losophy.
Ibn Hazam (994-1064): a Spanish poet and religious thinker of the court of Cordova.
Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad (d. 767): author of the first major biography of the Prophet Muhammad, which is based on carefully sifted hadith reports.
Ibn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman (1 332-1406): author of al-Maqaddimah (An Introduction to History). A Faylasuf, he applied the principles of philosophy to the study of history and sought the universal laws op- erating behind the flux of events.
Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Walid Ahmad (1126-98): a Faylasuf and Qadi of Cordova, Spain, known in the West as Averroes, where his rationalis- tic philosophy was more influential than it was in the Muslim world.
Ibn Sina, Abu Ali (980-1037): known in the West as Avicenna, he rep- resents the apogee of Falsafah, which he linked to religious and mys- tical experience.
Ibn Taymiyyah (1263-1 328): a reformer who tried to counter the influ- ence of Sufism and to return to the fundamental principles of the Quran and the sunnah. He died in prison in Damascus.
Ibn al-Zubayr, Abdallah (d. 692): one of the chief opponents of the Umayyads during the second fitnah.
Iqbal, Muhammad (1876-1938): Indian poet and philosopher who em- phasized the rationality of Islam to prove that it was quite compati- ble with Western modernity.
Ismail: the prophet who is known as Ishmael in the Bible, the eldest son of Abraham, who was cast out into the wilderness at God's command with his mother, Hagar, but saved by God. Muslim tradition has it that Hagar and Ismail lived in Mecca, that Abraham came to visit them there and that Abraham and Ismail rebuilt the Kabah (which had been originally constructed by Adam, the first prophet and fa- ther of mankind).
Ismail ibn Jafar: he was appointed the Seventh Imam of the Shiah by his father Jafar as-Sadiq (q.v.). Some Shiis (known as Ismailis or Sev- eners) believe that he was the last of the direct descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib (q.v.) to succeed to the imamate, and do not recognize the imamate of Musa al-Kazim, the younger son of Jafar as-Sadiq, who is revered by Twelver Shiis as the Seventh Imam.
Ismail Pasha: he became the governor of Egypt (1863-79) and was given the title Khedive (great prince). His ambitious modernizing programme bankrupted the country and led ultimately to the British occupation of Egypt.
Ismail, Shah (1487-1524): the first Safavid shah of Iran, who imposed Twelver Shiism on the country.
Jafar as-Sadiq (d. 765): the Sixth Shii Imam, who developed the doc- trine of the imamate and urged his followers to withdraw from pol- itics and concentrate on the mystical contemplation of the Quran.
Jamal al-Din, "al-Afghani" (1839-97): an Iranian reformer who urged Muslims of all persuasions to band together and modernize Islam to avoid the political and cultural hegemony of Europe.
Jinnah, Muhammad Ali (1876-1948): the leader of the Muslim League in India at the time of the partition of the country, who is therefore hailed as the architect of Pakistan.
Junaid of Baghdad (d. 910): the first of the "sober Sufis" who insisted that the experience of God lay in enhanced self-possession and that the wild exuberance of the "drunken Sufis" was merely a stage that the true mystic should transcend.
Khadija: the first wife of the Prophet Muhammad and the mother of all his surviving children. She was also the first convert to Islam and died before the hjrah during the persecution of the Muslims by the Quraysh in Mecca (616—19), possibly as a result of the privations she suffered.
Khan, Muhammad Ayub: prime minister of Pakistan (1958-69), who followed a strongly secularizing policy, which led eventually to his downfall.
Khatami, Hojjat 01-Islam Seyyid: president of Iran (1997-). He wants to see a more liberal interpretation of Islamic law in Iran and to fos- ter relations with the West.
Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah (1902-89): the spiritual mentor of the Islamic revolution against the Pahlavi regime, and the Supreme Faqih of Iran (1979-89).
Kindi, Yaqub ibn Ishaq al- (d. 870): the first major Faylasuf, who worked alongside the Mutazilah in Baghdad but also sought wisdom from Greek sages.
Kirmani, Aqa Khan (1853-96): an Iranian secularist reformer.
Mahdi, Caliph al-: Abbasid caliph (775-85) who recognized the piety of the more religious Muslims, encouraged the study of fiqh and helped the religious to come to terms with his regime.
Mahmud II: Ottoman sultan (1808-39) who introduced the moderniz- ing Tanzimat reforms.
Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir (d. 1700): an alim who showed the less at- tractive form of Twelver Shiism after it had become the establish- ment faith in Iran, vigorously suppressing the teaching of Falsafah and persecuting the Sufis.
Malcolm X (1925—65): the charismatic leader of the black separatist group Nation of Islam, who achieved a high profile in the United States during the Civil Rights movement. In 1963 he seceded from the heterodox Nation of Islam and took his followers into main- stream Sunni Islam; as a result, he was assassinated two years later.
Malik ibn Anas (d. 795): the founder of the Maliki school of Islamic ju- risprudence.
Mamun, Caliph al-: Abbasid caliph (81 3-33) whose reign marked the beginning of the Abbasid decline.
Mansur, Caliph al-: Abbasid caliph (754—75). Strongly suppressed Shii dissidents and moved the capital of the empire to the new city of Baghdad.
Mansur, Husain al- (also known as al-Hallaj, the Wool Carder): one of the most famous of the "drunken Sufis," who is said in ecstasy to have cried "Ana al-haqq!" ("I am the Truth!") so convinced was he of his total union with God. He was executed for heresy in 922.
Mawdudi, Abul Ala (1903-79): a Pakistani fundamentalist ideologue, whose ideas have been very influential in the Sunni world.
Mehmed II: Ottoman sultan (1451-61) who is known as "the Con- queror" because he achieved the conquest of Byzantine Con- stantinople in 1453.
Mir Dimad (d. 1631): founder of the school of mystical philosophy at Isfahan and the teacher of Mulla Sadra (q.v.).
Muawiyyah ibn Abi Sufyan: the first of the Umayyad caliphs, who ruled from 661 to 680 and brought strong, effective government to the Muslim community after the turmoil of the first fitnah
Muddaris, Ayatollah Hasan (d. 1937): an Iranian cleric who attacked Reza Shah in the Majlis and was murdered by the regime.
Muhammad ibn Abdallah (c. 570-632): the prophet who brought the Quran to the Muslims and established the monotheistic faith and a single polity in Arabia.
Muhammad Ali, Pasha (1769-1849): an Albanian officer in the Ot- toman army who made Egypt virtually independent of Istanbul and who achieved a major modernization of the country.
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi (d. 1832): the Neo-Sufi reformer who founded the Sanusiyyah movement, which is still predominant in Libya.
Muhammad al-Baqir (d. 735): the Fifth Shii Imam. He lived in re- tirement in Medina and is said to have developed the esoteric method of reading the Quran which was characteristic of Twelver Shiism.
Muhammad, Khwarazmshah: ruler of a dynasty (1200-20) in Khwar- azm, who tried to establish a strong monarchy in Iran but incurred the wrath of the Mongols and brought about the first Mongol inva- sions.
Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah: the second Pahlavi shah of Iran (1944—79), whose aggressively modernizing and secularizing poli- cies led to the Islamic revolution.
Mulkum Khan, Mirza (1833-1908): Iranian secularist reformer.
Mulla Sadra (d. 1640): Shii mystical philosopher whose work was an in- spiration to intellectuals, revolutionaries and modernizers, espe- cially in Iran.
Murad I: Ottoman sultan (1 360-89) who defeated the Serbians at the Battle of Kosovo Field.
Muslim (d. 878): the collector of an authoritative anthology of hadith re- ports.
Mustafa Kemal also known as Atatiirk (1881-1938): the founder of modern, secular Turkey.
Mutawakkil, Caliph al-: Abbasid caliph (847-61) who was respon- sible for imprisoning the Shii imams in the Askari fortress in Samarra.
Nadir Khan (d. 1748): temporarily revived the military power of Shii Iran after the fall of the Safavid dynasty.
Naini, Sheikh Muhammad Husain (1850-1936): an Iranian mujtahid whose treatise Admonition to the Nation gave a strong Shii endorse- ment to the notion of constitutional rule.
Nasir, Caliph al-: one of the last of the Abbasid caliphs, who tried to use Islamic institutions to strengthen his rule in Baghdad.
Nasser, Jamal Abd al-: president of Egypt (1952-70), leading a mili- tantly nationalistic, secularist and socialist government.
Nizalmulmulk: the brilliant Persian vizier who ruled the Seljuk Empire from 1063 to 1092.
Qutb, Sayyid (1906-66): a Muslim Brother, executed by al-Nasser's regime; his ideology is crucial to all Sunni fundamentalism.
Rashid, Caliph Harun al-: Abbasid caliph (786-809) whose reign coin- cided with the zenith of caliphal absolute power, and who presided over a magnificent cultural florescence.
Reza Khan: shah of Iran (1921-41) and the founder of the Pahlavi dynasty. His government was aggressively secularist and nation- alist.
Rida, Muhammad Rashid (1865-1935): journalist who founded the Salafiyyah movement in Cairo and was the first to advocate a fully modernized Islamic state.
Rumi,Jalal al-Din (1207-75): a highly influential Sufi leader who had a large popular following and founded the Mawlani Order, often known as the Whirling Dervishes.
Salah ad-Din, Yusuf ibn Ayyub (d. 1193): the Kurdish general who be- came the sultan of an extensive empire in Syria and Egypt, returned
Egypt to Sunni Islam after defeating the Fatimid caliphate, and ejected the Crusaders from Jerusalem. Salah ad-Din (known as Sal- adin in the West) was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty.
Selim I: Ottoman sultan (1512-20) who conquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt from the Mamluks.
Selim III: Ottoman sultan (1 789-1807) who attempted a Westernizing reform of the empire.
Shafii, Muhammad Idris al- (d. 820): revolutionized the study of fiqh by laying down the principles {usul) of Islamic law; founder of the Shafii school of jurisprudence.
Shah Jihan: Moghul emperor (1627-58) whose reign saw the height of Moghul refinement and sophistication; he commissioned the Taj Mahal.
Shah Valli-Ullah (1703-62): a Sufi reformer in India who was one of the first Muslim thinkers to see the threat that Western modernity posed to Islam.
Sinan Pasha (d. 1578): architect of the Suleymaniye mosque in Istanbul and the Selimye mosque in Edirne.
Sorush, Abdolkarim (1945-): leading Iranian intellectual who advo- cates a more liberal interpretation of Shiism, while still rejecting Western secularism.
Suhrawardi, Yahya (d. 1191): Sufi philosopher, founder of the school of illumination (ishraq) based on pre-Islamic Iranian mysticism. He was executed for his allegedly heterodox beliefs by the Ayyubid regime in Aleppo.
Suleiman I: Ottoman sultan (1520-66), known as al-Qanuni, the Law- giver, in the Islamic world, and the Magnificent in the West. He crafted the distinctive institutions of the empire, which reached the fullest extent of its power during his reign.
Tabari, Abu Jafar (d. 923): a scholar of Shariah and historian, who pro- duced a universal history, tracing the success and failure of the vari- ous communities who had been called to the worship of God, concentrating particularly on the Muslim ummah.
Tahtawi, Rifah al- (1801-73): an Egyptian dim who described his pas- sionate appreciation of European society in his published diary, was responsible for the translation of European books into Arabic and promoted the idea of modernization in Egypt.
Umar 11: an Umayyad caliph (717-20) who tried to rule according to the principles of the religious movement. He was the first caliph to
encourage positively the conversion of the subject people of the em- pire to Islam.
Umar ibn al-Khattab: one of the Prophet Muhammad's closest com- panions. He became the second caliph after the Prophet's death (634-44), and masterminded the first Arab wars of conquest and the building of the garrison towns. He was murdered by a Persian pris- oner of war.
Uthman ibn Affan: one of Muhammad's first converts and his son-in- law. He became the third caliph (644—56), but was a less able ruler than his predecessors. His policies opened him to the charge of nepotism and inspired a mutiny during which he was himself assas- sinated in Medina. His murder led to the first fitnah wars.
Walid I, Caliph al-: an Umayyad caliph (705-1 7) who ruled during the peak of Umayyad power and success.
Wasan ibn Ata (d. 748): founder of the Mutazilah school of rational theology.
Yasin, Sheikh Ahmad (1936-): the creator of Mujamah (Islamic Con- gress), a welfare organization, in Israeli-occupied Gaza. The terror- ist group HAMAS was an offshoot from this movement.
Yazid I: Umayyad caliph (680-83) who is chiefly remembered for the murder of Husain ibn Ali (q.v.) at Kerbala.
Zayd ibn Ali (d. 740): the brother of the Fifth Shii Imam; Zayd was a po- litical activist and the Fifth Imam may have developed his quietist philosophy in order to counter his claim to the leadership. There- after Shiis who engaged in political activism and eschewed the Twelvers' withdrawal from politics were sometimes known as Zay- dites.
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GLOSSARY OF ARABIC TERMS
Ahadith (singular, hadith): news, reports. Documented traditions of the teachings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad, which were not in the Quran but which were recorded for posterity by his close com- panions and the members of his family.
Ahl al-hadith: Hadith People. A school of thought which first appeared during the Umayyad period, which would not permit jurists to use ijtihad (q.v.) but insisted that all legislation be based upon valid aha- dith (q.v.).
Ahl al-kitab: People of the Book. The Quranic term for people, such as Jews or Christians, who adhered to the earlier scriptures. Since the Prophet and most of the early Muslims were illiterate, and had very few-if any-books, it has been suggested that this term should more accurately be translated: "followers of an earlier revelation."
Alam al-mithal: the world of pure images. A realm of the human psy- che which is the source of the visionary experience of Muslim mys- tics and the seat of the creative imagination.
Alim: see ulama. Amir: commander.
Ansar: the Medinese Muslims who became the "helpers" of the Prophet by giving the first Muslims a home when they were forced to leave Mecca in 622, and assisted them in the project of establish- ing the first Muslim community.
Batin: the "hidden" dimension of existence and of scripture, which can- not be perceived by the senses or by rational thought, but which is discerned in the contemplative, intuitive disciplines of mysticism.
Dar al-Islam: the House of Islam. Lands under Muslim rule.
Dhikr: the "remembrance" of God, especially by means of the chanting of the Names of God as a mantra to induce alternative states of con- sciousness. A Sufi devotion.
Dhimmi: a "protected subject" in the Islamic empire, who belonged to the religions tolerated by the Quran, the ahl al-kitab (q.v.). they in- cluded Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Buddhists and Sikhs. Dhimmiswere allowed full religious liberty and were able to organize their community according to their own customal law, but were re- quired to recognize Islamic sovereignty.
Faqih: a jurist; an expert in Islamic law.
Fatwah: a formal legal opinion or decision of a religious scholar on a matter of Islamic law.
Fiqh: Islamic jurisprudence. The study and application of the body of sacred Muslim law.
Fitnah: temptation, trial. Specifically, the term is used to describe the civil wars that rent the Muslim community apart during the time of the rashidun (q.v.) and the early Umayyad period.
Futuwwah: a corporate group of young urban men, formed after the twelfth century, with special ceremonies of initiation, rituals and sworn support to a leader that were strongly influenced by Sufi (q.v.) ideals and practices.
Ghazu: originally, the "raids" undertaken by Arabs in the pre-Islamic period for booty. Later a ghazi warrior was a fighter in a holy war for Islam; often the term was applied to organized bands of raiders on the frontiers of the Dar al-Islam (q.v.).
Ghulat (adjective, ghuluww): The extreme speculations. adopted by the early Shii Muslims (q-v.), which overstressed some aspects of doctrine.
Hadith: see ahadith.
Hajj: the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Hijrah: the "migration" of the Prophet Muhammad and the first Mus- lim community from Mecca to Medina in 622.
Ijmah: the "consensus" of the Muslim community that gives legitimacy to a legal decision.
Ijtihad: the "independent reasoning" used by a jurist to apply the Shariah (q.v.) to contemporary circumstances. During the four- teenth century Sunni Muslims (q.v.) declared that the "gates of ijti- had" were closed, and that scholars must rely on the legal decisions of past authorities instead of upon their own reasoned insights.
Glossay of Arabic Terms . 205
Ilm: a knowledge of what is right and how Muslims should behave.
Imam: the leader of the Muslim community; Shii Muslims (q.v.) use the term to denote the descendants of the Prophet, through his daughter Fatimah and her husband, Ali ibn Abi Talib, whom Shiis consider to be the true rulers of the Muslim community.
Irfan: the Muslim mystical tradition.
Islam: "surrender" to the will of God.
Jayiliyyah (adjective, jahili): the Age of Ignorance. Originally the term was used to describe the pre-Islamic period in Arabia. Today Mus- lim fundamentalists often apply it to any society, even a nominally Muslim society, which has, in their view, turned its back upon God and refused to submit to God's sovereignty.
Jihad: struggle, effort. This is the primary meaning of the term as used in the Quran, which refers to an internal effort to reform bad habits in the Islamic community or within the individual Muslim. The term is also used more specifically to denote a war waged in the ser- vice of religion.
Jizyah: the poll tax, which the dhimmis (q.v.) were required to pay in return for military protection.
Kabah: the cube-shaped shrine in the holy city of Mecca, which Muhammad dedicated to God and made the most sacred place in the Islamic world.
Kalam: a discussion, based on Islamic assumptions, of theological ques- tions. The term is often used to describe the tradition of Muslim scholastic theology.
Khanqah: a building where such Sufi (q.v.) activities as dhikr (q.v.) take place; where Sufi masters live and instruct their disciples.
Madhhab ("chosen way"): one of the four legitimate schools of Islamic jurisprudence.
Madrasah: a college of Muslim higher education, where ulama (q.v.)
study such disciplines as fiqh (q.v.) or kalam (q.v.).
Mawali (clients): the name given to the early non-Arab converts to Islam, who had to become nominal clients of one of the tribes when they became Muslims.
Mujtahid: a jurist who has earned the right to exercise ijtihad{(q.v), usu- ally in the Shii world.
Pir: a Sufi (q.v.) master, who can guide disciples along the mystical path.
Qadi: a judge who administers the Shariah (q.v.).
Qiblah: the "direction" which Muslims face during prayer. In the very
early days the qiblah was Jerusalem; later Muhammad changed it to Mecca.
Rashidun: the four "rightly guided" caliphs, who were the companions and the immediate successors of the Prophet Muhammad: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib.
Salat: the ritual prayers which Muslims make five times daily.
Shahadah: the Muslim declaration of faith, "I proclaim that there is no god but Allah, and that Muhammad is his Prophet."
Shariah: "the Path to the Watering Hole." The body of Islamic sacred laws derived from the Quran, the sunnah(q.v.) and the ahadith(q.v.). Shii Muslims: they belong to the Shiah i-Ali, the Partisans of Ali; they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet's closest male relative, should have ruled in place of the rashidun (q.v.), and revere a num- ber of imams (q.v.) who are the direct male descendants of Ali and
his wife Fatimah, the Prophet's daughter. Their difference from the Sunni majority is purely political.
Sufi; Sufism: the mystical tradition of Sunni Islam (q.v.).
Sunnah: custom. The habits and religious practice of the Prophet Muhammad, which were recorded for posterity by his companions and family and are regarded as the ideal Islamic norm. They have thus been enshrined in Islamic law, so that Muslims can approximate closely to the archetypal figure of the Prophet, in his perfect surren- der {islam) to God.
Sunni Islam: the term used to describe the Muslim majority, who revere the four rashidun (q.v.) and validate the existing political Islamic order.
Tariqah: one of the brotherhoods or orders who follow the Sufi (q.v.) "way" and have their own special dhikr (q.v.) and revered leaders.
Tawhid: making one. The divine unity, which Muslims seek to imitate in their personal and social lives by integrating their institutions and priorities, and by recognizing the overall sovereignty of God.
Ulama (singular, alim): learned men, the guardians of the legal and re- ligious traditions of Islam.
Ummah: the Muslim community.
Umrah: the ritual circumambulators around the Kabah (q-v.).
Zakat: purity. The term used for a tax of fixed proportion of income and capital (usually 2.5 percent), which must be paid by all Muslims each year to assist the poor.
PRONUNCIATION GUIDE
Ahadith: ah-ha-deeth
Ahl al-hadith: ah-lalha-deeth
Ahl al-kitab: ah-lal ki-tab
Alam al-mithal: aah-la-mal me-thal
Alim: aah-leem
Amir: ah-meer
Ansar: ahn-sahr
Batin: bah-tin
Dar al-Islam: dah-ral is-lahm
Dhikr: dhikr
Dhimmi: dhim-mee
Faqih: fa-qeeh
Fatwah: fet-ivah
Fiqh: fiq-eh
Fitnah: fit-nah
Futuwwah: fu-too-'wah
Ghazu: gha-zoo
Ghulat: ghoo-lat
Hadith: hah-deeth
Hajj: hadzh
Hijrah: hij-rah
Ijmah: ij-maah
208 . Pronunciation Guide
Ijtihad: ij-ti-had
Ilm: iihlm
Imam: i-mam
Irfan: iihr-fan
Islam: Is-lahm
Jahiliyyah: jah-hi-lee-yah
Jihad: ji-had
Jizyah: jiz-yah
Kabah: kaa-bah
Kalam: ka-lam
Khanqah: khahn-qah
Madhhab: madh-huh
Madrasah: mad-ra-sah
Mawali: ma-wa-lee
Mujtahid: moj-tah-hid
Qadi: qah-dee
Qiblah: qib-lah
Rashidun: rah-she-doon
Salat: sah-lat
Shahadah: shah-ha-dah
Shariah: Shah-reeh-aah
Tariqah: tah-ree-qah
Tawhid: taw -heed
Ulama: ooh-la-ma
Ummah: om-mah
Umrah: oohm-rah
Zakat: za-kat
====
NOTES
1 BEGINNINGS (pages 3 to 37)
1. Jalal al-Din Suyuti, al-ifqan fi ulum al aqram in Maxime Rodinson,
Mohammed (trans. Anne Carter, London, 1971), 74.
2. Muhammad ibn Ishaq, SimtRasul Allah (trans. and ed. A Guillaume,
The Life of Muhammad, London, 1955), 1 58.
3. Quran 25:3; 29:17; 4447; 69:44. Quotations from the Quran are all taken from Muhammad Asad (trans.), The Message of the Quran, Gibraltar, 1980.
4. Quran 80:11.
5. Quran 2:129—32; 61:6.
6. Quran 2:256.
7. Quran 29:46.
8. Quran I'i'A—l.
9. Quran 741-5, 8-10; 88:21-2.
10. Muhammad's concubine Mariam, who was a Christian and not one of his wives, bore him a son, Ibrahim, who, to the Prophet's immense sorrow, died in infancy.
11. Quran 33:28—9.
12. Quran 33:35.
13. Quran 43.
14. Genesis 16; 18:18—20.
15. D. Sidersky, Les Origines dans les legendes musulmanes dans le Coran et dans les vies desprophetes (Paris, 193 3).
16. Quran 2:129-32; 3:58-62; 2:39.
17. Quran 6:159,161-2.
210 . Notes
18. Quran 8:16-17.
19. Quran 2:194, 252; 5:65; 22:40-42.
2 DEVELOPMENT (pages 41 to 77)
1. Quran 49:12.
2. Quran 9:106-7.
3. Little is known about the early Shiah. We do not know for certain whether Ali's male descendants really were revered by a group of mystically inclined Shiis, or whether this history was projected back on to the early imams after the line had become extinct, and when "Twelver Shiism" received definitive form.
4. Quran 2:234; 8:2; 23:57-61.
5. The origins of "Sevener" or Ismaili Shiism are obscure. The story of the sect's fidelity to Imam Ismail may have developed after the theol- ogy of "Twelver Shiism" was finally formulated, to give justification for the Ismaili position. Seveners, who were usually politically active, may have originally been "Zaydis," i.e., Shiis who followed the exam- ple of Zayd ibn Ali, the brother of the Fifth Imam, and believed that Muslims had a duty to lead armed revolts against an unjust regime.
3 CULMINATION (pages 81 to 111)
1. The Ismaili dynasty in Cairo is often called the "Fatimid" dynasty, because, like the Twelvers, Ismailis venerated imams who were di- rect descendants of Ali and Fatimah, the Prophet's daughter.
2. Quran 2:109.
3. Al-Muqaddimah, quoted in Youssef M. Choueiri, Islamic Fundamental- ism (London, 1990), 18.
5 ISLAM AGONISTES (pages 141 to 187)
1. The theory of Velayat-i Faqih had been discussed by jurists before, but was little known and had always been considered eccentric and even heretical. Khomeini made it central to his political thought and later it became the basis of his rule in Iran.
2. Quran 2:178; 8:68; 24:34; 47:5.
3. Quran 48:1.
4. Joyce M. Davis, BetweenJihadand Salaam: Profiles in Islam (New York,
1997), 231.
===
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
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GUIALLAUME, A. (trans. and ed.), The Life of Muhammad A Translation of Ishaq's Skat Rasul Allah (London, 1955)
LINGS, Martin, Muhammad His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (London,
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NASR, Sayyid Hossein, Muhammad, the Man of Allah (London, 1982) RODINSON, Maxime, Mohammed (trans. Anne Carter, London, 1971) SARDAR, Ziauddin, and Zafar Abbas Malik, Muhammad for Beginners (Cambridge, 1994)
SCHIMMEL, Annemarie, And Muhammad Is His Messenger The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety (Chapel Hill and London, 1985)
WATT, W. Montgomery, Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford, 195 3)
, Muhammad at Medina (Oxford, 1956)
, Muhammad? Mecca: History in the Quran (Edinburgh, 1988) ZAKARIA, Rafiq, Muhammadand the Quran (London, 1991)
Islamic History
AHMED, Akbar, Living Islam, from Samarkand to Stornoway (London, 1993)
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ALGAR, Hamid, Religion and State in Iran, 1785-1906 (Berkeley, 1969) BAYAT, Margol, Mysticism and Dissent: Socioreligious Thought in Qajar Iran (Syracuse, NY, 1982)
ESPOSITO, John, Islam, the Straight Path (rev. ed., Oxford and New York, 1998)
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GABRIELI, Francesco, Arab Historians of the Crusades (trans. E. J. Costello, London, 1984)
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HOURANI, Albert, A History of the Arab Peoples (London, 1991)
HOURANI, Albert, with Philip S. Khoury and Mary C. Wilson (eds.), The Modern Middle East (London, 199 3)
KEDDIE, Nikki R (ed.), Scholars, Saints and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institu- tions in the Middle East since 1500 (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1972)
(ed.), Religion and Politics in Iran: Shiismfrom Quietism to Revolution
(New Haven and London, 1983)
LAPIDUS, Ira }A.,A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge, 1988) LEWIS, Bernard, The Arabs in History (London, 1950)
, Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople, 2 vols. (New York and London, 1976)
, Thefews of Islam (New York and London, 1982)
, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York and London, 1982)
, The Middle East 2000 Years of History from the Rise of Christianity to the Present Day (London, 1995)
MAALOUF, Amin, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes (London, 1984)
MOMEN, Moojan, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiism (New Haven and London, 1985)
MOTTAHEDEH, Roy, The Mantle of the Prophet Religion and Politics in Iran
(London, 1985)
NASR, Seyyid Hosain, Ideals and Realities of Islam (London, 1966)
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PETERS, Rudolph, Jihad in Classical and Medieval Islam (Princeton, 1996)
RA HMAN, Fazlur, Islam (Chicago, 1979)
Suggestions for Further Reading . 21 3
RUTHVEN, Malise, Islam in the World (London, 1984)
SAUNDERS, J. J., A History of Medieval Islam (London and Boston, 1965) SMITH, Wilfred Cantwell, Islam in Modern History (Princeton and Lon- don, 1957)
VON GRUNEBAUM, G. E., Classical Islam: A History 600-1258 (trans. Kather- ine Watson, London, 1970)
WALKER, Benjamin, Foundations ofIslam: The Making of a World Faith (Lon- don, 1998)
WA TT, W. Montgomery, Islam and the Integration of Society (London, 1961)
, The Majesty that Was Islam: The Islamic World 660-1100 (London
and New York, 1974)
WENSINCK, A. J., The Muslim Creed. Its Genesis and Historical Development
(Cambridge, 1932)
WHEAT C R OFT, Andrew, The Ottomans (London, 1993)
ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOG Y
AL-FARABI, Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle (trans. Muhsin Mahdi, Glen- coe, Ill., 1962)
CORBIN, Henri, Histoire de laphilosophie islamique (Paris, 1964)
FAKHRY, Majid, A History of Islamic Philosophy (New York and London, 1970)
LEAMAN, Oliver, An Introduction to Medieval Islamic Philosophy (Cambridge,
1985)
MCCARTHIE, Richard, The Theology of al-Ashari (Beirut, 195 3) MOREWEDGE, P ., The Metaphysics ofAvicenna (London, 1973)
(ed.), Islamic Philosophical Theology (New York, 1979) (ed.), Islamic Philosophy and Mysticism (New York, 1981)
NETTON, I. R., Muslim Neoplatonists: An Introduction to the Thought of the Brethren of Purity (Edinburgh, 1991)
ROSENTHAL, E., Knowledge Triumphant The Concept of Knowledge in Me- dieval Islam {Leiden, 1970)
SHARIF, M. M., A History of Muslim Philosophy (Wiesbaden, 1963) VON GRU N EBAU M , G. E., Medieval Islam (Chicago, 1946)
WATT, W. Montgomery, Free Will and Predestination in Early Islam (Lon- don, 1948)
, Muslim Intellectual. The Struggle and Achievement of Al-Ghazzali
(Edinburgh, 1963)
-, The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (Edinburgh, 197 3)
ISLAMIC MYSTICISM AND SPIRITUALITY
AFFIFI, A. E., The Mystical Philosophy of Ibnu 'l-Arabi (Cambridge, 1938) ARBERRY, A J., Sufism: An Account of the Mystics of Islam (London, 1950) B A KHT IAR, L., Sufi Expression of the Mystic Quest (London, 1979)
CHITTICK, William C, The Sufi Path of Love. The Spiritual Teachings of
i?«TO (Albany, 1983)
• , The Sufi Path of Knowledge..n al-Arahi's Metaphysics of Imagination
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CORBIN, Henri, AvicennaandtheVisionary Recital (trans.W. Trask, Prince- ton, 1960)
, Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn Arabi (trans. W Trask, London, 1970)
, Spiritual Body and Celestial Earth: From Mazdean Iran to Shiite Iran
(trans. Nancy Pearson, London, 1990)
MASSIGNON, Louis, The Passion of al-Hallaj, 4 vols. (trans. H. Mason, Princeton, 1982)
NASR, Seyyid Hossein (ed.), Islamic Spirituality, 2 vols. (London, 1987) NICHOLSON, Reynold A., The Mystics of Islam (London, 1914)
SCHIMMEL, A M., Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill and London, 1975)
, The Triumphant Sun: A Study of Mawlana Rumi's Life and Work
(London and The Hague, 1978)
SMITH, Margaret, Rabia the Mystic and Her Fellow Saints in Islam (London, 1928)
VALIUDDIN, Mir, Contemplative Disciplines in Sufism (London, 1980)
ISLAMIC RESPONSE TO THE MODER N WORL D
AHMED, Akbar S., Postmodernism and Islam: Predicament and Promise (Lon- don and New York, 1992)
AKHAVI, Shahrough, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran: Clergy-State Relations in the Pahlavi Period (Abany, 1980)
AL-E AHMADjJalal, Occidentosis:A Plague from the Jfef (trans. R. Campbell, ed. Hamid Algar, Berkeley, 1984)
DAVIS, Joyce M., Between Jihad and Salaam: Profiles in Islam (New York, 1997)
DJAIT, Hichem, Europe and Islam: Cultures and Modernity (Berkeley, 1985) ESPOSITO, John (ed.), Voices of Resurgent Islam (New York and Oxford, 1983)
Suggestions for Further Reading • 215
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, with John L. Donohue (eds.), Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspec- tives (New York and Oxford, 1982)
, with Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Muslims on the Americanization Path (Atlanta, 1998)
GELLNER, Ernest, Postmodernism, Reason and Religion (London and New York, 1992)
GILSENAN, Michael, Recognizing Islam: Religion and Society in the Modern Middle East (London, 1990)
HALLIDAY, Fred, Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (London and New York, 1996)
HANNA, Sami, and George H. Gardner (eds.), Arab Socialism: A Documen- tary Survey {Leiden, 1969)
HOURANI, Albert, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 (Oxford, 1962)
IQBAL, Allama Muhammad, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
(Lahore, 1989)
KEDDIE, Nikki R., Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyidjamal ad-Din "al-Afghani" (Berkeley, 1968)
MATiN-ASGARi, Afshin, "Abdolkarim Sorush and the Secularization of Islamic Thought in Iran," Iranian Studies, 30, 1997
MITCHELL, Richard P, The Society of the Muslim Brothers (London, 1969) RAHMAN, Fazlur, Islam and Modernity. Transformation of an Intellectual Tra- dition (Chicago, 1982)
SHARIATI, Ali, The Sociology of Islam (Berkeley, 1979)
, What Is To Be Done The Enlightened Thinkers and an Islamic Re- naissance {n.]}., 1986)
, Hajj {Tehran, 1988)
TIBI, Bassam, The Crisis of Political Islam: A Pre-Industrial Culture in the Scientific-Technological Age (Salt Lake City, 1988)
VOLL, John, Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World (Boulder, 1982)
ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM
APPLEBY, R. Scott (ed.), Spokesmenfor the Despised Fundamentalist Leaders of the Middle East (Chicago, 1997)
ARMSTRONG, Karen, The Battlefor God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Chris- tianity and Islam (London and New York, 2000)
CHOUEIRI, Youssef M., Islamic Fundamentalism (London, 1990)
216 • Suggestions for Further Reading
FISCHER, Michael J., Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1980)
GAFFNEY, Patrick D., The Prophet? Pulpit Islamic Preaching in Contemporary Egypt (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1994)
HAMAS, The Covenant of the Islamic Resistance Movement (Jerusalem, 1988) HEIKAL, Mohamed, Autumn of Fury. The Assassination of Sadat (London, 1984)
HUSSAIN, Asaf, Islamic Iran: Revolution and Counter-Revolution (London, 1985)
JANSEN, Johannes J. G., The Neglected Duty. The Creed of Sadat's Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East (New York and London, 1988) KEPEL, Gilles, The Prophet and Pharaoh: Muslim Extremism in Egypt (trans. Jon Rothschild, London, 1985)
KHOMEINI, Sayeed Ruhollah, Islam and Revolution (trans. Hamid Algar, Berkeley, 1981)
LAWRENCE, Bruce B., Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist Revolt Against the Modern Age (London and New York, 1990)
MARTY, Martin E., and R. Scott Appleby (eds.), Fundamentalisms Observed
(Chicago and London, 1991)
, Fundamentalisms and Society (Chicago and London, 1993)
, Fundamentalisms and the State (Chicago and London, 199 3)
—, Accounting for Fundamentalisms (Chicago and London, 1994)
, Fundamentalisms Comprehended (Chicago and London, 1995) MAWDUDI, Abud Ala, Islamic Law and Constitution (Lahore, 1967)
, jfihadin Islam (Lahore, 1976)
-, The Economic Problem of Man and Its Islamic Solution (Lahore,
1978)
, Islamic Way of Life (Lahore, 1979)
MILTON-EDWARDS, Beverley, Islamic Politics in Palestine (London and New York, 1996)
NASR, Seyyed Vali Reza, The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution, the Jama at-i Islami of Pakistan (London and New York, 1994)
QUTB, Sayyid, Islam and Universal Peace (Indianapolis, 1977)
, Milestones (Delhi, 1988)
, This Religion of Islam (Gary, Indiana, n.d.)
RUTHVEN, Malise, A Satanic Affair Salman Rushdie and the Rage of Islam
(London, 1990)
SICK, Gary, All Fall Down: America? Fateful Encounter with Iran (London, 1985)
Suggestions for Further Reading . 217
SiDHARED, Abdel Salam, and Anonshirivan Ehteshani (eds.), Islamic Fun- damentalism (Boulder, 1996)
ISLAM AND WOME N
AFSHAR, Haleh, Islam and Feminisms: An Iranian Case-Study (London and New York, 1998)
1AHMED, Leila, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern De- bate (New Haven and London, 1992)
—, A Border Passage (New York, 1999)
GOLE, Nilufa, The Forbidden Modern: Civilization and Veiling (Ann Arbor, 1996)
HADDAD, Yvonne Yazbeck, and John L. Esposito, (eds.), Islam, Gender and Social Change (Oxford and New York, 1998)
KARAM, Azza M., Women, Islamismsand the State.. ContemporaryFeminisms in Egypt (New York, 1998)
KEDDIE, Nikki R., and Beth Baron (eds.), Women in Middle Eastern History. Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender (New Haven and London, 1991) MERNISSI, Fatima, Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry (trans. Mary Jo Lakehead, Oxford, 1991)
The Harem Within: Tales of a Moroccan Girlhood (London, 1994)
Women? Rebellion and Islamic Memory (London, 1996)
WESTER N PERCEPTIONS OF ISLAM
ARMSTRONG, Karen, Holy War The Crusades and Their Impact on Today? World (London, 1988; New York, 1991)
DANIEL, Norman, Islam and the West The Making of an Image (Edinburgh, 1960)
, The Arabs and Medieval Europe (London and Beirut, 1975) GIBB, H. A. R., and H. Bowen, Islamic Society and the West (London, 1957) HOURANI, Albert, Islam in European Thought (Cambridge, 1991)
KAB B A N I, Rana, Europe? Myths of Orient (London, 1986)
, Letter to Christendom (London, 1989)
KEDAR, Benjamin, Crusade and Mission: European Approaches towards the Muslims (Princeton, 1984)
RODINSON, Maxime, Europe and the Mystique of Islam (London, 1984) SAID, Edward W., Orientalism (New York, 1978)
SOUTHERN, R. W., Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages (Cambridge,
Mass., 1962)
====
INDEX
Aaron, 69
Abbari, Riza-i, 118
Abbas (uncle of the Prophet), 53 Abbas I, Shah, 118
Abbasid caliphate, 53-57, 58-59, 62,
67, 71, 81, 82, 96, 98, 115
Abd al-Malik, Caliph, 44—45,47, 50 Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad, 135 Abdu, Muhammad, 153
Abdulhamid, Sultan, 150
Abraham, 8,17, 23, 69
Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah, Caliph, 53 Abu Bakr, First Caliph, 4, 15, 25-27, 52 Abu al-Hakam (Abu Jahl), 12
Abu Hanifah, 48-49, 58
Abu Jafar al-Mansur, Caliph, 54, 57
Abu Sufyan, 12, 19, 21, 23, 32,49
Abu Talib, 13
Abu al-Qasim Muhammad see Hid- den Imam
Adam, 24, 69
Aden, 148
Admonition to the Nation (Naini), 149 Afghani, al- (Jamal al-Din), 151-53 Afghanistan, 32, 163, 170
Africa, North, 29, 30, 32
under Umayyads, 50
under Abbasids, 59
under Ismaili Fatimids, 81, 105
under Ottomans, 115,132,135
Afsanal-Arbaah,Al- (Sadra), 122
ahadith, 49, 59-60, 83
ahld-hadith (Hadith People), 58, 60,
62, 63, 65
ahlal-kitab (People of the Book), 10, 11, 18, 21, 30
Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 62-63 Ahmad Khan, Sayyid, 150 Ain Jalut, Battle of, 97
Aisha (wife of the Prophet), 15, 23, 33
Akbar, Emperor, 124—2 7
Alamut, 87, 97 Albert the Great, 83 Aleppo, 91, 93
Alexius Comnenus I, Emperor, 95 Algeria, 136
French occupation, 148 FIS and FLN in, 180-84
Algiers, 181, 182
Alhambra palace, 105
Ali ibn Abi Talib, 4, 15, 25 as Fourth Caliph, 33-36
in opposition to Muawiyyah, 34, 44,46,47,48
and Shiahi-Ali, 36, 43, 52, 76, 108;
65, 70, 117, 173
Ali al-Hadi, Tenth Imam, 68 Ali al-Rida, Eighth Imam, 63
Ali Zayn al-Abidin, Fourth Imam, 56
Aligharh college, 150
Allah, 3,4, 8, 11, 23, 75
AUami, Abdulfazl, 127 American Muslim Mission, 177 American Muslims, 177
Anatolia, Byzantine resistance in, 29, 30
Crusaders in, 93
Seljuks advance into, 95; 101
conquered by Timur, 107; 108
under Ottomans, 109,115, 116,
129
Andalus, al-, 105
Angora, 110
Aquinas, Thomas, 83
Aristotle, 72
Armenia, 32
Asharism, 64
Ashura, 159, 174
Astrakhan, 116
Atariirk (Mustafa Kemal), 148, 158
Aurengzebe, Emperor, 128, 162 Averroes, see Ibn Rushd Avicenna, see Ibn Sina Ayodhya, 178
Ayyubid dynasty, 93, 97
Azerbaijan, 97, 107, 109, 117
Azhar, al-, college, 83, 175, 177, 185
Babur, Emperor, 124 Babur, Mosque of, 178 Badr, Battle of, 19, 29
Baghdad, 54, 55, 58, 63, 72
Seljuks seize power in, 81 in decline, 85; 86, 96
falls to Mongols, 97 sacked by Timur, 107
Baibars, Sultan Rukn ad-Din, 97
Banna, Hasan al-, 155-56, 171
Basrah, 31, 34, 46, 48, 55, 62, 72
Bedouin, 23, 26
Bekhtashi dervishes, 109
Bengal, 108, 147
Benjedid, President, 182
Berbers, 105, 132
Bhutto, Prime Minister Zulfaqir Ali, 163
Bihzad, 120
Bistami, Abu Yazid al-, 75
BJP (Bharatiya Janarta Party), 178 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 147
British:
in Bengal, 147
in Iran, 148
in Aden, 148
in Egypt, 148
in Sudan, 148
Buddhism, x, 76, 97,108, 125
Bukhara, 97
Bukhari, al-, 60
Bulgar, 109
Bursa, 109
Byzantine Empire, 27, 30, 32
decline, 95-96, 109
seized by Ottomans, 110; 141
Cairo, 69, 83
Camel, Battle of the, 34,44 Caucasus, 32, 117 Chaldiran, Battle of, 118
Chelebi, Abu al-Sund Khola, 133 China, 107
Christians in Muslim empire, 10, 30,
125, 132,134; 164
Constantinople, see also Istanbul 42, 110,130
Constitutional Revolution (Iran,
1906), 149, 161
conversion to Islam: discouraged, 30, 41
encouraged by Umar II, 52, 53; 63
Cordova, 83, 105
Crusades, 93-95
influence on Western view of Islam, 179-80
Ctesiphon, 27, 54
Cyrenaica, 29
Cyprus, 32
Damascus, 31, 34, 37,48, 97, 104,
107
Danube, River, 95
Dar al-Harb, 30
Dar al-Islam, 30, 81, 91, 96, 159, 179
David, 8
Deccan, 124
Delhi, 97, 107, 108
Dervishes, Whirling, 101
Dimad, Mir, 122
Edirne, 109
Egypt, 27, 29, 59
under Ismailis, 69; 97, 105, 106,
132
French in, 147-48
British in, 148, 151
under Muhammad Ali, 150-51; 155,160,183-84
Euphrates, River, 34, 97
Farabi, Abu Nasr al-, 72-73, 83
Fard, Wallace, 177
Fatamid dynasty, 81, 83,93
Faylasufs, 71-73, 76, 83, 84, 90, 103,
104,105
dominant under Moghuls, 116; 120
promoted by Akbar, 125
Falsafah study under Ottomans, 134, 135,149-50
FIS (Islamic Salvation Front, Algeria), 180-83
fitnah:
first, 33, 37,41,42,46
second, 44
FLN (National Liberation Front, Algeria), 180-83
French:
in Egypt, 147-48,
in Algeria, 148
in Libya, 148
in Morocco, 148
fundamentalism, 164-75
Fustat, 31, 32, 33
Ganges, River, 108
Gaza, 156
Genesis, 17
Genghis Khan, 96, 98
Georgia, 11 7
Ghannouchi, Rashid al-, 185 Ghazzali, Abu Hamid Muhammad
al-, 88-90
GIA (Armed Islamic Group, Algeria), 182-83
Granada, 105
Giilhane decree, 150
Hafsah (wife of the Prophet), 15 Hagar, 17, 23
baj], 11, 22-23, 67, 75, 159
Hanafi madhhab, 65
Hanbali madhhak65, 104
Harran, 55
Harun al-Rashid, Caliph, 54-56, 57,
59,61
Hasan ibn Ali, Second Imam, 36 Hasan al-Ashari, Abu al-, 63-64 Hasan al-Basri, 46-47, 48, 92
Herat, 32
Hidden Imam (Abu al-Qasim Muhammad), 68, 109, 118,120,
123, 149, 173, 174
Hijaz, 3,43
hijrah, 1 3, 18
Hinduism, ix, 108
encouraged under Akbar, 125 suppressed under Aurengzebe, 128 eighteenth-century rapproche-
ment, 128
post-Partition, 178
Hindustan, 124
Hisham I, 52
Hubal, 11
Hudaybiyyah, 23,186
Hulegu, 96, 97
Humayun, 124
Husain ibn Ali, Third Imam, 43, 56, 67
cult of, 121, 128, 159, 173, 174
Ibn Ali al-Sanusi, Muhammad, 136 Ibn al-Arabi, Muid ad-Din, 92, 101,
127
Ibn Hajj, Ali, 181 Ibn Hanbal, 65
Ibn Hazam, 83
Ibn Idris, Ahmad, 135
Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad, 49, 84
Ibn Khaldun, Abd al-Rahman, 105 Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Walid Ahmad
(Averroes), 83-84 Ibn Sina, Abu Ali, 83
Ibn Taymiyyah, Ahmad, 104-5,135 Ibn al-Zubayr, Abdallah, 43
India, 32, 81, 96, 97, 107, 108
under Moghuls, 11 5, 116, 124-29 Muslims as beleaguered minority,
129-30,162
European invasion of Islamic life, 147
Partition, 149
post-Partition Muslims in, 178 Iqbal, Muhammad, 154
Iran, 31, 32, 44
supports Abbasids, 53, 69
under Turks, 81, 97; 97, 109
under Safavids, 11 5, 116
Shiism declared state religion, 117, 118,133
British and Russian intervention, 148
secularised by Pahlavis, 159-60 Revolution (1978-79), 173-75
Iraq, 27, 31, 32
support for Ali, 33, 36,43,44; 48,69
under Turks, 81; 148, 160
Irtysh, 97
Isaac, 17
Isfahan, 120,122
Islamic Conference, 175 Islamic Salvation Front see FIS Ismail (Ishmael), 17, 23, 30
Ismail ibn Jafar, Seventh Imam, 69 Ismail Pasha, 151
Ismail, Shah, 109, 117, 118, 124
Ismailis, 69-70, 87, 90 massacred by Mongols, 97
Israel:
creation of state, 149 expansionism, 156
Istanbul, 130, 132 see also Con- stantinople
lyah alum al-Din (al-Ghazzaii), 88 Iznik, 109
Jafar al-Sadiq, Sixth Imam, 57, 66, 67,
69
Jafari madhhah, 67
Jalal al-Din, 97
Jamal al-Din see al-Afghani Jamaat-i Islami, 162
Janissaries, 130, 150
Jerusalem, 11, 18
taken by Muslims, 29; 35,42 Dome of the Rock built, 44; 88 conquered by Crusaders, 93 taken back by Saladin, 93, 178
Jesus, x, 8, 53, 69, 74, 157
Jews:
early tribes, 10, 16-17, 20-21;
in Muslim empire, 30-31, 125, 132
in Europe, 157
ultra Orthodox, 167, 171
jihad, 6, 36, 87;
Ismail's against Sunnism, 118, 124;
130,158
Mawdudi and Qutb call for, 168-70 Jihan, Shah, 127
Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 162 Jordan, 184
Junayd of Baghdad, 75 Jundayvebar, 55
June War (1967), 156
Juneh Mosque, 178
Kabah, 10-12,17, 23
Kabul, 124
Kashan, 11 7
Kashmir, 178
Kazan, 116
Kerbala massacre, 43, 56, 67, 121, 173,
174
Khadija (wife of the Prophet), 4, 13, 15
Khamenei, Ayatollah Ali, 175 Khan, Prime Minister Muhammad
Ayub, 162
Kharajites, 35, 36,43,44,45,46,47,
48,62
Khatami, President Hojjat 01-Islam Seyyid, 175, 184
Khaybar, 21
Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 122, 173-75
Khurasan, 62, 101, 11 7
Khwarazmian Turks, 96 Kirmani, Aqa Kahn, 149 Konya, 101
Kosovo Field, Battle of, 110
Kublai Khan, 97
Kufah, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36,43,48, 54, 55,
62, 72
Lat, al-, 8
Lazar, Prince Hrelbeljanovic, 110 Lebanon, 93,148
civil war, 160
hostages, 174
Libya, 32, 136
occupied by French, 148 Locke, John, 1 58
Madani, Abbas, 181
Maghrib, 105
Mahdi, concept of, 69, 70,109
Mahdi, Caliph al-, 54, 59, 61 Mahmud II, Sultan, 150 Maimonides, 83
Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir, 120, 122
Malaya, 110,115
Malcolm X, 177
Malva, 124
Malik ibn Anas, 59, 61
Maliki madhhab, 59, 65
Malikshah, Sultan, 85
Mamluks, 104, 106
Mamun, Caliph al-, 62-63, 72
Manat, 8
Mansur, Husain al- (al-Hallaj), 75 Manzikurt, Battle of, 95 MaqaJJimah,Al-(Ibn-Khaldun), 106
Martel, Charles, 50
Marwah, al-, 11
Marwan, 44
Mashad, 159
Mathnawi (Rumi), 101-2
Mawdudi, Abul Ala. 162, 168-69 Mawlanah Order (Whirling
Dervishes), 101
Mecca, pre-Islamic, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11, 12
as place of pilgrimage, 10-1 1, 22
Mecca, pre-Islamic (conl): taken by the Prophet, 23 under Uthman, 32
forbidden to non-Muslims, 103 Medina, 14, 20-21, 24-25
under Uthman, 31 -33
under Ali, 33-34
under Umayyads, 37, 43; 48, 59 forbidden to non-Muslims, 103;
136
Mehmed II (the Conqueror), 110, 130
Mesopotamia, 11 7
Mina, 11
Moghul Empire, 115, 116,124-28
Mongols, 96-102
11-Khans, 97
Chaghatay, 96, 106
White Horde, 97
Golden Horde, 97, 107 convert to Islam, 98 influence, 100, 101
decline, 106, 109
monotheism, 8, 13, 18, 75, 125
Morocco, 135, 148, 183
Moses, 8, 17, 69
Mosul, 93
Muawiyyah I, Caliph, 32, 34—36,41,
42-43, 46,47, 48, 58
Muawiyyah II, Caliph, 44 Mubarak, President, 184
Muddaris, Ayatollah, 159 Muhammad ibn Abdallah (the
Prophet):
revelation on Mount Hira, 3-4 reveals Quran, 4-5
and first Muslims, 5, 6, 10, 12,
13-14
Quraysh opposition, 12-14 makes hijrah to Medina, 14 changes qiblah to face Mecca, 18 battles against Mecca, 18-22 takes Mecca, 22-23
death, 23
succession, 49
against coercion, 8, 10
his wives, 15-16
attitude to Jewish tribes, 16-17, 20-22
asceticism, 31, 46, 56, 74
as archetype, 24, 61 Ismaili view of, 69-70
insulting made capital offence, 103
and Middle Way, 186
Muhammad Ali, Pasha, 150-1, 158 Muhammad al-Baqir (Fifth Imam),
56-57
Muhammad, Elijah, 177 Muhammad, Shah of Khwarazmian
Turks, 96
Muhammad Reza Shah, 159, 161,
173
Mujamah (Islamic Congress), 156, 184
mujdadid, 103-4 Mulkum Khan, Mirza, 149 Murad I, 109
Murjites, 48
Musa al-Kazim, 69
Muslim (haditb collector), 60 Muslim Brotherhood, 155, 158-59,
162, 169,184, 185
Muslims in Britain, 176 Muslims in France, 176, 181 Muslims in United States, 177 Mutasim, Caliph al-, 63
Mutazilites, 47-48, 57-58, 62-63, 64,
72
Mutawakkil, Caliph al-, 68 Muttawattah, Al- (Ibn Anas), 59 Muzdalifah, 11
Nadir tribe, 20
Nadir Khan, 123
Naini, Sheikh Muhammad Husain, 149
Najaf, 149, 173
Nanak, Guru, 125 Nasir, Caliph al-, 96
Nasser, Jamal Abd al-, 158-59, 169,
171, 184
Nation of Islam, 177
National Liberation Front see FLN Nile, River, 31
Nizamiyyah madrasah, 86, 88
Nizamulmulk, 85, 88
Noah, 17, 69
Ottoman Empire, 109-10, 11 5, 116,
120,130-35,136-37
Oxus River, 32, 63, 85, 96, 97, 11 5,
118
Pahlavi dynasty, 159-61, 174
Pakistan, 149, 162-63, 178
Palestine, 29, 81,93, 97, 149, 184
PLO, 184
Partition of India, 149, 162, 178
Pahtum tribe, 170
Pen, Jean-Marie le, 181
Persian Empire, 27, 30, 34, 55, 83
Plato, 73
Poitiers, Battle of, 50 Portuguese, 11 7
Protocol of the Elders ofZim, 22 Punjab, 124, 128
Qadarites, 47 Qadisiyyah, Battle of, 27 Qajar dynasty, 148, 149
Qanuni, al- see Suleiman I Qatar, University of, 185-86 Qaynuqah tribe, 20
Qazvin, 87
Qum, 31,117
Quradawi, Yusuf Abdallah al-, 185-86
Quran, xi
as revealed to the Prophet, 4-5, 21
poetic quality, 5; 6
and continuity of faith, 8, 9, 11
no coercion, 10
and the Last Days, 12, 53 and women's rights, 16
and Jews of Medina, 16-17, 20-
22
on war, 22, 30
on society, 29
religious tolerance, 30, 170 Uthman standardizes text, 33 calligraphy, 45
and political debate, 46
iatin meanings, 56, 72, 76
ahl al-hadith, 58
Faylasuf interpretation, 72
Sufi interpretation, 74
as basis for Saudi government, 161
Quraysh tribe, 3,4, 8
oppose the Prophet, 12, 14, 19,
22-23; 49, 186
Qurayzah tribe, 20-22
Qutb, Sayyid, 169-70
Rabiah, 74
Rafsanjani, Hashami, 175
Rajputs, 108
rashidun, 23-33,49, 52, 55, 56, 58, 61,
65, 77, 104, 117, 160
Rayy, 117
Red Fort, 178
Red Sea, 11 7
Renan, Ernest, 83
Reza Shah Pahlavi, 159, 172 Rida, al-, Eighth Imam, 159 Rida, Rashid, 153-54, 184
Rum, Sultanate of, 96, 97, 101
Rumi,Jalal al-Din, 101-2, 103
Rushdie fotwah, 175
Russia, 107, 116
in Iran, 148
Sadat, Anwar al-, 170 Saddam Hussein, 151
Sadra, Mulla, 122, 175
Safavid Empire, 115, 116, 11 7-24,
129, 130
Safaviyyah order, 109
Salah ad-Din, Yusuf ibn Ayyiib (Saladin), 93, 95,179
Samarkand, 83
Timur builds court at, 106 Samarra, 63, 68
Sanusiayyah movement, 136
Sassanids, 27, 30, 54, 56
Satanic Verses, The (Rushdie), 175, 176,
178
Sartre, Jean-Paul, xi
Saudi Arabia, 161-62, 175
SAVAK, 159
Sawad, 34, 54, 85
Second World War, 156 Selim I, Sultan, 11 8, 130 Selim III, Sultan, 137
Seljuk Empire, 81, 85-87, 95, 96
Serbia, 109-10 Seveners. seelsmailis Seville, 105
Shafii madhhak 65
Shafii, Muhammad Idris al-, 59-60,
61,92
Shariah law, 58-62, 64, 84
under Seljuks, 86, 88,96
under Mongols, 100
closing of gates of ijtihad, 103, 123, 152; 104, 116, 125, 128, 129
exalted under Suleiman, 132-33 call for replacement by secular
code, 149
call for reform, 153
replaced with civil system by Pahlavis, 159
in Pakistan, 162-63; 175, 184
Shii Muslims, 36,43, 45, 46,48,49,
52, 54, 56-57
rebellions, 61, 62, 63; 65, 66
and Imamate, 68, 72, 73; 81, 103,
104, 109
dominant under Safavids, 116,117, 118-23
massacred by Ottomans, 130; 134,
158
suppressed by Pahlavis, 160
and Iranian Revolution, 173-75; see also Ismailis and Twelvers
Siddiqui, Dr.Kalim, 176
Siffin, 34
Sikhs, 125, 128
Sind, 32
Sinan Pasha, 132
Sirhindi, Ahmad, 127-29
Six-Day War (1967), 171
Solomon, 8
Sorush, Abdolkarim, 184-85
Soviet Union, 149
Spain, 50, 62
Umayyad caliphate collapses, 83; 105
Sudan, 148,160
Suez Canal, 147,149,151,155
Sufism, 74—76, 83, 85, 86, 87
popularized, 88-92; 101,102, 103, 104,108,110
dominant under Moghuls, 116, 117
promoted by Akbar, 125 under Ottomans, 134 suppressed by Arariirk, 158 drunken sufis, 75,101
Neo-Sufis, 136
sober sufis, 75 Suhayl ibn Amr, 12
Suhrawardi, Yahya, 91-92
Suleiman I (al-Qanuni also the Mag- nificent), 132, 136-37
Sunni Muslims, 63-65
Seljuks as, 85; 87, 96, 103, 109,
116
persecuted in Iran by Ismail, 117-18
tolerated by Akbar, 125; 158
fundamentalism, 170-71, 172 and Malcom X, 177
today, 184-85
Sykes-Picot agreement, 148
Syr River, 81, 85, 97,106, 115
Syria, 27, 29, 30, 32
refuses to accept AH, 34; 44, 52
Ismailis in, 69
under Ismaili Fatimids, 81
taken by Seljuks, 95; 97, 104, 106
under Ottomans, 11 5,132
Napoleon in, 148, 160
Tabari, Abu Jafar, 84 Tabriz, 117
Tahtawi, Rifah al-, 149-50 Taj Mahal, 127, 178
Talhah, 33
Taliban, 163, 170, 172
Tanzimat, 150
taziyeh, 12 1
Tehran hostages, 174
Tigris, River, 54, 97
Timur Lenk (Tamburlaine), 106, 110,
124
Transjordan, 148
Trench, Battle of the, 20, 21, 2 2
Tripoli, 32
Tunis, 105
Tunisia, 69, 105
occupied by French, 148; 183,
185
Turkish migrant workers, 176
Turkey, 148,158, 184
Twelvers, 68-69, 87, 109
declared religion of Safavids, 117; 174
Uhud, Battle of, 20
Umar ibn al-Khattab, Second Caliph, 5, 15, 25, 29-30, 31, 41, 52
Umar II, 50
Umayyad dynasty, 4, 32, 34, 37
caliphs, 41-42, 43, 46, 47, 48, 50
brought down by Abbasids, 53, 54,
59, 74
ummah:
ideal of, 6, 11, 13-14, 24-25, 27, 30,
34,74
under Umayyads, 35, 36, 42, 43,45,
47,48, 50
under Seljuks, 84
decline of, 152, 154
United States, Muslims in, 177 Urban II, Pope, 95
Usulis, 122-2 3
Uthman ibn Affan, Third Caliph, 4, 15, 31-32, 34, 35, 46, 49, 52, 65
Umm Salamah (wife of the Prophet), 16
Uzbekhistan, 115
Uzbeks, 118, 124
Uzzah, al-, 8
Valli-UUah, Shah, 129
Velayat-i-Faqih, 174, 175
Vienna, 132
Volga, River, 97
Wahhabism, 135, 161 Walid I, Caliph al-, 50 Waraqa ibn Nawfal, 4 Wasan ibn Ata, 47 women:
converted by the Prophet, 4
women (conl):
Quranic position, 16 fundamentalist discrimination
against, 166, 170, 172
Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, 72 Yarmuk, Battle of, 29
Yasin, Sheikh Ahmed, 156 Yathrib, 13; see Medina Yazid I, 43, 173
Yazid II, 52
Yemen, 69, 85, 135
Zangi, Imad ad-Din, 93 Zayd ibn Ali, 56
Zeroual, President Liamine, 182-83 Zia al-Haqq, President Muhammad,
163
Zoroastrians, 30, 125
Zubayr, 33
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. In Karen Armstrong's view, what is the historical mission of Islam? What is the chief duty of Muslims according to the Quran? What is the Islamic notion of salvation?
2. What are the five pillars of Islam? Does Islam place more emphasis on right living or right belief? The community or the individual? In these ways, is it more similar to Chris- tianity or Judaism?
3. At the time of Muhammad, what was the attitude of Islam toward other prophets and religious traditions? How were non-Muslim subjects, or dhimmi, treated in the Islamic empire? How does that treatment compare to what went on in the premodern West?
4. Is Islam a militaristic faith? What does the Quran have to say about just and unjust wars? Given the context of his times, did Muhammad set a particularly violent or non- violent example?
5. What does the Quran teach about the importance of converting people of other faiths? Does Islam condone coerced conversion? How does its theological stance on conversion compare to the teachings and practices of the other major world religions?
230 . DiscussionQuuestions
6. What does the Quran have to say about the place of women? How forward- or backward-thinking was Muham- mad's treatment of women for his time? What accounts for the persistence of a practice such as female veiling in the modern-day Muslim world?
7. What are the differences between Sunni and Shii Mus- lims? What were the origins of this split within Islam? Did it have theological underpinnings or was it merely po- litically motivated?
8. What is the primary meaning of the word jihad? Explain its significance in Islam. How did Muhammad understand it? How do some modern-day fundamentalists understand it?
9. What are the roots of Islamic fundamentalism? How does Islamic fundamentalism compare to fundamentalist move- ments in other faiths? Are there certain of its precepts that make Islam more prone to religious fanaticism? What his- torical factors have contributed to anti-Western fundamen- talism in Islam?
10. What have been some of the successes and failures of modern-day Islamic nation-building? What particular chal- lenges do postcolonial Islamic states face? What has been a common problem with the way secularism has been im- posed in the Muslim world?
11. What are some of the greatest challenges facing the Islamic faith today?
12. What are the most common misperceptions about Islam and the Muslim world in the West?
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
KAREN ARMSTRONG is one of the world's foremost scholars on religious affairs. She is the author of sev- eral bestselling books, including The Battle for God, Jerusalem, The History of God, and Through the Narrow Gate, a memoir of her seven years as a nun. She lives
in London.
TH E MODERN LIBRARY EDITORIAL BOARD
Maya Angelou Daniel J. Boorstin
A. S. Byatt Caleb Carr
Christopher Cerf Ron Chernow Shelby Foote Charles Frazier Vartan Gregorian Richard Howard Charles Johnson Jon Krakauer Edmund Morris Joyce Carol Oates Elaine Pagels John Richardson Salman Rushdie Oliver Sacks
Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.
Carolyn See William Styron Gore Vidal
A NOTE ON THE TYPE
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Hermann Zapf redesigned some of the weights and sizes for Stempel, basing his revisions on the original design.
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