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THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
THE - WORLD
AS I SEE IT
(,)•
ALBERT EINSTEIN
translated by ALAN HARRIS
LONDON
JOHN LANE THE BODLEY HEAD
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PREFACE
Only individuals ha\ c a sense of responsibility — Nutzschb
T HIS book does not represent a complete collection
of the articles, addresses and pronouncements of
Albert Einstein , it is a selection made with a definite
object, nimel) , to give a picture of a man To-day this
man is being drawn, contrary to his own intention, into
the whirlpool of political passions and contemporary his-
tory As a result, Einstein is experiencing the fate that
so many of the great men of history experienced Ins
character and opinions are being exhibited to the world
in an utterly distorted form
To forestall this fate is the real object of this book It
meets a wish that has constantly been expressed both
by Einsteins friends and by die wider public It con-
tains work belonging to the most various dates— the
article on “The International of Science” dates from
the year 1922, the address on “The pnnciplds of Scien-
tific Research” from 1923, the “Letter to an Arab”
from 1930 — and die most various spheres, held together
by the unity of the personality which stands behind all
these utterances Albert Einstein believes in humanity,
in a peaceful world of mutual helpfulness, and in the
high mission of science This book is intended as a plea
for this belief at a time which compels every one of us
to overhaul his mental attitude and his ideas '
JH
v
TRANSLATORS’ NOTE
In Part V I have had the benefit of the
expert supervision of Dr. H. 'Stafford
Hatfield, to whom my thanks are due.
'AH.
CONTENTS
PART 1^
The World, as I see it
PACE
The Meaning of Life i
The World as I see it I
The Liberty of Doctrine — a propos of the Gumbel Case J
Good and Evil 7
The True Value of a Human Being 7
Society and Personality 7
Address at the Grave of H A Lorentz 11
H A Lorentz's work m the cause of Intemanonal
Co-operation rr
In Honour of Arnold Berliner's Seventieth Birthday 14
Popper Lynkaeus 16
Obituary of the Surgeon, M Katzenstein 16
Congratulations to Dr Solf 19
Of Wealth 2o
Education and Educators 21
To the Schoolchildren of Japan 21
Teachers and Pupils 22*
Paradise Lost 23
Religion and Science 23
The Religiousness of Science 2 g
The Plight of Science 2 g
Fascism and Science »
Interviewers
Thanks to America
33
vu
CONTENTS
Par: I— continued •
The University Count at Davos .
Congratulations to a Cnric .
Greeting to G Bernard Shaw
Some Notes on my American Impressions
Reply to the Women of America .
PACE
34
36
36
36
4t
PART II ‘
Politics and Pacitom
Peace 45
The .Pacifist Problem 45
Address to the Students’ Disarmament Meeting . 4 6
To Sigmund Freud 48
Compulsory Service . . .' . .50
Germany and France .... • 5 t
Arbitration . .... J2
The Intcrnanonal of Science ... -52
The Institute For Intellectual Co-opcranon . . 54
A Farewell .56
The Question oF Disarmament . . 57
The Disarmament Conference oF 1932 J8
America and the Disarmament ConFerence . . 65
Acnve Pacifism 67
Letter to a friend of Peace ...... 68
Another ditto ....... 69
A third ditto ....... 70
Women and War . . . ... 71
Thoughts on the World Economic Cnsis . . 71
Culture and Prosperity ...... 76
VUl
CONTENTS
Part II— continued * PAGE
„ Production and Purchasing Power ... 77
Production and Work . * • *78
Minorities “ • .80
Observations on the Present Situation in Europe . 80
The Heirs of the Ages 81
. PART III
Germany 1933
Manifesto '• -85
Correspondence with the Prussian Academy of Sciences 85
A Reply 92
The Jews
PART IV
Jewish Ideals
Is there a Jewish point of view t
Jewish Youth — An Answer to a Questionnaire.
Addresses on Reconstruction in Palestine.
The Jewish Community ....
.Working Palestine
Jewish Recovery
Anti-Semitism and Academic Youth
A Letter to Peofesxrr Dr. HnVpa eft, Minister of State
Tenet to an Arab
Christianity arid Judaism
A Foreword ...
ix
97
97
99
100
10S
HI
112
113
”5
116
II 8
118
CONTENTS
PART V
Scientific
. PACE
Principles of Scientific Research 123
Inaugural Address to the Prussian Acadcni) of Sciences
(* 9 * 4 ) . 127
Scientific Truth 13 1
The Method of Theoretical Physics 131
Address at Columbia University, New York 139
Johannes Kepler 141
The Mechanics of Newton and their Influence on the
1 Development of Theoretical Physics 146
Clerk Maxwell s Influence on the Evolution of the Idea
of Physical Rea hf} 156
Niels Bohr . 162
On the Theory of Relativity 1 63
What is the Theory of Relanvity ? 1 66
The Problem of Space, Ether and the Field in Physics 173
Notes on the origin of the general theory of Relanvity 187
Relanvit) and the Ether 193
The cause of the formation of meanders in the courses
of nvers and of Beer s Law., as it jis called 204
The Fletmer ship 209
THE WORLD As I SEE IT
The Meaning oj Life
W HAT is the meaning of human life, or of organic
life altogether? To answer this question at all
implies a religion Is there any sense then, you ask, in
putting it ? I answer, the man who regards his own life
and that of his fellow-creatures as meaningless is not
merely unfortunate but almost disqualified for life
The World as I see it
What an extraordinary situation is that of us mortals *
Each of us is here for a brief sojourn, for what purpose
he knows not, though he sometimes thinks he feels it
But from die point of view of daily life, without going
deeper, we exist for our fellow-men — in the first place
for those on whose smiles and welfare all our happiness
depends, and next for all those unknown to us personally
with whose destinies we are bound up by the tie of
sympathy A hundred times every day I remind myself r
that my inner and outer life depend on the labours of.
other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself
m order to give in the same measure as I have received
and am* still receiving I am strongly drawn to the
simple life and am often oppressed by the feeling that I
am engrossing an unnecessary amount of the labour of
my fellow-men I regard class differences as contrary
to justice and, in the last resort, based on force I also
consider that plain living is good for everybody,
„ physically and mentally -
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
my own gait and have never belonged to ms _
m> home, my friends, or even my^medute S’
Amh my whole heart , nr dre face of aU these ucs i & -
never lost an ohsnnate seme of detachment, of the nS d
for solitude— a feelrng winch mcreases wad,
One is sharply conscious yet without regret "
limits to the possibility of mutual -understand,*, ,
sympathy with one s fellow -creatures Such a 8
no doubt loses something in the wav nf i P crson ^
hght-heartedness , on the odier handle nTamd? J ? d
pendent of the opuuons, habits and judgment? 'ref
fellows and avoids the temptanon to talc his sta d d
such insecure foundations °n*
My polincal ideal is that of democracy Le t . y
man be respected as an individual and no man , A^ Ct ) \
It is an irony of fate that I myself have been the rean
of excessive admiration and respect from my fJ} 1Cnt
through no fault and no ment, of my own The
of this may well be the desire, unattainable for m^f
to understand die one or two ideas to which I have JX
my feeble powers attained through ceaseless struf>oI
I am quite aware that it is necessary for the succcs * *
of any complex undertaking that one man should do the
thinking and directing and m general bear the respon- »
sibility But die led must not be compelled, they must *
be able to choose their leader An autocratic system of
:oeraon, in my opinion soon degenerates For force
Jways attracts men of low morality', and I believe it to
je an invariable rule that tyrants of genius are succeeded
iy scoundrels For this reason I have always been pas
iionatcly opposed to systems such as wc see m Italy and
Russia to-day The dung that has brought discredit
upon the prevailing form of democracy m Europe to-
day is not to be laid to the door of the democratic idea
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
In human freedom in the philosophical sense I am
definitely a disbeliever. Everybody acts not only under
external compulsion but also in accordance with inner
necessity. Schopenhauer’s saying, that “a man can do
as he will, but not will as *he will,” has been an
inspiration to me since my youth up, and a continual
consolation and unfailing well-spring of patience in the'
face of the hardships of life, my own and others’. Tliis
feeling mercifully mitigates the sense of responsibility
which so easily becomes paralysing, and it prevents us
from taking ourselves and other people too seriously;
it conduces to a view of life in which humour, above
all, has its due place. '
To enquire after the meaning or object of one's own
existence or of creation generally has always seemed to
me absurd from an objective point of view. And yet
everybody has certain ideals which determine the direc-
tion of his endeavours and his judgments. In this sense
I have never looked upon ease and happiness as’ends in
themselves — such an ethical basis I call more proper for
i a herd of swine. The ideals which have lighted me on
my way and nmc after time given me new courage to
face life cheerfully, have been Truth, Goodness and
Beauty. Without the sense of fellowship with men 'of
like mind, of preoccupation with the objective, the
* eternally unattainable in the field of art and scientific
research, life would have seemed to me empty. The >
ordinary objects of human endeavour— propetty, out-
ward success, luxury — have always 'seemed to me
contemptible.
My passionate seme of social justice and social res-
ponsibility has_ always eontnmed_ oddlv* with my pro-
nounced freedom from the need for direct contact with
other human beings and human communities. I pane
2 ’ J
- . THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
my own gait and have never belonged to my country,
my home, my friends, or even my immediate family,
I with my whole heart; in the face of all these tics I have
I never lost an obstinate sense of detachment, of die need
f for solitude— a feeling which increases with die years. ■
f One is sharply conscious, yet without regret, of die
limits to die -possibility of mutual understanding and
sympathy with one’s fcllow'-crcaturcs. Such a person)
no doubt loses something in the way of geniality and!
light-hcartcdncss ; on the other hand, he is largely inde-l
pendent of the opinions, habits and judgments of his!
fellows and avoids the temptation to take his stand on*
such insecure foundations.
My political ideal is that of democracy. Let every
man be respected as an individual and no man idolised.
It is an irony of fate that I myself have been die recipient
of excessive admiration and respect from my fellows
through no fault, and no merit, of my own. The cause
of this may well be the desire, unattainable for many,
to understand the one or two ideas to which I have with
my feeble powers attained through ceaseless struggle.*'
I am quite aware that it is necessary for the success
of any complex undertaking that one man should do the
thinking and directing and in general bear the respon-
sibility. But the led must not be compelled, diey must
be able to choose their leader. An autocratic system of
coercion; in my opinion, soon degenerates. For force
always attracts men of low morality, and I believe it to
be an invariable rule that tyrants of genius are succeeded
by scoundrels. For this reason I have always been pas-
sionately opposed to
Russia to-day. The
upon the prevailing
day is not to be laid
3
systems such as we see in Italy and
thing that has brought discredit
torm of democracy in Europe to-
to the door of die democratic idea
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
as such, but to lack of stability on the part of the heads
of governments and to the 'impersonal character of the
electoral system. I believe that in this respect the United
States of America have found the right way. They have
a responsible President who is elected for a sufficiently
long period and has sufficient powers to be really
responsible. .On the other hand, what I* value m our
political system is the more extensive provision that it
makes for the individual in case of illness or need The
really valuable thing in the pageant of human life seems.
I to me not the state but the creative, sentient individual,
i the personality; it alone creates the noble and the
sublime, while the herd as such remains dull in thought
and dull m feeling
This topic brings me to that worst outcrop of the
herd nature, the military system, which I abhor. That a
man can take pleasure in marching in formation to the
strains of a band is enough to make me despise him. He
has only been given his big brain by mistake; a back-
bone was all he needed. This plague-spot of civilisa-
tion ought to be abolished with all possible speed.
Heroism by order, senseless violence and all the pestilent
nonsense that goes by the name of patriotism — hoW I
hate them! War seems to me a mean, contemptible
thing . I would father be hacked in pieces than take part
in such an abominable business And yet so high, in
spite of ever} dung, is my opinion of the human race
that I believe dm bogey would have disappeared long
ago, had the sound sense of the nations not been
systematically corrupted by commercial and political
interests acting through die schools and the Press
Tine fairest Aung we can experience is the my stenous
It is the fundamental emotion which stands at the cradle
of true art and true science. He who knows it not and
, r
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
can no longer wonder, no longer feel amazement, is as
good as dead, a snuffed-out candle ft was the ex-
perience of mystcr) — even if mixed with fear — that
engendered religion A knowledge of the existence of
something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of
the profoundcst reason and the most radiant beauty,
which arc only accessible to our reason in their most
elementary forms— it is dus knowledge and this emo-
tion that constitute die truly religious attitude , m dus
sense, and m dus alone, I am a deeply religious man I
cannot conceive of a God who rewards and punishes his
creatures, or has a will of the type of which wc arc
conscious m ourselves An individual^ who should
survive his physical dcadi is also beyond my compre-
hension, nor do I wish it otherwise, such notions arc for
the fears or absurd egoism of feeble souls Enough for
me the mystery of die eternity of life, and the inkling
of the marvellous structure of reality, together with die
single-hearted endeavour to comprehend a portion, be
it never so any, of the reason that manifests itself in
nature
The Liberty of Doctrine— a propos of the Gumbcl Case
Academic chairs arc many, ,but \fase and noble
teachers are few, lecture-rooms are numerous and large,
but the number of young people who genuinely thirst
after truth and jusace is small Nature scatters her com-
mon wares with a lavish hand, but die choice sort she
produces but seldom
We t aU kn J ow *“• 50 wJ >y complain; Was it not
cvct thus and will it not ever thus remain > Certainly
and one mus t take what nature gives as one finds it
But there is also such a thing as a spirit of the nmes an
5
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
attitude of mind characteristic of a particular generation,
which is passed on from individual to individual and
gives a society its particular tone Each of us has to do
his little bit towards transforming this spirit of the times
Compare the spirit which animated the youth in our
universities a hundred years ago with that prevailing
to-day They had faith m the amelioration of human
society , respect for every honest opinion, the tolerance
for which our classics had lived and fought In those
days men strove for a larger political unity, which at
that time was called Germany It was the students and
the teachers at the universities who kept these ideals
alive
To-day also there is an urge towards soaal progress,
towards tolerance and freedom of thought, towards a
larger political unity , which wc to-day cdl Europe But
the students at our umv ersmes have ceased as completely
as their teachers to enshnne the hopes and ideals of the
nation Anyone who looks at our times coolly and dis-
passionately must admit this
Wc arc assembled to-day to take stock of ourselves
The external reason for <thu meeting is the Gumbcl
case This aposde of justice has written about unex-
piatcd political enmes with devoted industry, high
courage, and exemplary fairness, and has done the com-
munity a signal service by his books And this is the
man whom die students, and a good many of the staff,
of his university are to-day doing their best to expel
Political passion cannot be allowed to go to such
lengths I im convinced dm every man who reads
Herr Gumbcl’s books uidi an open mind will gci the
same impression from diem as I have Men like fum
arc needed if wc arc ever to build up a healdiy political
society
6
THE WORLD -AS I SEE IT
Let every man judge according to his own. standards,
by what he has himself read, not by what others tell
him.
If that happens, this Gumbel case, after an unedifying
beginning, may still do good.
Good and Evil
It is right in principle that those should be the best
loved who have contributed most to the elevation of
the human race and human life. But if one goes on to
-ask who they are, one finds oneself in no inconsiderable
difficulties. In the case of political, and even of religious,
leaders, it is often very doubtful whether they have done
more good or harm. Hence I most seriously believe that
one does people the best service by giving them some-
elevating work. -to do and thus indirectly elevating them.
This applies most of all to the great artist, but also in a
’ lesser degree to the scientist. To be sure, it is not the
fruits of scientific research that elevate a man and enrich
his nature, but the urge to understand, the intellectual
work, creative or receptive. It would surely be absurd
to judge the value of the Talmud, for instance, by its
* intellectual fruits.
The true value of a human being is determined primarily
by the measure and the sense in which he has attained
to liberation from the self.
Society and Personality
When we survey our Iives'and endeavours we soc
observe that almost the whole of our actions and desir
are bound up wuh the existence of other human being
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
We see that our whole nature resembles that of the
social animals. We eat food that others have grown,
wear clothes that others have made, live in houses that
others have built. The greater parr of our knowledge
and beliefs has been communicated to us by other
people through the medium of a language which others
have created. Without language our mental capacities
would be poor indeed; comparable to those of the
higher animals; we have, therefore, to admit that we
owe our principal advantage over the beasts to the fact
of living in human society. The individual, if left alone
from birth, would remain primitive and beast-hke in.
his thoughts and feelings to a degree that we can hardly
conceive. The individual is what he is and has the
significance that he has not so much in virtue of his
individuality, but rather as a member of a great human
society, which directs his material and spiritual existence
from the cradle to the grave.
A man’s .value to the community depends primarily
on how far his feelings, thoughts and actions arc
directed towards promoting the good of his fellows.
Wc call him good or bad according to how he stands
in tHis matter. It looks at fine sight as if our estimate of
a man depended entirely on his social quah des.
And yet such an attitude would be wrong. It is clear
that all the valuable things, material, spiritual and moral,
which we receive from society can be traced back
through countless generations to certain creative in-
dividuals. The use of fire, die cultivation of edible
plants, die steam engine; — cadi was discovered by one
man.
Only the individual can think, and thereby create
new values for -sodety, nay, even set up new moral
standards to which the life of the community; conforms. __
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
Without creative, independently thinking and judging
personalities the upward development of society is as
untliinkable as the development 'of the individual
personality without the nourishihg soil of the com-
munity.
The health of society thus depends quite as much on
the independence of the individuals composing it as on
*their close political cohesion. It has been said very
justly that Graxo-Europeo-American culture as a.
whole, and in particular its brilliant flowering in the
Italian Renaissance, which put an end to die stagnation
of mediaeval Europe, is based oil the liberation and
comparative isolation of the individual.
Let us now consider the times in which we live.
How docs society fare, how the individual i The popu-
lation of the civilised countries is extremely dense as
compared with former times; Europe to-day contains
about three times as many people 'as it did a hundred
years ago. But. the number of great men has decreased
out of all proportion. Only a few individuals are known
to the masses as personalities, through their creative
achievements. Organisation has to some extent taken
the place of the great man, particularly in the technical
sphere, but also to a very perceptible extent in the
scientific.
The lack of outstanding figures is particularly striking
in the domain of art. Painting and music have definitely
degenerated and largely lost their popular appeal.* In
politics not only are leaders lacking, but the indepen-
dence of spirit and the sense of justice of the citizen
have to a great extent declined. The democratic, parlia-
mentarian regime, which is based on such independence
has in many places .been shaken, dictatorships have
sprung up and are tolerated, because men’s sense of the
9
THE WORLP AS I SEE IT
dignity and the rights of the individual is no longer
strong enough In two weeks the sheep-hke masses can
be worked up by the newspapers into juch a state of
excited fury that the men are prepared to put on
uniform and kill and be killed, for the sake of the
worthless aims of a few interested parties Compulsory
military service seems to > me the most disgraceful
symptom of that deficiency in personal dignity from
which civilised mankind is suffering to-day No won-
der there is no lack of prophets who prophesy the
early eclipse of our avihsanon I am not one of diesc
pessimists , I believe that bettdr times arc coming Let
me shortly state my reasons for such confidence
In my opinion, the present symptoms of decadence
are explained by the fact that the development of
industry and machinery has made the struggle for
existence very’ much more severe, greatly to the detri-
ment of die free development of the individual Bur
the de\elopmem of machinery means diat less and less
work is needed from, the uidividual for die satisfaction
of the comm unit) ’s needs A planned division of labour
is becoming more and more of a crying necessity, and
this division will lead to die material security of die
m dividual This security and the spare time and energy
which the individual will have at his command can be
made to further his development In this way die
community may regain its health, and we will hope
that future historians will explain die morbid symptoms
of present-day society ar the childhood ailments of an
aspiring humanity, due entirely to the excessive speed at
which civilisation was advancing
10
THE WORLD AS I SEn IT
Address at the Grave of H. A. Lorentz
It is as the representative of the German-speaking
academic world and in particular the Prussian Academy
of Sciences, but above all as a pupil and affectionate
admirer that I stand at the grave of the greatest and
noblest man of our times. # His genius was the torch
which lighted die way from the teachings of Clerk
Maxwell to die achievements of contemporary physics,
to the fabric of which he contributed valuable materials
and methods.
His life was ordered like a work of art down to dip
smallest detail. His never-failing kindness and mag-
nanimity and his sense of justice, coupled with an
intuitive understanding of people and tilings, made him
a leader in any sphere he entered. Everyone followed
him gladly, for dicy felt diat he never set out to dominate
but always simply to be of use. His work and his
example will live on as an inspiration and guide to
future generations.
H. A. Lorentz s work in the cause of International
s Co-operation
With die extensive specialisation of scientific research
which the nineteenth century brought about, it lias
become rare for a man occupying a leading position in
one of the sciences to manage at die same time to do
valuable service to the community in the sphere t>f
international organisation and international politics.
Such service demands not only energy, insight and a
reputation based on solid achievements, but also a
freedom from national prejudice and a devotion to the
common ends of all, which have become rare in our
* II
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
dines I have met no one who combined all these
qualities m himself so perfectly as H A Lorcntz. The
marvellous thing about the effect ofhis personality was
this — Independent and headstrong natures, such as are
particularly common among men of learning, do not
readily bow to another* s will and for the most pan only
accept his leadership grudgingly But when Lorcntz
is in the presidential chair, an atmosphere of happy
co-operation is invariably created, however much those
present may differ in their aims and habits of thought
The secret of this success lies not only m his swift com-
prehension of people and things and his marvellous
command of language, but above all in this, that one
feels that his whole heart is m the business in hand, and
that when he is at work, he has room for nothing else
m his mind Nothing disarms the recalcitrant so much
as this
Before the War Lorcntz’s activities in the cause of
international relations were confined to presiding at
congresses of physicists Particularly noteworthy among
these were the Solvay Congresses, the first two of
which were held at Brussels in 1909 and 1912 Then
came the European war, which was a crushing blow to
all who had the improvement of human relations in
general at heart Even before the vva- was over, and
soil more after its end, Lorcntz devoted himself to the
work of reconciliation His efforts were especially
directed towards the re-estabhshment of fruitful and
friendly co-operanon between men of learning and
scientific societies An outsider can hardly conceive
what uphill work this is The accumulated resentment
of the war period has not yet died down and many
influential men pen 1st in the irreconcilable attitude into
which they allowed themselves to be driven by the
12
THE WOR1D AS I SEE IT
pressure of circumstances. Hence Lorentzs efforts
resemble those of 3 doctor' with a recalcitrant patient
who refuses to take the medicines carefully prepared
for his benefit.
But Lorentz is not to be deterred, once he has recog-
nised a course of action as the right one. The moment
the war was over, he joined the governing body of the
“Conseil de recherche” which -was founded by the
savants of the victorious countries, and from which the
savants and learned societies of the Central Powers were
excluded. His object in taking this -step, which caused
great offence to the academic world of the Central
Powers, was to influence this institution in such a way
that it could be expanded into something truly inter-
national. He and other right-minded men succeeded,
after repeated efforts, in securing the removal- of the
offensive exclusion-clause from the statutes of the
“Conscil” -The goal, which is the restoration of
normal and fruitful co-operation between learned
societies, is, however, not yet attained, because the
academic world of the Central Powers, exasperated by
nearly ten years of exclusion from practically all inter-
national gatherings, has got into a habit of keeping
itself to itself. Now, however, there are good grounds
for hoping that the ice will soon be broken, thanks to
the tactful efforts of Lorentz, prompted by pure
enthusiasm for the good cause.
Lorentz has also devoted his energies to the service
of international cultural ends in another way, by con-
senting to serve on the League of Nations Commission
for international intellectual co-operation, which was
called into existence some five years ago with Bergson
as chairman. For the last year Lorentz has presided over
the Commission, which, with the active support of its
13
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
subordinate, the Paris Institute, is to act as a go-between
• in the domain of intellectual and artistic work among
the various spheres of culture. There too the beneficent
; influence of this intelligent, humane and modest per-
\ sonality, whose unspoken but faithfully followed advice
J is, ‘'Not mastery but service,” will lead people in the
right way.
, May his example contribute to the triumph of that
spirit!
In Honour of Arnold Berliner's Seventieth Birthday
(Arnold Berliner is the editor of the periodical Die Natimvissen-
schaften.)
I should like to take this opportunity of* telling my
friend Berliner and the readers of this paper why I rate
him and his work so highly. It h^s to be done here
because it is one’s only chance of getting such things
said ; since our training in objectivity has Jed to a taboo
on everything personal, which we mortals may only
transgress on quite exceptional occasions such as the
present one.
And now, after this dash for liberty, back to the
objective! The province of srienrifically determined
fact has been enormously extended, theoretical know-
ledge has become vastly more profound in every'
department of science. But the assimilative power of the
human intellect is and remains strictly limited. Hence
it was inevitable that the activity of the individual
investigator should be confined to a smaller and smaller
section of human knowledge. Worse still, as a result
of tliis specialisation it is becoming increasingly difficult
for even a rough general grasp of science as a whole,
without which the true spirit of research is inevitably
14
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
handicapped, to keep pace with progress A situation is
developing similar to the one symbolically represented’
in the Bible by the story of the Tower of Baba Every
serious scientific worker is painfully conscious of this
involuntary relegation to an ever-narrowing sphere of
knowledge, which is direatemng to deprive the investi-
gator of his broad horizon and degrade him to the
level of a mechanic
"We have all suffered under this evil, without making
any effort to mitigate it But Berliner has come to the
rescue, as far as the German-speaking world is con-
cerned, in the most admirable way He saw that the
existing popular periodicals were sufficient to instruct
and stimulate the layman, hut he also saw that a fust-
class, well-edited organ was needed for the guidance of
the scientific worker who desired to be put sufficient!)
au courant of developments in scientific problems,
methods and results to be able to form a judgment of
his own Through many years of hard work he has
devoted himself to this object with great intelligence
and no less great determination, and done us all, and
science a service for which we cannot be too grateful
It was necessary for him to secure the co-operation of
successful scientific writers and induce them to say
what they had to say in a form as far as possible intel-
ligible to non-speaalists He has often told me of the
fights he had in pursuing this object, the difficulties of
which he once described to me in the following nddle
Question "What is a scientific author? Answer A
cross between a mimosa and a porcupine 1 Berliner’s
achievement would have been impossible but for the
peculiar intensity of his longmg for a clear, compre-
Do not be angry w th me for th s tnd sermon, mv
senous mmded man eojovt a good laugh now A
*$
THJ6 WOULD AS I SJBJ6 IT
hensivc view of the largest possible area of saentific
country This feeling also drove him to produce a
text-book of physics, the fruit of many years of strenuous
work, of which a medical student said to me the other
day "I don't know how I should ever have got a clear
idea of the principles of modem physics in the time at
my disposal without this book "
Berliner’s fight for clarify and comprehensiveness of
outlook has done a great deal to Bring the problems,
methods and results of science home to many people’s
minds The saentific life of our time is simpl) incon-
ceivable without his paper It is just as important to
make knowledge live and to keep it alive as to solve
specific problems We arc all conscious of what we
owe to Arnold Berliner
Popper-Lytikctus was more than a brilliant engineer
and writer He was one of the few outstanding per-
sonalities who embody the consacncc of a generation
He has drummed it into us that soaecy is responsible
for the fate of ever) individual and shown us a way to
translate the consequent obhganon of the community
,mto fact The community or state was no fetish to
him, he based ns right to demand sacrifices of the
individual entirely on its duty to give the individual
personality a chance of harmonious development
Obituary of the Surgeon, M Katzcnstem
Dunng the eighteen jears I spent m Berlin I had few
dose friends, and the doses t was Professor Katzen-
stein For more than ten ) ears I spent m> leisure hours
•hrnnq, 'ho. vrnwmv; m nurhe, him., mtirshj 'in. hie,
delightful yacht There W'c confided our experiences,
16
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
ambitions, emotions to each other. Wc both felt that
this friendship was not only a blessing because each
understood die other, was enriched by him, and found
in him that responsive echo so essential to. anybody who
is truly alive ; it also helped to make both of us more
independent of external experience, to objectivise it
more easily.
I was a free man, bound neither by many duties nor
by harassing responsibilities; my friend, on the con-
trary, was never free from the grip of urgent duties and
anxious fears for the fate of those in peril. If, ns was
invariably the case, he had performed some dangerous
operations in the morning, he would ring up on the
telephone, immediately before we got into the boat, to
enquire after the condition of the patients about whom
■ he was worried ; I could sec how deeply concerned he
was for the lives entrusted to his care. It was marvellous
that this shackled outward existence did not clip the
wings t)f his soul ; his imagination and his sense ol
humour were irrepressible. He never became the
typical conscientious North-German, whom the Italian!
in the days of their freedom used to call bestia seriosa
He was sensitive as a youth to the tonic beauty of the
lakes and woods of Brandenburg, and as he sailed the
boat with an expert hand through these beloved and
familiar surroundings he opened the secret treasure-
chamber of his heart to me— he spoke of his experiments,
scientific ideas, and ambitions. How he found time anc
energy for them was always a mystery to me; but tht
passion for scientific enquiry is not to be crushed b>
any burdens. The man who is possessed with it perishe:
sooner than it does. r
There were two types of problems that engaged hi
attention. The first forced itsMf on him out of the
17
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
necessities of his practice Thus he was always thinking
out new ways of inducing healthy muscles to take the
place of lost ones, by ingenious transplantanon of
tendons He found this remarkably easy, as he possessed
an uncommonly strong spatial imagination and a
remarkably sure feeling for mechanism How happy
he was when he had succeeded in making somebody fit
for normal life by putting right the muscular system of
his face, foot or arm* And the same when he avoided
an operation, even in cases which had been sent to him
by physicians for surgical treatment (in cases of gastric
ulcer by neutralising the pepsin) He also set great
store by the treatment of peritonitis by an anti-toxic
coil-serum which he discovered, and rejoiced in the
successes he achieved with it In talking of it he often
lamented the flvt that this method of treatment was not
endorsed by his colleagues
The second group of problems had to do with the
common concepnon of an antagonism between different
sorts of tissue He believed that he was here on the track
of a general biological principle of widest application,
whose implications he followed out with admirable
boldness and persistence Starting out from this basic
nonon he discovered that osteomyelon and periosteum
prevent each other’s growth if they are not separated
from each other by bone In this way he succeeded m
explaining hitherto inexplicable eases of wounds fail-
ing to heal, and m bringing about a cure
This genera! notion of the antagonism of the tissues,
especially of epithelium and connecm e tissue, was the
subject to which he devoted lus scientific energies,
especially in the last ten years of lus life Experiments
on animals and a systematic mv esnganon of the growth
of tissues in a nutrient fluid were earned out side by
18
THE WOJUP as l SEE IT
side. How thankful he was, with his hands tied as they
were by his duties, to have found such an admirable
and infinitely enthusiastic fellow-worker in Friculeni
Knake! He succeeded in securing wonderful results
bearing on the factors which favour the growth of
epithelium at the expense of that of connective tissue,
results which may well be of derisive importance for the
study of cancer. He also h*ad the pleasure of inspiring
his own son to become his intelligent and independent
fellow-worker, and of exciting the warm interest
and co-operation of Sauerbruch just in the last years
of his life, so that he was able to die with the consoling
diought that his life's work would not perish but
would be vigorously^ continued on the lines he had
laid down.
I for my part am grateful to fate for having given me
this man, with his inexhaustible goodness and high
creative gifts, for a friend.
Congratulations to Dr. Solj
I am delighted to be able to offer you, Dr. Solf,
the heartiest congratulations, the congratulations of
Lessing College of which you have become an
indispensable pillar, and the congratulations of all who
are convinced of the need for close contact between
science and art and the public which is hungry for
spiritual nourishment. " '
You have not hesitated to apply y0U r energies to a
held where there are no laurels to be won, but quiet
loyal work to be done in the interests of the general
standard of intellectual and spiritual life, which is in
peculiar danger to-day owing to a variety of circum-
stances. Exaggerated respect for athletics, an excess of
19
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
coarse impressions which the complication of life through
the technical discoveries of recent >cars has brought
with it, the increased seventy of the struggle for
existence due to the economic crisis, the brutalisation of
political life — all these factors are hostile to the npening
of the character and the desire for real culture, and
stamp our age as barbarous, matenahsne and superficial
Specialisation m every sphere of intellectual work
is producing an ever-widening gulf between the
intellectual worker and the non-speaahst, which
makes it more difficult for the life of the nanon to be
fertilised and ennehed by the achievements of art and
science
But contact between the intellectual and the masses
must not be lost It is necessary for die elevation of
society and no less so for renewing the strength of the
intellectual worker, for the flower of science docs not
grow m the desert For this reason you, Herr SoI£
have devoted a portion of your energies to Lessing
College, and vve are grateful to )ou for doing so
And we wish you further success and happiness in your
work for this noble cause
Of Wealth
I am absolutely convmced that no wealth in the
world can help humanity forward, even in the hands
of the most devoted worker in this cause The example,
of great and pure characters is the only thing that can
produce fine ideas and noble deeds Monfc) onlv
appeals to selfishness and always tempts its owners
irresistibly to abuse it
Ola vtmegeut Moots, Jtsra vt Gasv&n aimed
with the money-bags of Carnegie 1
20
THE WORLD AS'I SEE IT
Education and Educators
A letter
Dear Miss
I have read about sixteen pages of your manuscript
and it made me— smile. It is clever, well observed,
honest, it stands on its own feet up to a point, and yet
it is so typically feminine, by which I mean derivative
and vitiated by personal rancour. I suffered exactly
the same treatment at the hands of my teachers, who
disliked me for my independence and passed me over
when they wanted assistants (I must admit that I was
somewhat less of a model student than you). But it
would not have been worth my while to write anything
about my school life, still less would I have liked to be
responsible for anyone’s printing or actually reading it.
Besides, one always cuts a poor figure if one complains
about o tlicrs who arc struggling for their place in the
sun too after their own fashion.
Therefore pocket your temperament and keep your
manuscript for your sons and daughters, in order that
they may derive consolation from it and — not give a
damn for what their teachers tell them or think of them.
Incidentally I am only coming to Princeton to
research, not to teach. There is too much education
altogether, especially in American schools. The only
rational way of educating is to be an example— of what
~to avoid, if one can't be the other sort.
With best wishes.
To the Schoolchildren of Japan
In sending this greeting to you Japanese school-
children, I can lay claim to a special right to do so, ' For "
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
I have m>self visited your beautiful country, $e<
cities and houses, its mountains and woods, and in
Japanese boys who had learnt from them to love
country A big fat book full of coloured drawjni
Japanese children lies always on my table
If you get my message of greeting from 3II
distance, bethink y ou that ours is the first age in hr
to bring about friendly and understanding intera
between people of different countries , in former t
nations passed their lives in mutual ignorance, an
fact hated or feared one another May* the spin
brotherly understanding gain ground more and r
among them With this in mind I, an old man, f
you Japanese schoolchildren from afar and hope
your generation may some day put mine to sh ame
Teachers and Pupils
An address to children
(The principal art of the teacher is to awaken the joy in creation
ana knowledge )
My dear Children,
I rejoice to sec you before me to-day, happy youth
of a sunny and fortunate land
Bear m mind that the wonderful things you learn
m your schools arc die work of many generations,
produced by cndiusiasuc effort and infinite labour in
everv country of the world All dm is put into your
hands as your inheritance in order diat you may receive
it, honour it, add to it, and one day faithfully hand it on
to your children Thus do we mortals achieve immor-
.tcvUy jr ahr ptatroan-W *shugv* .Vihtsh wr -in
common
23
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
If you always keep that in’ mind you will find a
meaning in life and work and acquire the right attitude
towards other nations and ages.
1 Paradise Lost
As late as the seventeenth century the savants and
artists of all Europe were so closely united by the bond
of a common ideal that co-operation between them was
scarcely affected by political events. This unity was
further strengthened by the general use of the Latin
language.
To-day we look back at this state of affairs as at a
dost paradise. The passions of nationalism have des-
troyed this community of the intellect, and the Latin
language, which once united the whole world, is dead.
The men of learning have become die chief mouthpieces
of national tradition and lost their sense of an intellectual
commonwealth.
Nowadays wc arc faced widi the curious fact that
the politicians, ffjc practical men of affairs, have become
the exponents of international ideas. If is diey who
have created the League of Nations.
Religion aitd Science
Ever) thing that the human race has done and thought
is concerned with the satisfaction of felt needs and the
assuagement of pain. One has to keep this constantly
in mind if one wishes to understand spiritual move-
ments and their development. Feeling and desire are
the motive forces behind all human endeavour and
human creation, in however exalted a guise the latter
may present itself to us. Now what are the feelings
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
and needs that have led men to religious thought and
belief in the widest sense of the vv ords > A htde con-
sideranon wall suffice to show us that die most varying
emotions preside over the birth of religious thought
and experience QWith primitive man it is abov<r all
fear that evokes religious notions — fear of hunger, Wild
beasts, sickness, death Since at this stagt of existence
understanding of causal connexions is usually poorly
developed, the human mind creates for itself more or
less analogous beings on whose wills and actions these
fearful happenings depend One’s object now is to
secure die favour of these beings by carr) mg out actions
and offering sacrifices which, according to the tradition
handed down from generation to generation, propitiate
them or make them well disposed towards a mortal
I am speaking now of the religion of fear This, though
not created, is in an important degree stabilised by die
formation of a special pnestly caste which sets up as a
mediator between the people and the beings diey fear,
and erects a hegemony on dm basis In many cases
the leader or ruler whose position depends on other
factors, or a privileged class, combines pnestly functions
with its secular authority in order to make the latter
more secure, or the political rulers and die pnesdy
caste make common cause in their own interests )
The social feelings are another source of the crystal-
lisation of religion Fathers and modiers-and the leaders
of larger human communities are mortal and fallible
The desire for guidance, love and support prompts
men to form the social or moral conception of God.
Tim is the God of Providence who protects, disposes,
rewards and punishes, the God who, according to the
width ot the "believer's outlook, loves and cherishes the
life of the mbe or of the human race, or cv en life as
=4
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
such, the comforter m sorrow and unsatisfied longing,
who preserves the souls of the dead This is the social
or moral conception of God
TheTewish scriptures admirably illustrate the develop -
ment from the~ rekgion of fea r t o moral religion, which
£T continued in the New Testa ment The religions of
all civilised peoples , es pedallytKe peoples of the Orient ,
are pnmanly moral religion s The development from
a religion of tear to 'moral religion is a great step m a
nation’s life* That primitive religions are^based entirely
on fear and the religions of civilised peoples purely on
morality is a prejudice against which we must be on our
guard The truth is that they are all intermediate types,
with this reservanon, that on the higher levels of social i
hfe the religion of morality predominates
Common to nil these types is the anthropomorphic
character of their conception of God Only individuals
of exceptional endowments and exceptionally high-
minded communities, as a general rule, get in any real
sense beyond this level But there is a third state of
religious experience which belongs to all of them, even
though it is rarely found m a pure form, and which I
will call cosmic religious feeling It is very difficult
to explain this /eeling to any one who is entirely
without it, especially as there *s no anthropomorphic
concepuon of God corresponding to it
The individual feels the nothingness of human
desires and aims and the sublimity and marvellous order
which reveal themselves both m nature and in the world
of thought He looks upon individual exi stence as a
son of prison and wants to experience the univer se ~as
^Singl e . signi fica nt whol e The beginnings ot cosmic
religious feeling already appear m earlier stages of
development, e g , in many of the Psalms of David and
25
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
in some of the Prophets Buddhism, as we have leamt
from the wonderful writings of Schopenhauer especi-
ally, contains a much stronger clement of it.
The religious geniuses of all ages have been dis-
tinguished by this kind of religious feeling, which knows
no dogma and no God conceived m man’s image; so
that there can be no church whose central teachings are
f based on* it. Hence it is precisely among the heretics
of every age that we find men who were filled with the
highest kind of religious feeling and were m many
cases regarded by their contemporaries as atheists,
sometimes also as saints. Looked at in this light, men
like Democntus, Francis of Assisi, and Spinoza arc
closely akin to one another.
How can cosmic religious feeling be communicated
from one person to another, if it can give rise to no '
definite notion of a God and no theology i In my view,
it is the most important function of art and science to
awaken this feeling and keep it alive in those who arc
capable of it
£Wc thus arrive at a conception of the relation of
science to religion very different from the usual x>ne
When one view's the matter historicall y one is inclined
to look upon science and 'lehgion *as irreconcilable
antagonists, and for a very obvious reason The man
who is thoroughly convinced of the universal operation
of the law of causation cannot for a moment en terrain
the idea of a being who interferes m the course of events
— that is, if he takes the hypothesis of causality really
seriously He has no use for the religion of fear and
equally little for social or moral religion A God who
rewards and punishes is m conceivable to him for die
simple reason that a man’s actions are determined by
necessity, external and internal, so that m God’s eyes
26
/ THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
lie cannot be responsible, any more than an inanimate
object is responsible for the motions it goes through
Hence science has been charged with undermining
morality, but the charge is unjust A man’s ethical
behaviour should be based effectually on sympathy,
education, and social ties , no religious basis is necessary
Man would indeed be in a poor way if he had to be
restrained by fear and pumshment and hope of reward
after death y
It is therefore easy to see why the churches have
always fought science and persecuted its devotees On
the other hand I maintain that cosmic religious feeling
is the strongest and noblest incitement to scientific
research Only those who realise the immense efforts
and, above all, the devotion which pioneer work in
theoretical science demands, can grasp the strength of
the emotion out of which alone such work, remote as
it is from the immediate realities of life, can issue
What a deep conviction of the rationality of the
universe and what a yearning to understand, were it
hut a feeble reflecuon of the mind revealed m this 1
world, Kepler and Newton must have had to enable
them to spend years of solitary' labour in disentangling^
the principles of celestial mechanics’ Those whose
acquaintance with scientific research is denved chiefly
from its practical results easily develop a completely
false notion of the mentality of che men who, sur-
rounded by a sceptical world, have shown the way to
those like-minded with themselves, scattered through
the earth and the centuries £ Onl\ one who has devoted
his hfc to similar ends can have a vivid realisation of
what has inspired these men and given them the
strength to remain true to dieir purpose in spite of
countless failures It is cosmic religious feeling that
27
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
gives a man strength of this son A contemporary lias
said, not unjust!) , that in this materialistic age of ours
the serious scientific workers are the only profoundly
religious people } -
The Keitgtcusness of Science
You will hardly find one among the profounder sort
of scientific minds without a peculiar religious feeling
of his own But it is different from the religion ofithe
naive man For the latter God is a being from whose
care one hopes to benefit and whose punishment one
fears, a sublimation of a feeling similar to that of a
child for -its father, a being to whom one stands to some
extent m a personal relation, however deeply it may be
tinged with awe
But the scientist is possessed by the sense of universal
causation The future, to him, is every whit as necessary
and determined as the past There is nothing divin e
about morality, it is a purely human affair His religio us
feeling takes die form of a rapturous amazement at the
harmony of natural law , which reveals an intelligen ce
oflsuch superio rity that, compared with if, all the
s ystematic thinking and acting of hum an beings is an
utterly insignificant reflection" Ibis feeling is the
guiding principle of his life and work, m so far as he
succeeds in keeping himself from the shackles of selfish
desire It is beyond quesuon closely akin to chat which
has possessed die religious geniuses of all ages
The Plight of Science
The German-speaking countries are menaced by a
danger to which those in the know are m duty bound
28
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
has been paid for by the martyr’s blood of pure
'rear men, for whose sake Italy is soil loved and
bnced to-day .
be it from me to argue with you about what'
ids on human liberty may be justified by reasons
ate But the pursuit of scientific truth, detached
i the pracncal interests of everyday life, ought to
Teatcd as sacred by every government and it is
ne highest interests of all that honest servants of
\ should be left in peace Tins is also undoubtedly
t c interests of the Italian state and its prestige in the
jt of the world
loping that my request will not fall on deaf ears,
(a, etc
Interviewer*
To be called to account publicly for everything one
k said, even in jest, an excess of high spirits or momen-
ry anger, fatal as it must be in the end, is yet up to a
nnt reasonable and natural But to be called to
fount publicly for what others have said in one’s
tme, when one cannot defend oneself, is indeed a
d predicament ‘ But who suffers such a dreadful
'tje> >ou will ask Well, everyone who is of
'ifraent interest to the public to be pursued bj mter-
lewers You smile incredulously, but I have had
knrj of direct experience and Mill tell you about
( Imagine the following situation One momintr a
reporter comes to - ’ - - e
:q tell lum someth
you no doubt feel
m a mendly way
mg about jour friend N At first
something approaching indignation
SBC IT
THE WORLD A* ,
icd to express the
at such a proposal But of the American nation,
is no escape If youu'gh sense of responsibility, w»*
writes “I asked elf to the sphere of politics For
about him Bio-operation of the great country
This'in ltselfates in the business of regulating
conclusions, all efforts directed towards tins
- nound to remain more or less ineffectual
? I thank you most heartily for this
reception and, in particular, the men of leamrn
this country for the cordial and friendly W'- 1
have received from them I shall always look *
these two months with pleasure and gratitude
The Unnersity Course at Davos
Senatores bom vm, senatus autem bestia So a r
of mine, a Swiss professor, once wrote in his irntal
way to a university faculty which had annoyed 1
Communities tend to be less guided than
by conscience and a sense of responsibility What
fruitful source of suffering to mankind this fact i
It is the cause of wars and every kind of oppressio
which fill the earth with pain, sighs, and bitterness
And yet notlung truly valuable can be achieved
except by the unselfish co-openmon of many indi 1
viduals Hence the man of good will is never happict
than when some communal enterprise is afoot and \
launched at die cost of heavy sacrifices, with the singl
object of promoting life and culture !
Such pure joy was nunc when I heard about th 1
university courses at Davos A work of rescue is bcuu
earned out there, with intelligence and a wise modcra
non, which is based on a grave need, diough it may no
34
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
of infancy May it prosper, enriching the
of numbers of admirable human beings and resa,
many from the poverty 'of sanatorium life 1 Vih
Congratulations to a Critic '
To see with one’s own eyes, to feel and judge wicf^
succumbing to the suggestive power of thefashioi
the day, to be able to express what one has seen
in a snapp) sentence or even in a cunningly wro
word — is that not glonous » Is it not a proper sill
for congratulation » „i
Greeting to G Bernard Shaw
There arc few enough people with sufficient mdepel
dencc to see the weaknesses and follies of their conten
poranes and remain themselves untouched b) >’
And these isolated few usually soon lose their zeil *
putting things to rights when they have come face
face with human obduracy Only to a arty minority
it given to fascinate their generation by subtle *
and grace and to hold the mirror up to it by the
personal agency of art To-day I salute with
emotion die supreme master of this method, who 1
delighted — and educated — us all
* Some Notes on my American Impressions
I must redeem my promise to say somednng
my impressions of this country That is not altogethj
easy for me For it iS not easy to take up the atmucV
of an impartial observer when one is received witf
such kindness and undeserved respect as I have been ^
America First of all let me say something on this heaf
36 <
] THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
cafe cult of individual personalities is always, in my
JJj unjustified. To be sure, nature 'distributes her
n i Variously among her children. But there are plenty
b o'e well-endowed ones too, thank God, and I am
J 'Ay Convinced that most of them live quiet, un-
. .. . .r ■ ] L „ A
jT&tled lives. It strikes me as unfair, and even in bad
p, to select a few of them for boundless admiration,
j/jbuting superhuman powers of mind and character
gLfrhem. This has been my fate, and the contrast
ir$rc£n the popular estimate of my • powers and
Moments and the reality is simply grotesque. The
A is aousness of this extraordinary state of affairs would
^..(unbearable but for one great Consoling thought: it is
nWelpome symptom in an age which is commonly
Jenonmced as materialistic! that it makes heroes of men
I irhose ambitions lie wholely in the intellectual and
not al sphere. This proves that knowledge and justice
ire tanked above wealth and power by a large section
of the human race. My experience teaches me that
this.* idealistic budook is particularly prevalent in
America, which is usually decried as a particularly
materialistic country. After this digression I come to
; m y\ proper theme, in the hope that no more weight
Mtlchcd to my modest remarks than they
"What first strikes the visitor with 'smarement is the
apriority of this country in matters of technics and
nation. Objects of everyday me are more solid
m Europe homes infinitely more convenient in
its natural
-t“ E r Dri r?r t , on ^ - «*«-
Revoked the maULX^ntrftS
37
THB WORLD AS I SEE IT
devices and methods of work The opposite extreme
is illustrated by over-populated China or India, Where
the low price of labour has stood in the way flf the
development of machinery Europe is half-way between
the two Once the machine is sufficiently highly
developed it becomes cheaper in the end thanl the
cheapest labour. Let the Fascists in Europe, who desire
on narrow-minded political grounds to see their qwn
particular countries more densely populated, take Heed
of this The anxious care with which the Uiuted S/mccs
keep out foreign goods by means of prohibitive nW 1 ®
certainly contrasts oddly with this non on . Bijh an
innocent visitor must not be expected to rack his bp 1115
too much, and, when all is said and done, it lsjnot
absolutely certain that every question admits c£f 3
rational answer j
The second thing that strikes a visitor is the joyf ous ’
positive attitude to life' The smile on the faces ofj the
.people w photographs is symbolical of one off die
American’s greatest assets He is fnendly, confioiCnt,
optimistic, and — without envy The European fijnds
intercourse with Americans easy and agreeable ]
Compared with the American, the European is rr/otf
critical, more self-consaous, less good-hearted <and
helpful, more isolated, more fastidious m his aml.W’
ments and his reading, generally more or less ojf 4
pessinust /
Great importance attaches to the material cormforts
of life, and peace, freedom from care, security arc all
sacrificed to diem The American lives for ambition,
the future, more than the European Life for Mia I s
always becoming, never being In this respect jbe is
even further removed from the Russian andS the
Asiatic than the European is But there is another
THE WORLD AS I SEB IT
respect in which he resembles the Asiatic more than the
EurotP ean does he is less of an individualist than the
European — that is, from the psychological, not the
economic, point of view ^ m (l )t
jyjjore emphasis is laid on the we than the 1 .
As .1 natural corollary of tins, custom and convention
are / very powerful, and there is much more uni-
formity both in outlook on life and in moral and.
restuetic ideas among Americans than among Euro-
peans This fact is chiefly responsible for America's
economic superiority over Europe Co-operation and
the Vhvision of labour are earned through more easily
and! with less friction than in Europe, whether in the
factory or the university or in private good works
This social sense may be partly due to the English
tradition
In apparent contradiction to this stands the fact that the
actmues of the state are comparatively restricted as
compared with Europe The European is surprised to
find the telegraph, the telephone, the railways and the
schools predominantly in private hands The more
social attitude of the individual, which I mentioned just
now, makes this possible here Another consequence
of this attitude is that the extremely unequal distri-
bution of property leads to no intolerable hardships
The social conscience of the rich man is much more
higlfly developed than in Europe He considers himself
obliged as a matter of course to place a large portion
v °, j wealth, ^ °^ en °f lus own energies too. at
rWltP 0521 comraunit y* and public opinion,
that ^-powerful iorce, impenously demands it of him
Hence the most important cultural fimedons can be left
to private enterprise and the part played by* e s a *
m dm country is, comply, a very reacted o“
39
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
The prestige of government has undoubtedly^ been
lowered considerably by the Prohibition laws.Pj fur
nothing is more destructive of respect for die gopvero-
ment and the law of the land than passing laws wyHch
cannot be enforced. It is an open secret than tic
dangerous increase of crime in this country is clclscty
connected with this. I
There is also another way in which Prohibition! in
my opinion, has led to the enfeeblement of the state.
The public-house is a place which gives people a ch juice
to exchange views and ideas on public affairs. As ^
as I can see, people here have no chance of doin^-lfus,
the result being that the Press, which is mostly con-
trolled by definite interests, has 3n excessive influence
over public opinion. - .
The over-estimation of money is still greater in this
country than in Europe, but appears to me to be on the
decrease. It is at last beginning to be realised that great
wealth is not necessary for a happy and satisfactory life-
As regards artistic matters, I have been genuinely
impressed by the good taste displayed in the modem
buildings and in articles of common use; on the other,
hand the visual arts and music have little place in the
life of the nation as compared with Europe.
I have a warm admiration for the achievements of
American institutes of scientific research. We are
unjust in attempting to ascribe the increasing superiority
of American research-work excluiivcly to superior*
wealth; zeal, patience, a spirit of comradeship and a _
talent for co-operation play an important part in its
successes. One more observation to finish up with.
The United States are the most powerful technically
advanced, country in. the world to-day.. Their influence
on the shaping of international relations is absolutely
40
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
incalculable. But America' is a large country^ and its
people have so far not shown much interfist in great
international problems, among which the problem of
disarmament occupies first place to-day. This must be
changed, if only in the essential interests of die Ameri-
cans. The last war has shown that there are no longer
any barriers between the continents and diat the
destinies of all countries are closely interwoven. The
people of this country must realise that they have a
great responsibility in the sphere of international
politics. The part of passive spectator is unworthy of
tills country and is bound in the end to lead to disaster
all round.
Reply to the Women of America
An American Women’s League felt called upon to protest
against Einstein’s visit to their country. They received the fol-
lowing answer.
Never yet have I experienced from the fair sex such
energetic rejection of all advances; or if I have, never
from so many at once.
But are they not quite nght, these watchful citizen-
esses ! "Why should one open one’s doors to a person
who devours hard-boiled capitalists with as much appe-
tite and gusto as the Cretan Minotaur in days gone by
devoured luscious Greek maidens, and on top of that
is low-down enough to reject every sort of war, except
the unavoidable war with one’s own wife ? Therefore
give heed to your clever and patriotic wconen-f&Hc
and remember that the Capitol of mighty Rome was
once saved by the cackling of its faithful geese
4i
Part II
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
Peace
r T'HE importance of securing international peace was
* recognised by the really great men of former
generations But the technical advances of our times
have turned this ethical postulate into a matter of life
and death for civilised mankind to-day, and made the
taking of an active part m the solution of the problem
of peace a moral duty which no conscientious man
man can shirk
One has to reahse that the powerful industrial groups
concerned in the manufacture of arms are doing their
best in all countries to prevent the peaceful settlement
of ^international disputes, and that rulers can only
achieve this great end if they arc sure of the vigorous
support of the majority of their peoples In these days
ot democrauc government the fate of die nations hangs
on themselves, each individual must always bear that
m mind
The Pacifist Problem
Ladies and Gentlemen,
%Cr ^' th* 5 opportunity of saying a few
rn„ V° U about thc problem of pacificism The
C ^ cnts m t bc last few years has once more
.3",“ Kow Iwk we ate justified m leaving the
to I!, aS1UB< armam cnts and against the war sprat
D n'„f' trnmcms On the other hand, the formation
g rgamsanons with a large membership can of
4 $
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
itself bring us very little nearer to our goal. In
opinion, the best method in this case is the violent)
of conscientious objection, with the aid of organise*
for giving moral and material support to the courage
conscientious objectors in cadi country. In this way
may succeed in malting the problem of pacificism
acute one, a real struggle which attracts forceful naru
It is an illegal struggle, but a struggle for people’s i
rights against their governments w so far as the In!
demand criminal acts of the arizen.
Many who think themselves good pacifists will,
at this out-and-out pacifism, on patriotic groun
Such people are not to be relied on in the hour ofai
as the world war amply proved.
I am most grateful to you for according me
opportunity to give you my views in person.
Address to the Students' Disarmament Meeting
Preceding generations have presented us, in a high]
developed saence and mechanical knowledge, with
most valuable gift which carries with it possibilities (
making our life free and beaurifid such as no prewot
generation has enjoyed. But this gift also brings withj
dangers to our existence as great as any that have eve
threatened it.
The destiny of dvilised humanity depends more thai
ever on the moral forces it is capable' of generating
Hence the task that confronts our age is certainly nc
easier than the tasks our immediate predecessor
successfully performed.
The foodstuffs and other goods which the world
needs can be produced in far fewer hours of work than
formerly. But this has made the problem of the division
46
F0 POLITICS AND PACIFISM
jon, from Jesus Christ to Goethe and Kani Is it
"mficant that such men have been umversaUy
]t d as leaders, in spite of the fact that their efforts
uld the course of human affairs were attended
but small success?
m convinced that the great men, those whose
cements, even though in a restricted sphere, set
above their fellows, arc animated to an over-
turn g extent by the same ideals But they have
influence on die course of pohncal events It
st looks as if this domain, on which die fate of
>ns depends, had inevitably to be given over to
:ncc and irresponsibility
ihtical leaders or governments owe their position
ly to force and pardy to popular election They
tot be regarded as representative of the best elements,
•ally and intellectually, m dieir respective nations
intellectual elite have no direct influence on die
ary of nations in these days, their lack of cohesion
yents them from taking a direct part in die solution
contemporary problems Don’t you dunk diat a
nge might be brought about m dus respect by a
i association of people whose work and achieve-
nts up to date constitute a guarantee of their ability
1 punty of aim? This international association,
lose members would need to keep m touch with
h other by a constant interchange of opinions, might,
defining its attitude in the Press— responsibility
■vays resting with the signatories on any given
casion — acquire a considerable and salutary moral
flncnrr &W sademear peitaal qusttans
ich an assoaanon would, of course, be a prey to all
cills which so often lead to degeneranon in learned
►ciedcs, dangers which are inseparably bound up with
49
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
the irtperfecoon of human nature But should not an
effort in tins direction be risked m spite of this’ I look
upon the attempt as nothing less than an imperative
dut)
If an intellectual association of standing, such as I
have described, could be formed, it would no doubt
ha\c to try to mobilise the religious organisations for
the fight against war It would give countenance to
many whose good intentions are paralysed to-day by a
melancholy resignation Fmilly, I believe that an
association formed of persons such as I have described,
each highly esteemed in lus own hue, would be just
the dung ro give valuable moral support to those
elements in the League of Nations which arc rcall)
working for the great object for which that institution
exists
I had rather put diese proposals to you than to anyone
else in the world because you arc least of all men the
dupe of y our desires and because y our critical judgment
is supported by a most earnest sense of responsibility
Compulsory Service
From a letter
Instead of permission being given to Germany to
introduce compulsory service it ought to be taken away
from everybody else m future none but mercenary
armies should be permitted, die size and equipment of
which should be discussed at Geneva This would be
better for France dian to base to permit compulsory
service in Germany The fatal psvdiological effect of
the military education of die people and the violation
of the individual s rights wlucii it involves would dius
be avoided
io
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
' Moreover, it would be much easier for two countries
which had agreed to compulsory arbitration for the
settlement of all disputes arising out of their mutual
relations to combine their military establishments of
mercenaries, into a single organisation with a mixed
staff. This would mean a financial relief and increased
security for both of them. Such a process of amal-
gamation might extend to larger and larger com-
binations, and finally lead to an “international police,”
which would be bound gradually to degenerate as
international security increased.
Will you discuss this proposal with our friends by
way of setting the ball rolling > Of course I do not in
the least insist on this particular proposal. But I do think
it essential that we should come forward with a positive
programme; a merely negative policy is unlikely to
produce any practical results.
Germany and France
Mutual trust and co-operation between France and
Germany can only come about if the French demand for
security against military attack is satisfied. But should
France frame demands in accordance with this, such a
step would certainly be taken very ill in Germany.
A procedure something like the following seems,
however, to be possible. Let the German government
L °' Vn W1 ^ propose to the French that they
should jointly make representations to the League of
Nations that it should suggest to all member states to
bind themselves to the following : —
to To submit to ever)- decision of the international
court of arbitration.
•fc) To proceed with all its economic and military
5i
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
force, in concert with the other members of the League,
against any state which breaks the peace or resists ai)
international decision made in the interests of world
peace.
Arbitration
Systematic disarmament within a short period. This
is only possible in combination with the guarantee of
all for the security of each separate nation, based on a
permanent court of arbitration independent of govern-
ments. i
Unconditional obligation of all countries not merely
to accept the decisions of the "court of arbitration but
also to give effect to them.
Separate courts of arbitration for Europe with
Africa, America, and Asia (Australia to be apportioned .
to one of these). A joint court of arbitration for
questions involving issues that cannot be setded within
the limits of any one of these three regions.
The International of Science
At a sitting of the Academy during die War, at die
rime when national and political infatuation had
readied its height, Emil Fischer spoke die following
emphatic words : — “It’s no use. Gentlemen, saence is and
"'•remains international.” The really great saentists have
always known this and felt it passionately, even though
m times of political confusion.they may have remained
isolated among didr colleagues of inferior calibre. In
every camp during the War this mass of voters betrayed
dicir sacred rrusr. The international sodccy of the
academies was broken up. Congresses were and still
52
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
aie held from which colleagues from ex-enemy coun-
tries are excluded Political considerations, advanced
with much solemnity, pre /ent the triumph of purely
objective ways of thinking without which our great
aims must necessarily be frustrated
What can. right-minded. people, people who are proof
against the emotional temptations oftnc moment, do to
repair the damage? With the majority of intellectual
workers still so excited, truly international congresses
on the grand scale cannot yet be held The psychological
obstacles to the restoration of the international associ-
ations of scientific workers are still too formidable to
be overcome by the minority whose ideas and feelings
are of a more comprehensive kind These last can aid
in the great work of restoring the international societies
to health by keeping in close touch with like-minded
people all over the world, and resolutely championing
the international cause m their own spheres Success
on a large scale will take time, but it will undoubtedly
come 1 cannot let this opportunity pass without paying
a tribute to the way m which the desire to preserve the
confraternity of the intellect has remained alive through
all these difficult years m the breasts of a large number’
of our English colleagues especially
The disposition of the individual is everywhere better
than the official pronouncements Right-minded people
should bear this in mind and not allow themselves to be
misled and get angry senafores tom vm, senator autern
bestta
If I am full of confident hope concerning the progress
of international organisation in general, that feeling is
based not so much on my confidence m the intelligence
and high-mindcdness of my fellows, but rather on the
irresistible pressure of economic de\ clopments And
53
THE WORLD AS I SHE IT
since these depend largely on the work even of re-
actionary scientists, they too will help to create the
international organisation against their wills.
The Institute for Intellectual Co-operation
During this year the leading politicians of Europe
have for die first time drawn the logical conclusion
from die truth that our porridn of the globe can only
regain its prosperity if the underground struggle
between the traditional political units ceases. The
pohacal organisation of Europe must be strengthened,
and a gradual attempt made to abolish tariff barriers.
Tlus great end cannot be achieved by treaties alone.
People’s minds must, above all, be prepared for it.
We must try gradually to awaken in them a sense of
solidarity which does not, as hitherto, stop at frontiers.
It is with this m mind that die League of Nations has
created the Commission de co-operation intellectuelle.
This commission is to be an absolutely international
and entirely non-pohncal authority, whose business it is
,to put the intellectuals of all the nations, who were
isolated by the war, inro rouch with each other. It is a
difficult task; for it has, alas, to be admitted that — at
least in the countries with which I am most closely
acquainted — the artists and men of learning are governed
bymarrowly nationalist feelings to a far greater extent
dian the men of affairs
Hitherto this commission has met mice a year. To
make its efforts more effective, the French government
has decided to create and maintain a permanent Institute
for intellectual co-operation, which is just now to be
opened If is a generous act on the part of the French
nation and deserves the thanks of all
54
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
It is an easy and grateful task to rejoice and praise
and say nothing about the things one regrets or dis-
approves of But honesty alone can help our work
forward, so I will not shrink from combining criticism
with this greeting to the new -bom child
1 ha\c daily occasion for observing that the greatest
obstacle which the work of our commission his to
encounter is the lack of confidence in jts political
impartiality Everything must be done to strengthen
that confidence and everything avoided that might
harm it
When, therefore, the French government sets up and
maintains an Institute out of public funds in Pans as a
permanent organ of die Commission, with a Frenchman
as its Director, the outside observer can hardly avoid
the impression that French influence predominates in
the Commission This impression is further strength-
ened by the fact that a Frenchman has also been chairman
of the Comnussion itself so far Although the indi-
viduals m question are men of die highest reputation,
liked and respected everywhere, nevertheless the im-
pression remains
Dm ct salvavt atiunam meant I hope with all my *
heart that the new Institute b\ constant interacnon with
the Commission will succeed m promoting their
common ends and wanning the confidence and recog-
nition of intellectual workers all o\ er the world
55
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
A Farewell
A letter to the German Secretary of the League
of Nations
Dear Herr Dufour-Feronce,
Your kind letter must not go unanswered, otherwise
you may get a mistaken notion of my attitude c
grounds for my resolve to go to Geneva no more are
as follows — Experience has, unhappdy, taught me m at
the Commission, taken as a whole, stands for no serious
determination to make real progress with the task o
improving international relations It looks to me ar
more like an embodiment of the principle jit a iqtu
fen vidcatur The Commission seems to me even worse
in this respect than the League taken as a whole
It is precisely because I desire to work with all tny
imght for the establishment of an international arbitrat-
ing and regulative authority superior ttr the state, an
because I have this object so very much at heart, that
I feel compelled to leave the Commission ^
The Commission has given its blessing to the oppres-
sion of the cultural minorities in all countries by causing
a National Commission to he set up m each of them
which is to form the only channel of communication
between the intellectuals of a country and the Com
mission It has thereby deliberately abandoned its
funcuon of giving moral support to the nation
minorities in their struggle against cultural oppression
Further, the attitude of the Commission in c
matter of combating the chauvinistic and militaristic
tendencies of education in the various countries has
been so lukewarm that no serious efforts m this funda-
mentally important sphere can be hoped for from it
56
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
The Commission has invariably failed to give moral
support to those individuals and associations who have
thrown themselves without reserve mto the business of
working for an international order and against the
military system
The Commission has never made any attempt to
resist 'the appointment of members whom it knew to
stand for tendencies the very reverse of those it is bound
in duty to foster
1 will not worry you with any further arguments,
smee you will understand my resolve well enough from
these few hints It is not my business to draw up an
indictment but merely to explain my position If I
nourished any hope whatever I should act differently —
of that you may be sure
TJie Question of Disarmament
The greatesrobstacle to the success of the disarmament
plan was the fact that people in general left out of
account the chief difficulties of the problem Most
objects are gamed by gradual steps for example, die
supersession of absolute monarchy by democracy
Here, however, we are concerned with an objective
which cannot be reached step by step
As long as the possibility of war remains, nations will
insist on being as perfeedy prepared militarily as they
can, in order to emerge triumphant from the next war
It will also be impossible to avoid educating the youth
in warlike traditions and cultivating narrow national
vanity joined to die glorification of the warlike spirit
as long as people have to be prepared for occasions when
such a spirit wdl be needed in the citizens for the pur-
pose of war To arm is to give one's voice and make
57
THE WORLD AS I SEE, IT
one’s preparations not for peace but for war. Therefore
people will not disarm step by step; they will disarm
at one blow or not at all.
The accomplishment of such a far-reaching change
in the life of nations presupposes a might)' moral effort,
a deliberate departure from deeply ingrained tradition-
Anyone who is not prepared to make die fate of hr
country in case of a dispute depend entirely on the
decisions of an international court. of arbitration and
to enter mto a treaty to this effect widiout reserve, is
not really resolved to avoid war. It is a case of all or
nodmig.
It is undeniable that previous attempts to ensure
peace have failed through aiming ar inadequate com-
promises. .
Disarmament and security are only to be had ui
combination The one guarantee of security u an
undertaking b) all nations to give effect to the derisions
of die international authority.
We stand, therefore, at the parting of die ways.
Whether wc find die way of peace or continue along
the old road of brute force, so unworthy of our avdifa-
tion, depends on ourselves. On die one side the freedom
of die individual and die security of society beckon to
us, on die other slaver)' for die individual and the
annihilation of our civilisation threaten us. Our fate
will be according to our deserts.
The Disarmament Conference of 1932
May I begin with an article of pobncal faith t It nun
as follows : — The state is made for man, not man for the
58
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
state And in this Tespect science resembles the state
These are old sayings, coined by men for whom human
personality was die highest human good I should shrink
from repeating them, were it not that they are for ever
threatening to fall into oblivion, particularly in diese.
days of organisation and mechanisation I regard it as
the chief duty of die state to protect the individual and
give lnm the opportunity to develop into a creative
personality
That is to say, the state should be our servant and not
we its slaves The state transgresses this commandment
when it compels us by force to engage m military and
war service, the more so since the object and die effect
of dus slavish service is to kdl people belonging to other
countries or interfere widi their freedom of develop-
ment Wc arc only to make such sacrifices to die state
as will promote the free development of individual
human beings To any American, all this may be a
platitude, but not to any European Hence we may
hope diat the fight against war will find strong support
among Americans
And now for the Disa. mament Conference Ought
one to laugh, weep or hope when one thinks of it?
Imagine a at} inhabited by fiery -tempered, dishonest
and quarrelsome citizens The constant danger to life
there is felt as a serious handicap which makes all
* healthy development impossible The magistrate desnes
to remedy this abominable slate of affairs, aldiough all
counsellors and the rest of the citizens insist on
THE WORLD AS. I SEE IT
ddzeris do not suppress knifing hy legislation, die courts
and the police, things go on in the old way, of course.
A definition of the length and sharpness of the permitted
dagger will only help the strongest and most turbulent
and leave die weaker at their mercy. You will all
understand the meaning of this parable. It is true that
we have a League of Nations and a Court of Arbitration.
But the League is not much more than a meeting-hall
and the Court has no means of enforcing its decisions.
These institutions provide no security for any country
in case of an attack on it. If you bear this in mind, you
will judge die attitude of the French, their refusal to
disarm without security, less harshly than it is usually
judged at present.
Unless we can agree to limit the sovereignty of die .
individual state by all binding ourselves to take joint
action against any country which openly or secretly
resists a judgment of the Court of Arbitration, we shall
never get out of a state of universal anarchy and terror.
No sleight of hand can reconcile the unlimited sover-
eignty of the individual country with security against
attack. Will it need new disasters to induce the countries
to undertake to enforce every decision of die recognised ,
international court? The progress of events so &r
scarcely justifies us in hoping for anything better in die
near future. But everyone who cares for civilisation
and justice must exert all his strength to convince his '
fellow's of the necessity fcfr laying ah countries under
an international obligation of this kind.
It will be urged against this notion, not without a
certain justification, that it over-estimates die efficacy of
machinery, and neglects the psychological, or rather
the moral, factor. Spiritual disarmament, people insist,
must precede material disarmament. They say further,
6a *
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
and truly, that the greatest obstacle to international
order is that monstrously exaggerated spirit of national-
ism which also goes by the fair-sounding but misused
name of patriotism During the last century and a half
this idol has acquired an uncanny and exceedingly
pernicious power everywhere
To estimate this objection at its proper worth, one
must realise, that a reciprocal relation exists between
external machinery and internal states of mind Not
only does the machinery depend on traditional modes
of feeling and owe its origin and its survival to them,
but the existing machinery in its turn exerases a power-
ful influence on national modes of feeling
The present deplorably high development of national-
ism everywhere is, m my opinion, intimately connected
with the institution of compulsory military service or,
to call it by its less offensive name, national armies
A country which demands military service of its
inhabitants is compelled to cultivate a nationalistic spirit
in them, which provides the psychological foundanon
of military effiaency Along with this religion it has
to hold up its instrument, brute force, to the admiration
of the y outh m its schools
The introduction of compulsory service is therefore, to
my mind, the prune cause ofrhe moral collapse of the
white race, which seriously threatens not merely the
survival of our avilisauon but our very existence This
curse, along with great soaal blessings, started with the
French Revolution, and before long dragged all the
other nations in its tram
Therefore, those who desire to encourage the growth
of an international spirit and to combat chauvinism
must take their stand against compulsory' service Is the
se\crc persecution to which consaenoous objectors to
61
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
mill tar) service are subjected to-day a whit less dis-
graceful to the community than those to which the
mart)rs of religion were exposed m former centuries j
Can ) ou, as the Kellogg Pact does, condemn war and
at the same time leave the individual to the tender
mercies of die wat maclune in each country »
If, in view of the Disarmament Conference, we arc
not to restrict ourselves to the technical problems of
organisation involved but also to tackle die psjeho-
logical question more dirccdy from educational
motives, we must try on international lines to invent
some legal way by which the individual can refuse to
serve m the ami) Such a regulation would undoubtedly
produce a great moral effect
This is my position in a nutshell — Mere agreements
to limit armaments furnish no sort of security Com-
pulsory arbitration muse be supported by an executive
force, guaranteed by all die participating countries,
which is ready to proceed agamst the disturber of the
peace with economic and military sanctions Compul-
sory service, as the bulwark of unhealthy nationalism,
must be combated, most important of all, conscientious
objectors must be protected on an international basis
Finally, I would draw your attention to a book,
War again to-morrou , by Ludwig Bauer, which discusses
the issues here involved in an acute and unprejudiced
manner and with great psychological insight
n
The benefits that the inventive genius of man has
conferred on us in the last hundred years could make
life happ) and care-free, if 'organisation had been able _
to keep pace with technical progress As it is, these
62
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
hard-won achievements in the hands of our generation
are like a razor in the hands of a child of three The
possession of marvellous means of production has
brought care and hunger instead of freedom
The results of technical progress are most baleful
where they furnish means for the destruction of human
life and the hard-won fruits of toil, as we of the older
generation experienced to our horror in the Great War
More dreadful e\cn than the destruction, in my
opinion, is the humiliating slavery mto which war
plunges the individual Is it not a temble thing to be
forced by the community to do things which every
individual regards as abominable crimes? Only a few
had die moral greatness to resist, them I regard as the
real heroes of the Great War
There is one ray of hope I believe that the respon-
sible leaders of the nations do, in the main, honestly
desire to abolish war The resistance to this essential
step forward comes from those unfortunate national
traditions which are handed on like a hereditary disease
from generation to generation through the workings of
die educational system The principal vehicle of tins
tradition is military training and its glorification, and,
equally, that portion of the Press which is controlled
by heavy industry and the soldiers Without disarma-
ment dierc can be no lasting peace Cons ersely , the
continuation of military preparations on the present
scale will mc\ itably lead to new catastrophes *
That is wh\ the Disarmament Conference of 1932
TOll decide die fate of dm generation and the next
. " hen , onc dunks how pitiable, taken as a whole, hare
been the results of fonuet conferences, ,t becomes clear
- m 1 cxnt^h«r'f 3 m ' tUlEcnt md sponsible people
to exert their full powers to remind pubhc opinion
*3
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
America and the Disarmament Conference
The Americans of to-day are filled with the cares
arising out of economic conditions in their own
country. The efforts of their responsible leaders are
directed primarily to remedying the serious unemploy-
ment at home. The sense of being involved in the
destiny of the rest of the world, and in particular of the
mother country of Europe, is even less strong than in
normal rimes.
But the free play of economic forces will not by itself
automatically overcome these difficulties. Regulative
measures by the community are needed to bring about
a sound distribution of labour and consumption-
goods among mankind ; without them even the people
of the richest country suffocate. The fact is that since
the amount of work needed to supply everybody’s needs
has been reduced through die improvement of tech-
nical methods, the free play of economic forces no
longer produces a state of affairs in which all the available
labour can -find employment. Deliberate regulation
and organisation arc becoming necessary to make the
results of technical progress beneficial to all.
If the economic situation cannot be cleared up without
systematic regulation, how much more necessary is
such regulation for dealing with the problems of
international politics'. Few people still cling to the
notion that acts of violence in the shape of wars are
cither advantageous or worthy ofhumamty as a method
of solving international problems. But they are not
logical enough to make vigorous efforts on behalf of
the measures winch might prevent war, that savage and
unworthy relic of the age of barbarism. It requires
some power of reflection to see the issue clearly and a
65
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
certain courage to serve this great cause resolutely and
effectively
Anybody who really wants to abolish war must
resolutely declare himself in favour of his own country s
resigning a portion of its sovereignty m favour of lnter-
national institutions he must be ready to make his own
country amenable, m case of a dispute, to the award of
an international court He must in the most uncom-
promising fashion support disarmament all r6und,
which is actually envisaged m the unfortunate Treaty
of Versailles , unless military and aggressively patriotic
education is abolished, we can hope for no progress
No event of the last few )ears reflects such disgrace
on die leading civilised countries of the world as the
failure of all disarmament conferences so far , for this
failure is due not only to the intrigues of ambinous and
unscrupulous politicians but also to the indifference and
slackness of the public m all countries Unless this is
changed wc shall destroy all the really valuable achieve-
ments of our predecessors .
I believe that the American nation is only imperfectly
aware of the responsibility which rests with it m this
matter People in America no doubt think as follows
“Let Europe go to the dogs, if it is destroyed by the
quarrelsomeness and wickedness of its inhabitants The
good seed of our Wilson has produced a mighty P 00 ?
crop in the stony ground ofEurope We are strong and
safe and in no hurry to mix ourselves up in other
people’s affairs ” ,
Such an attitude is at once base and short-sighted
America is partly to blame for the difficulties ofEurope
By ruthlessly pressing her claims she is hastening the
economic and therewith the moral collapse ofEurope,
she has helped to Balkamse Europe and therefore shares
66
politics AND PACIFISM.
the responsibility for the breakdown of political
.morality and the growth of that spirit of revenge which
feeds on despair. This spirit will not stop short of the
gates of America— I had almost said, has not stopped
short. Look around, and look forward.
The truth can be briefly stated : — The Disarmament
Conference comes as a final chance, to you no less than
to us, of preserving the best that civilised humanity
has produced. And it is on you, as the strongest and
comparatively soundest among us, that the eyes and
hopes of all are focussed.
Active Pacifism
1 consider myself lucky in witnessing the great peace
demonstration organised by the Flemish people. To
' all concerned in it l feel impelled to call out in the
name of men of good will with a care for the future :
“In tins hour of opened eyes and awakening conscience
we feci ourselves united with you by the deepest ties.”
We must not conceal from outselves that an improve-
ment in the present depressing situation is impossible
without a severe struggle; for die handful of diose
who are really determined to do something is minute
in comparison with the mass of the lukewarm and the
* misguided. And those who have an interest in keeping
the machinery of war going are a very powerful body;
they will stop at nothing to make public opinion
subservient to their murderous ends.
It looks as if the ruling statesmen of to-day were
really trying to secure permanent peace. But the
ceaseless pihng-up of armaments shows only too clearly
that they ate unequal to coping with the hostile forces
which are prepanng for war. In my opinion, deliver-
«7
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
ance can only come from the peoples themselves If
they 'wish, to avoid the degrading slaver) of vvar-
service, they must declare with no uncertain voice for
complete disarmament As long as armies exist, an)
serious quarrel will lead to war A pacifism which docs
not act uall y try to prev ent the nations from arming is
and must remain impotent
May the conscience and the common sense of the
peoples be awakened, so that we may reach a new stag 6
in the life of nations, where people will look back on
war as an incomprehensible aberration of their fore-
fathers 1
Letter to a frtetu! of Peace
It has come to m) ears that m >oui
heartedness you arc quiedy accomplishing a
work, impelled by solicitude for humanity
fate Small is the number of them that see with their
own e) es and feel with their own hearts But it is their
strength that will decade whether the human race roust
relapse into that hopeless condition which a him
multitude appears to-day to regard as the ideal
O that the nations nught sec, before it is too Jate,
how much of their self-dctcrminauon they have got to
sacrifice m order to avoid the struggle of all against an
The power of conscience and die international s P inC
has proved itself inadequate At present it is being so
weak as to tolerate parley mg with the wont enenues
of civilisation There is a bind of conaluuon which
is a crime against humanity , and it passes for pound
wisdom
We cannot despair of humanity, since we arc our-
selves human beings And it is a comfort that there still
68
■ great-
splendid
and its
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
exist individuals like yourself, whom one knows to be
alive and undismayed.
• Another ditto
Dear friend and spiritual brother.
To be quite frank, a declaration like the one before
me in a country which submits to conscription in peace-
time-seems to me valueless. What you must fight for
is liberation from universal military service. Verily the
French nation has had to pay heavily for the victory
of 1918; for that victory has been largely responsible
for holding it down in the most degrading of all forms
of slavery. Let your efforts in this struggle be unceasing.
You have a mighty ally in the German reactionaries and
militarists. If France clings to universal military service,
it will be impossible in the. long run to prevent its*
introduction into Germany. For the demand of the
Germans ,for equal rights will succeed in the end ; and
. , then there will be two German military slaves to every
French one, which would certainly not be m the
interests of France.
Only if we succeed in abolishing compulsory service
altogether will it be possible to educate the youth in
the spirit of reconciliation, joy in life and love towards
all living creatures.
I believe that a refusal on conscientious grounds to
serve in the army when called up, if carried out by
50,000 men at the same moment, would be irresistible.
The individual can accomplish little here, nor can one
wish to see the best among us devoted to destruction
through the machinery beliind tvhicli stand the three
great powers of stupidity, fear, and greed.
69
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
ance can only come from the peoples themselves If
they wish to avoid the degrading slavery o war
service, they must declare with no uncertain voice tor
complete disarmament As long as armies exist, an)
serious quarrel will lead to war A pacifism which does
not actually try to prevent the nations from arming
and must remain impotent - ,
May the conscience and the common sense 0
peoples be awakened, so that we may reach a new g
in the life of nations, where people will look ba
war as an incomprehensible aberration of eir
fathers*
Letter to a friend of Peace
It has come to my ears that m > our
heartedness you are quietly accomplishing a S P ,
work, impelled by solicitude for humanity and lx
fate Small is the number of them that so: wi
own eyes and feci with their own hearts But it
strength that will decide whether the human race
relapse into that hopeless condinon which a
multitude appears to-day to regard as die idea
O that the nations ought see, before it is too •
how much of their self-determination they have go
sacrifice m order to avoid the struggle of all a S a “ lS
The power of conscience and die intonation sp ^
has proved itself inadequate At present
weak as to tolerate parleying with the worst enen •»
of civilisation There is a land of conciliation w
is a crime against humanity, and it passes for po °
wisdom
We cannot despair of humanity, since we are our
seh es human bangs And it is a comfort that there s
it is being so
POLITICS AND PACIHSM
exist individuals like yourself, whom one knows to be
alive and undismayed.
Another ditto
Dear friend and spiritual brother, ‘
To be quite frank, a declaration like the one before
me in a country which submits to conscription in peace-
time seems to me valueless. What you must fight for
is liberation from universal military service. Verily the
French nation has had to pay heavily for the victory
of 1918; for that victory has been largely responsible
for holding it down in the most degrading of all forms
of slavery. Let your efforts in this struggle be unceasing.
You have a mighty ally in the German reactionaries and
militarists. If France clings to universal military service,
it will be impossible in the. long run to prevent its'
introduction' into Germany. For the demand of the
Germans ,for equal rights will succeed in the end ; and
, then there will be two German military slaves to every
French one, which would certainly not be in the
interests of France.
Only if we succeed in abolishing compulsory service
altogether will it be possible to educate the youth in
the spirit of reconciliation, joy in life and love towards
all living creatures.
I believe that a refusal on conscientious grounds to
serve in the army when called up, if carried out by
50,000 men at the same moment, would be irresistible.
The individual can accomplish little here, nor can one
wish to see the best among us devoted to destruction
through the machinery behind which stand the three
great powers of stupidity, fear, and greed.
69
T1IF WOULD AS 1 SFE JT
A third ditto
Dear Sir,
The point with which you deal in your letter is one
of prime importance The armament industry is **
you sa) , one of die greatest dangers that beset manun
It is the hidden evil power behind the nationalism whi t
is rampant everywhere .
Possibly something might be gained by nations *
isanon But it is extremely hard to determine exact >
what industries should be included Should the wen j
industry* And how much ofihe metal industr) an
the chemical industr) ? /■
As regards the munitions industry and the export o
war material, the League of Nations has busied ttsf»
for )ears with efforts to get this horrible traffic con-
trolled— wnth what little success, we all Know La*
)car I asked a w ell-known Amen can diplomat " Y
Japan was not forced b> a commercial bojeott
desist from her policy of force. “Our commerce
interests arc too strong,” was the answer How cm
one help people who rest sansfied wadi a jrarerv*n {
like that t
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
cate, but nothing can be*achieved as directly as you
think
Women and War
In my opinion, the patriotic women ought to be sent
to the front in the next war instead of the men It
would at least he a noyelty in this dreary sphere of
infinite confusion, and besides — why should not such
heroic feelings on the part of the fair sex find a more
picturesque outlet than m attacks on a defenceless
civilian?
Thoughts on the World Economic Crisis
If there is one thing that can give a layman m the
sphere of economics the courage to express an opinion
on the nature of the alarming economic difficulties of
the present day, it is the hopeless confusion of opinions
among the experts What I ha\e to say is nothing
new and docs not pretend to be anything more
than the opinion of an independent and honest
man who, unburdened by class or national pre-
judices, desires nothing but the good of humanity
and the most harmonious possible scheme of human
existence If m what follows I write as if I were clear
about certain things and sure of the truth of what I
am saying, tins is merely done for die sake of an easier
mode of expression , it does not proceed from unwar-
ranted self-confidence or a behetm the infallibility of
piy somewhat simple intellectual conception of prob-
lems which arc in reality uncommonly complex
As 1 sec it, this crisis differs in character from past
enses in that it is based on an entirely new set of con-
ditions, due td rapid progress m methods of production
71
THE WORLD AS I 5FE IT
A third ditto
Dear Sir,
The point with which you deal m your letter is one
of prune importance The armament industry is &
you sa) , one of the greatest dangers that beset manlon
It is the hidden evil power behind the nationalism win
is rampant everywhere .
Possibly something might be gamed by nations i -
isaaon But it is extremely hard to determine exact y
what industries should be included Should uie aircra t
industry ? And how much of the metal industry an
die chemical industry ? r
As regards the munitions industry and the export
war material, the League of Nations has busied me
for years with efforts to get this horrible traffic
trolled — with what little success, we all know i-jn
year I asked a well-known American diplomat w y
Japan was not forced by a commercial bo>cott
desist from her policy of force * Our eommer
interests arc too strong,” was die answer How
one help people who rest satisfied with a statemen
like that ? -
You believe that a word from me would sunicc
gee something done in this sphere t What an illusion
People flatter me as long as I do not get in their wa>
But if I direct my efforts towards objects which do n
suit them, they immediately rum to abuse and caiumn)
in defence of their interests And the onlookers mos /
keep out of the light, the cowards! Have you cji
tested the avil courage of your countrymen* T c
silendy accepted motto is”Leave it alone and dont
speak of it” You may be sure that I shall do
everything in my power along die lines you mdi-
70
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
cate, but nothing can be ‘achieved as directly as you
think.
Women and War
In my opinion, the patriotic women ought to be sent
to the front in the next war instead of the men. It
would at least be a novelty in this dreary sphere of
infinite confusion, and besides — why should not such
heroic feelings on the part of the fair sex find a more
picturesque outlet than in attacks on a defenceless
civilian *
Thoughts on the World Economic Crisis
If there is one thing that can give a layman in the
sphere of economics the courage to express an opinion
on the nature of the alarming economic difficulties of
the present day, it is the hopeless confusion of opinions
among the experts. What I have to say is nothing
new and does not pretend to be anything more
than the opinion of an independent and honest
man who, unburdened by class or national pre-
judices’, desires nothing but the good of humanity
and the most harmonious possible scheme of human
existence. If in what follows l write as if I were clear
about certain things and sure of the truth of what I
am saying, this is merely done for the sake of an easier
mode of expression; it does not proceed from unwar-
ranted self-confidence or a'belief in the infallibility of
my somewhat ample intellectual conception of prob-
lems which are in reality uncommonly complex
te I see it, this crisis differs in character from past
oases m that it is based on an entirely new set of con-
ditions, due td rapid progress in methods of production
’ 7i
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
Only a fraction of the available human labour in the
world is needed for the production of the total amount
of consumption-goods necessary to life Under a
completely free economic system this fact is bound to
lead to unemployment For Reasons which I do not
propose to analyse here, the majority of people are
compelled to work for the minimum wage on which
life can -be supported If two factories produce the same
sort of goods, other things being equal, that one will
be able to produce them more cheaply which employs
less workmen — i e , makes the individual worker work
as long and as hard as human nature permits From tins
it follows inevitably that, with methods of production
what they are to-day, only a portion of the available
labour can be used While unreasonable demands arc
made on this portion, the remainder is automatically
excluded from the process of production This leads
to a fall m sales and profits Businesses go smash, which
further increases unemployment and diminishes con-
fidence in industrial concerns and therewith public
participation m these mediating banks, finally the
banks become insolvent through the sudden with-
drawal of deposits and the wheels of industry therewith
come to a complete standstill
The crisis has also been attributed to other causes
which we will now consider
(i) Oi ct-prodnetum We have to distinguish between
two things here — real over-produenon and apparent
ovcr-producuon By real over-produenon I mean a
production so great that it exceeds die demand Tfus
nny perhaps apply to motor-cars and wheat in the
United States at the present moment, aldiough even
that is doubtful By “over-produenon" people usually
7 -
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
mean a condition of things m which more of one
particular article is produced than can, in existing
circumstances, be sold, in spite of a shortage of con-
sumption-goods among consumers This condition of
things 1 call apparent over-production In this case
it is not the demand that is lacking but the consumers’
purchasing-power Such apparent over-production is
only another word for a crisis and therefore" cannot
serve .as an explananon of the latter, hence people who
try to make over-production responsible for die crisis
are merely juggling with words
(2) Reparations The obligation to pay reparations
bes heavy on the debtor nauons and their industries,
compels them to go in for dumpmg and so harms the
creditor nations too This is beyond dispute But the
appearance of the crisis in the United States, in spite
of the high tanff-wall protecting them, proves that this
cannot be the principal cause of die world crisis The
shortage of gold in the debtor countries due to repara-
tions can at most serve as an argument for putting an
end to these payjpents, it cannot be dragged in as an
explanauon/Stthc world cnsii
' (3) Ermion of new tariff-walls Increase: tn the unpro-
ductive burden of armaments Political insecurity owing to
latent danger of ti ar All these things add considerably
to the troubles of Europe but do not_matenally affect
America The appearance of the crisis in America
show’s that they cannot be its principal causes
T he iroppiug-out of the two pouers, China and
Russia Tins blow to world trade also does not touch
America very .nearl) and dierefore cannot be a principal
cause of die crisis
73
THE WORLD KS I SEE IT
(5) The economic rise of the lower classes since the War
This, supposing it to be a reality, could only produce a
scarcity of goods, not an excessive supply
I will not weary the reader by enumerating further
contentions which do not seem to me to get to the heart
of the matter Of one thing I feel certain this same
tcdmi cal progress which, m itself, might relieve mankind
of a great part of the labour necessary to its subsistence,
is the mam cause of our present troubles Hence there
are those who would m all seriousness forbid the intro-
duction of technical improvements This is obviousl)
absurd But how can we find a more rational way out
of our dilemma ?
If we could somehow manage to prevent the pur-
chasing-power of the masses, measured m terms of
goods, from sinking below a certain minimum, stop-
pages in the industrial cycle such as we arc experiencing
to-day would be rendered impossible
The logically simplest but also most daring method
of achieving this is a completely planned econom), m
which consumption-goods are produced and distributed
by the community That, in essentials, is what is being
attempted in Russia to-day Much will depend on
what results this mighty experiment produces To
hazard a prophecy here would be presumption Can
goods be produced as economical!) under such a
system as under one which leases more freedom to
individual enterprise? Can this system maintain itself
at all without the terror that has so far accompanied
it, which none of us “westerners” would care to let
himself in for? Does not such a rigid, centralised
system 'fend towards protection and hostility to ad-
vantageous innovations? We mjisr cake care, how-
ever, not to allow these suspicions to become p re-
74
.POIITICS AND PACIFISM
judices which prevent us from forming an objective
judgment. -
My personal opinion is that those methods arc
preferable which respect existing traditions and habits
so far as that is in any way compatible with the end in
view. Nor do I believe that a sudden transference of
the control of industry to the hands of the public
would be beneficial from the point of view of pro-
duction ; private enterprise should be left its sphere of
activity, in so far as it has not already been eliminated
by industry itself in the form of cartelisation.
There are, however, two respects in which this
economic-freedom ought to be limited. In each branch
of industry the number of working hours per week
ought so to be reduced by law that unemployment is
systematically abolished. At the same time minimum
wages must be fixed in such a way that the purchasing
power of the workers keeps pace with production.
Further, in those industries which have become
monopolistic in character through organisation on the
part of the producers, prices must be controlled by the
state in order to keep the creation of new capital within
reasonable bounds and prevent the artificial strangling
of production and consumption.
In this way it nught perhaps be possible to establish
a proper balance between production and consumption
without too great a limitation of free enterprise and
at the same time to stop the intolerable tyranny of the
owners of the means of production (land, machinery)
over the wage-earners, in the widest sense of the term
75
THE "WORLD AS I SEE IT
Culture cud Prosperity
If one would estimate the damage done b) the great
political catastrophe to the development of human
civilisation, one must remember that culture in its
higher forms is a delicate plant which depends on a
complicated set of conditions and is wont to flourish
only m a few places at.any given time. For it to blossom
there is needed, first of all, a certain degree of prosperity,
which enables a fraction of the population to work at
things not directly necessary to the maintenance of
life , secondly, a moral tradition of respect for cultural
values and achievements, m virtue of which this class
is provided with the means of living by the other
classes, those who provide the immediate necessities
Of life f
During the past century Germany has been one ot
the countries m which both condinons were fulfilled
The prosperity was, taken as a whole, modest but
sufficient , the tradinon of respect for culture vigorous
On this basis the German nanon has brought forth
fruits of culture which form an integral part of the
development of the modem w orld The tradinon, in
the mam, sail stands, the prosperity is gone The
industries of the country have been cut off almost
completely from the sources of raw materials on
which the existence of the industrial part of the
populaoon was based The surplus necessary to support
the intellectual worker has suddenly ceased to exirt
With it the tradinon which depends on it will inevitably
collapse also, and a fruitful nursery of culture turn to
wilderness .
The human race, m so far as u sets a value on culture,
has an interest in preventing such impoverishment
76
POLITICS AND PACIFISM'
It will give what help it can in the immediate crisis
and reawaken that higher community of feeling, now
thrust into the background by national egotism, for
which human values have a validity independent of
politics and frontiers It will then procure for every
nation conditions of work under which it can exist and
under which it can bring forth fruits of culture.
Production and Purchasing Power
I do not believe that the remedy for our present
difficulties lies in a knowledge of productive capacity
and consumption, because this knowledge is likely, in
the main, to come too late. Moreover the trouble m
Germany seems to me to be not hypertrophy of the
machinery of production but deficient purcliasmg power
in a large section of the population, which has been
cast out of the productive process through rational-
isation
The gold standard has, in my opinion, the serious
disadvantage that a shortage in the supply of gold
automatically leads to a contraction of credit and also
of the amount of currency in circulation, to which
contraction prices and wages cannot adjust themselves
.sufficiently quickly.- The natural remedies for our
troubles arc, m my opinion, as follows —
(r) A. statutory reduction of working hours, gradu-
ated for each department of industry, in order to get
nd of unemployment, combined with the fixing of
minimum wages for the purpose of adjusting die
purchasing-power of the masses to the amount of goods
available. &
(2) Control of the amount of money m circulation
and of the volume of credit in such a way as to keep
77
THE WOULD AS I SEE IT
the price-level steady, all special protection bem^
abolished ,
(3) Statutory limitation of pnccs for such articles
as have been practically withdrawn from free com-
petition by monopolies or the formation of cartels
Production and Work
An answer to Cederstrom
Dear Herr Cederstrom,
Thank you for sending me your proposals, which
mterest me very much Having mvself given so much
thought to this subject I feel that it is right that I should
give you my perfectly frank opinion on them
The fundamental trouble seems to me to be the
almost unlimited freedom of the labour market com-
bined with extraordinary progress in the methods or
production To satisfy the needs of the world to-day
nothing like all the available labour is wanted The
result is unemployment and excessive competition
among the workers, both of which reduce purchasing
power and put the whole economic system intolerably
out of gear
I know Libera! economists maintain that every
economy in labour is counterbalanced by an increase
in demand But, to begin with, I don’t beheve it,
and even if it were true, the above-mentioned factors
would alwajs operate to force the standard of Irving
of a large portion of the human race down to an
unnaturally low level
I also share )our conviction that steps absolutely
must be taken to make it possible and necessar) for the
younger people to take pan in the productive process
78
POLITICS AND PACIFISM
Further, that tire older people ought to be excluded
from certain sorts of work (which I call unqualified
work), receiving instead a certain income, as having
by that time done enough work of a kind accepted by
society as productive.
I too am in favour of abolishing large cities, but not
of settling people of a particular type, c.g., old people,
in particular towns. Frankly, die idea strikes me as
horrible. I am also of opinion that fluctuations in die
value of money must be avoided, by substituting for *
the gold standard a standard based on certain classes of
goods selected according to the conditions of con-
sumption— as Keynes, if I am not mistaken, long ago
proposed. With the introduction of this system one
* might consent to a certain amount of “inflation,” as
compared with the present monetary situation, if one
could believe that the state would really make a rational
use of the windfall thus accruing to it.
The weaknesses of your plan lie, so it seems to me,
in the sphere of psychology, or rather, in your neglect
.of it. It is no accident that capitalism has brought with
it progress not merely in production but also in know-
ledge. Egoism and competmon are, alas, stronger
(forces than public spirit and sense of duty. In Russia,
they say, it is impossible to get a decent piece of bread.
. . . Perhaps I am over-pessimistic concerning state
and other forms of communal enterprise, but I expect
little good from them. Bureaucracy is the death of all
sound work. I have seen and experienced too many
dreadful warnings, even in comparatively model
Switzerland.
I am inclined to the view that the state can only be
of real use to industry as a limiting and regulative force.
It must see to it that competition among the workers
79
* THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
is kept widiin healthy limits, that all children arc give;
a chance to develop soundly, and that wages arc big]
enough for the goods produced to be consumed. Bu
it can exert a decisive influence through its regularivi
function if— and there again you arc right — its measure
are framed in an objective spirit by independent experts
I would like to write to you at greater length, bul
cannot find the time.
Minorities
It seems to be a universal fact that minorities—
especially when the individuals composing them are
distinguished by physical peculiarities — are treated by
the majorities among whom they live as an inferior
order of beings The tragedy of such a fate lies not
merely in the unfair treatment to which these minoririei
are automatically subjected in social and economic
matters, but also in the fact that under the suggestive^
influence of the majority most of the victims themsclve
succumb to the same prejudice and regard their brethrd
as inferior beings. This second and greater part of th
evil can be overcome by closer combination and b
deliberate education of the minority', whose spirit ui
liberation can thus be accomplished.
The efforts of the American negroes in th
direction arc deserving of all commendation am
assistance.
Observations on the Present Situation in Europe
The distinguishing feature of the present politic
situation of the world, and in particular of Turo'i
seems to me to be this, that political development
80
Part III
GERMANY 1933
GERMANY 1933
Manifesto
A S long as I have any choice, I will only stay in a
country where political liberty, toleration, and
equality of all citizens before the law are the rule
Political liberty implies liberty to express one’s political
views orally and in writing, toleration, respect for
any and every individual opinion
These conditions do not obtain m Germany at the
present time Those who have done most for the cause
of intemanonal understanding, among them some of
the leading artists, are being persecuted there
Any social organism can become psychically dis-
tempered just as any individual can, especially in times
of difficulty Nations usually survive these distempers
I hope that healthy conditions will soon supervene in
German) and that in future her great men like Kant
and Goethe will not merely be commemorated from
time to time but that the principles which they incul-
cated will also prevail in public life and in the general
consciousness
March, 1933
Correspondence with the Prussian Academy of Sciences
The following correspondence is here published tor the first
time m its authentic and complete form The version published
m German newspapers was for the most part incorrect, im-
portant sentences being omitted
&nstm d ' m> ’ S dcckraHon of AP" 1 Is '. 1933, 3gauist
85
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
The Prussian Academy of Sciences heard with
indignation from the newspapers of Albert Einstein’s
participation in atrocity -mongenng m France and
America It immediate!) demanded an explanation
In the meantime Einstein li3S announced his withdrawal
from the Academy, giving as his reason that he cannot
continue to serve the Prussian state under its presenr
government Bcuig a Swiss citizen lie also, it seems
intends to resign the Prussian nanonahev which he.
acquired in 1913 simply by becoming a full member
of the Acadcrm
The Prussian Acadcm) of Sciences is particularly
distressed b) Einstein's activities as an agitator in
foreign countries, ss ir and its members haie always
felt thcmsclv es bound b> the closest ties to the Prussian
state and, while abstaining stneth from all political
partisanslup, have alw a) s stressed and remained faithful
to the national idea It has therefore, no reason to
regret Emstcm s withdrawal
Prof Dr Ernst Hcymann
Perpetual Secretary
Le Coq near Ostende April 5 th 1933
To the Prussian Academy of Sciences
I have received information from a thoroughh
reliable source that die Academy of Sciences his spoken
in an official statement of Einstein s participation in
atrocity -mongenng in America and France
I hereby declare that I have ne\er taken any part in
atroar) mongenng and I must add that I have seen
nothing of an) such mongenng anywhere In general
people have contented themselves with reproducing
and commenting on the official statements and orders
86
GERMANY 1933
of responsible members of the German government,
together With the programme for the annihilation of
the German jews by economic methods
The statements I have issued to the Press were con-
cerned with my intention to resign my posinon m the
Academy and renounce my Prussian citizenship , I gave
as my reason for these steps that I did not wish to live
m a country where the individual does not enjoy
equality before the law and freedom to say and teach
what he likes
Further, I described the present state of affairs in
Qcrmany as a state of psychic distemper m the masses
and also made some remarks about its causes
In a written document which I allowed the Inter-
national League for combating Anti-Semitism to make
use of for die purpose of enlisting support and which
was not intended for the Press at all, I also called upon
all sensible people, who are still faithful to the ideals
of a avihsanon m peril, to do their utmost to prevent
this mass-psychosis, which is exhibiting itself in such
terrible symptoms m Germany to-day, from spreading
further
It would have been an easy matter for the Academy
to get hold of a correct version of my words before
issuing die sort of statement about me that it has The
German Press has reproduced a deliberately distorted
version of my words, as indeed was only to be expected
with the Press muzzled as it is to-day
1 am ready to stand by every word I have published
In return, I expect the Academy to communicate this
statement of mine to its members and also to the
German public before which I hare been slandered
3 "pSSr 1 a haad m s,imicnn s
S7
THE WORLD AS r SEE IT
The Academy's answer of April nth, 1933
The Academy would like to point out that its state-
ment of April 1st, 1933, was based not ftierely-on Ger-
man but principally on foreign, particularly French and
Belgian, newspaper reports which Herr Einstein has
not contradicted ; in addition, it had before it his much-
canvassed statement to the League for combating
anti-Semitism, in which he deplores Germany’s relapse
into the barbarism, of long-passed ages. Moreover, the
Academy lias reason to know’ that Herr Einstein, who
according to his own statement has taken no part in
atrodty-mongeriug, has at least done nothing to
counteract unjust suspicions and slanders, which, in the
opinion of the Academy, it was his 'duty as one of its
senior members to do. -instead of that Herr Einstein
has made statements, and in foreign countries at that,
such as, coming from, a man of world-wide reputation,
were bound td be exploited and abused by the enemies
not merely of the present German government but of
the whole German people.
For the Prussian Academy of Sciences,
(Signed) H. von Bcker, w
E. Hcymann,
Perpetual Secretaries.
Berlin, April 7 th, 1933
The Prussian Academy of Sciences.
Professor Albert Einstein, Leyden,
c/o Prof Ehrenfest, Witte Rosenstr.
Dear Sir,
As the present Principal Secretary of the Prussian
Academy I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your
GERMANY 1933
communication, dated March 28 th anouncing your
resignation of your membership of the Academy. The
Academy took cognizance of your resignation in its
plenary session of March 3 0t ^> 2933*
While the Academy profoundly regrets the turn '
events have taken, this regret is inspired by the thought
that a man of the highest scientific authority, whom •
many years of work among Germans and many years
of membership of our society must have made familiar
with the German character and German habits of
thought, should have chosen this moment to associate
himself with a body of people abroad who — pardy no
doubt through ignorance of actual conditions and
events — have done much damage to our German
people by disseminating erroneous views and un-
founded rumours. We had confidendy expected that
one who had belonged to our Academy for so long
would have ranged himself, irrespective of his own
political sympathies, on the side of the defenders of
• our nation against the flood of lies which has been let
loose upon it. In these days of mud-slinging, some of
it vile, some of it ridiculous, a good word for the
' German people from you in particular might have
produced a great effect, especially abroad. Instead of
which your testimony has served as a handle to the
enemies not merely of the present Government hut
of the German people. This lias come as a bitter and
grievous disappointment to us, wliich would no doubt
have led inevitably to a parting of the ways even if we ■
had not received )our resignation.
Yours faithfully,
(signed) von Ficker.
89
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
Le Coq-sur-Mer, Belgium,
April 12 th, 1933
To the Prussian Academy of Sciences, Berlin
I have received jour communication of the 7th
instant and deep!) deplore the mental attitude displa) ed
m it
As regards the fact, I can on!) reply as f6llows —
What you say about my behaviour is, at bottom,
merely another form of the statement ) ou have already
published, in which you accuse me of having taken
part in atrocity-mongenng against the German nation
I ha\e already, in my last letter, characterised this
accusation as slanderous
You have also remarked that a “good word” on my
pan for “the German people” would have produced a
great effect abroad To this I must reply that such a
testimony as you suggest would hate been equivalent
to a repudiation of all those notions of justice and
liberty for which I have all my life stood Such a
testimony would not be, as you put it, a good word
for the German nation , on the contrary, it would only
have helped the cause of those who are seeking to
undermine die ideas and principles which have won
for the German nation a place of honour in the civilised
world By giving such a testimony in the present
circumstances I should have been contributing, even «
only indirectly, to the barbansanon of manners and
the destruction of all existing cultural values
It was for this reason that I felt compelled to resign
from the Academy, and your letter only shows me how
right I was to do so
GERMANY 1933
Munich, April 8 th, 1933
From the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
to Professor Albert Einstein.
Sir,
In your letter to the Prussian Academy of Sciences
you have given the present state of affairs in Germany
as the reason, for your resignation. The Bavarian
Academy of Sciences, which some years ago elected
you a corresponding member, is aUo a German
Academy, closely allied to the Prussian and other
German Academies; hence your withdrawal from
the Prussian Academy of Sciences is bound to affect
your relations with our Academy.
We must therefore ask you how you envisage your
relations with our Academy after what has passed
between yourself and the Prussian Academy.
The President of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences.
Le Coq-sur-Mcr, April list, 1933
To die Bavarian Academy of Sciences, Munich.
I have given it as the reason for my resignation from
the Prussian Academy that in the present circumstances
I have no wish either to be a German citizen or to
remain in a position of quasi-dependence on the
Prussian Ministry of Education.
These reasons would not, in themselves, involve
the severing of my relations with the Bavarian Academy.
If I nevertheless desire my name to be removed from
the list of members, it is for a different reason.
The primary duty of in Academy is to encourage
and pro tea the scientific life of a country. The learned
■or
THE WORLD A5 I SEE IT
societies of Germany have, however — to the best of
knowledge — stood by and said nothing while a not
inconsiderable proportion of German savants and
students, and also of professional men of unn crsity
education, have been deprived of all chance of getting
employment or earning their livings in Germany I
would rather not belong to any soaet) which behaves
m such a manner, even if it docs so under externa!
pressure
A Reply
The following hues are Einsteins answer to an mutation to
assoaate himself with a French manifesto against Ann-Seminim
m Germany
I have considered this most important proposal,
which has a bearing on several dungs diat l have nearl)
at heart, carefully from every angle As a result I have
come to the conclusion that I cannot take a pcrsonii
partin dm cxtrcmcl) important affair, for two reasons —
In the first place I am, after all, soil a German citizen,
and in the second I am a Jew As regards die first point
I must add that I have worked ui German institutions
and have always been treated vvidi full confidence in
German) However dccpl) I nn\ regret^ the thing!
that arc being done there, however srrongl) I am
bound to condemn die terrible mistakes diat are being
made with the approval of die government, it »
impossible for me to take part personal!) in an enter-
prise set on foot b) responsible members of a foreign
government In order that )ou mav appreciate tu*
full), suppose that a French anzen in a more or I«J
analogous situation had got up a protest against die
Frencn government’s action 11 conjunction warn
92
GERMANY I 9 3 3
prominent German statesmen Even if you fully
admitted that the protest was amply warranted by the
facts, you would still, I expect, regard the behaviour
of your fellow-citizen as an act of treachery If Zola
had felt it necessary to leave France at the time of the
Dreyfus case, he would sail certainly not have associated
himself with a protest by German official personages,
however much he might have approved of their acuon
He would have confined himself to — blushing for his
countrymen. In the second place, a protest against
injustice and violence is incomparably more valuable
if it comes entirely from people who have been
prompted to it purely by sentiments of humanity and
a love of jusace This cannot be said of a man like me,
a Jew who regards other Jews as his brothers For him,
an injustice done to the Jews is the same as an mjusnee
done to himself He must not be the judge in his own
case, but wait for the judgment of imparaal outsiders
These arc my reasons But I should like to add that
I have always honoured and admired that highly
developed sense of justice which is one of the noblest
features of the French tradinon
93
Part IV
THE JEWS
THE JEWS
Jewish Ideals
T HE pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, <**
almost fanatical love of justice, and the desire for
personal independence — these tac the features of the
Jewish tradition which make me thank my stars that
I belong to it
Those who arc raging to-day against the ideals of
reason and individual liberty and are trying to establish
a spiritless state-slavery by brute force rightly see in us
their irreconcilable foes History has given us a difficult
row to hoc , but so long as wc remain devoted servants
of truth, justice and liberty, wc shall continue not
merely to survive as die oldest of living peoples,
but by creative work to bring Jorth fruits which con-
tribute to the ennoblement of the human race, as
heretofore
Is there a Jewish point of view 7
In the philosophical sense there is, m m\ opinion,
no specifically Jewish outlook Judaism seems to
me to be concerned almost cxclusn cly with the moral
atntude in life and to life I look upon it as the essence
of an atntude to life which is incarnate in the Jewish
people rather dun the essence of the laws la*d down
m the Thora and interpreted in die Talmud To me,
die Thora and the Talmud arc merely the most import-
ant evidence for the manner m which the Jewish
conception of life held sway in earlier times
97
THE WORLD AS I SEE
The essence of that concepao^iecins to me to he
in an affirmative attitude -'^-phe life of all creation
The life of the ind-ridual has meaning m so far
as it aids in malang the life of ever) living thing nobler
an 1 »c beautiful Life is sacred — that is to $a), if
the supreme value, to which all other values are
subordinate The hallowing of the supra-individual
life brings m its train a reverence for ever) thing
spiritual— -a particularly characteristic feature of the
Jewish tradition
Judaism is not a creed the Jewish God is simply a
negation of supersnoon, an imaginary result of its
elimination It is also an attempt to base the moral law
on fear, a regrettable and discreditable attempt Yet it
seems to me that the strong moral tradition of the
Jewish nanon has to a large extent shaken itself free
from tills fear It is dear also that “serving God ’ was
equated with “serving the living " The best of the
Jewish people, especially the Prophets and Jesus con-
tended nrelcsslv for this
Judaism is thus no transcendental religion, it is con-
cerned with hfc as wc hv c it and can up to a point grasp
it, and nothing else It seems to me, therefore, doubtful
whether it can be called a religion in the accented sense
of the w ord, particular!) as no “faith” but die sanen-
fi canon of hfc in a supra-personal sense is demanded of
the Jew
But the Jewish tradition also contains something
else, something which finds splendid expresnon in
man) of the Psalms namely, a sort of intoxicated jo)
and amazement at the beauty and grandeur of this
world, of which man can just form a Cunt notion-
It is the feeling from which true sci'mniie research
draws its spiritual sustenance, but which also seems to
QS
THE JEWS
find expression in the song of birds To tack this on
to the idea of God seems mere childish absurdity
Is what 1 have described a distinguishing mark of
Judaism l Is it to be found anywhere else under another
name i In its pure form, nowhere, not even in Judaism,
where the pure doctrine is obscured by much worship
of the letter Yet Judaism seems to me one of its purest
and most vigorous manifestations This applies parti-
cularly to the fundamental principle of the sanctification
of life
It is characteristic that the animals were expressly
included m the command to keep hoi) the Sabbath
day, so strong was the feeling that the ideal demands
the solidarity of all living things The insistence on
the solidarity of all human beings finds still stronger
expression, and it is no mere chance that the demands
of Socialism were for the most part first raised by Jews
How strongly developed this sense of the sanctity of
life is in the Jewish people is admirably illustrated by a
little remark which Walter Rathenau once made to
me in conversation “-When a Jew says that he’s going
hunting to amuse himself, he lies ” The Jewish sense
of the sanctity of life could not be more simply
expressed
Jewtsh Youth
An ilttsii tr to a Questionnaire
It IS important dm the young should be induced to
tike an interest in Jewish questions end difficulties, and
you deserve gratitude for devoting yourself to this task
desl°m P f P t r i Th “ “ momc ? t not merely for the
desuny of die Jews, whose welfare depends on their
sucking together and helping each other, hut, overbid
THE WORLD \S I SEE II
above that, for the cultivation of the international
spirit, which is in danger everywhere to-day from a
narrow-minded nationalism Here, since the days of
the Prophets, one of the fiurest fields of acnwty has
lain open to our nation, scattered as it is over the earth
and only united by a common tradition
Addresses on Reconstruction in Palestine
Ten years ago, when I first had the pleasure o
addressing you on behalf of the Zionist cause, oSt
all our hopes were soil fixed on the future To-day
we can look back on these ten years with joy, tor in
that time the muted energies of die Jewish people nav
accomplished a splendid piece of successful constructive
work in Palestine, which certainly exceeds anything
that we dared to hope then
We have also successfully stood the severe test t
which the events of the last few yean have subject
us Ceaseless work, supported by a noble purpose
leading slowly but surely to success The latest pro-
nouncements of the British government in icatc
return to a juster judgment of our case, this we rccog
nisc with gratitude ,
But we must never forget what this crisis has taug
us — namely, that the establishment of satisfactory
relations between the Jews and the Arabs is uo
England’s affair but ours We — that is to say,
Arabs and ourselves— have got to agree on the mam
outlines of an advantageous partnership which sna
satisfy the needs of both- nations A just solution of
problem and one worthy of both nations is an end no
TOO
THE JEWS
less important and no less worthy of our efforts than
the promotion of the work of construction itself.
Remember that Switzerland represents a higher stage
of political development than any national state,
precisely because of die .greater political problems
which had to be solved before a stable community
could be built up out of groups of different nationality
Much remains to be done, but one at least of Herzl s
aims has already been realised’ its task in Palestine has
given the Jewish people an astonishing degree of
solidarity and the optimism without which no organism
can lead a healthy life
Anything we may do for the common purpose is
done not merely for our brothers m Palestine but for
the well-being and honour of the whole Jewish people
Wc are assembled to-day for the purpose of calling
to mind our age-old community, its destiny and its
problems It is a community of moral tradition, which
has always shown its strength and vitality in nmes of
stress In all ages it has produced men who embodied
the conscience of the 'western world, defenders of human
dignity and justice
So long as we ourselves care about this community
it will continue to exist to the benefit of mankind, in
spite of the fact that it possesses no self-contained
organisation A decade or two ago a group of far-
sighted men, among whom Herzl of immortal memory
stood out abose die rest, came to the conclusion that
wc needed a spiritual centre m order to preserve our
swsc of solidantj m d^icult tunes Thus arose the
dea of Zionism and the work of settlement in Palestine
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
the successful realisation of which we have been per-
mitted to witness, at least in us highly promising
beginnings
I have had the privilege of seeing, to my great joy
and satisfaction, how much this achievement has
contributed to the recovery of the Jewish people, which
is exposed, as a minority among the nations, not
merely to external dangers but also to internal ones of
a ps> chological nature
The crisis which the work of construction has had to
face in the last few years has lam heavy upon us and is
not yet completely surmounted But the most recent
reports show that the world, and especially the British
government, is disposed to recognise the great things
which he behind our struggle for the Zionist ideal
Let us at this moment remember with gratitude our
leader Wcizmann, whose zeal and circumspection have
helped the good cause to success
The difficulties wc have been through have also
brought some good m their train They have shown us
once more how strong the bond is which unites the
Jews of all countries in a common destiny The crisis
has also purified our attitude to the question of Palestine,
purged it of the dross of nationalism It has been dearl)
proclaimed that wc are not seeking to create a political
society, but that our aim is, in accordance with the old
tradition of Jewry, a cultural one in the widest sense of
the word That bemg so, it is for us to soh e the problem
of living side by side with our brother the Arab in an
open, generous and worth) manner Wc ha\c here an.
opportmut) of showing what we have learnt in the
thousands of years of our martyrdom If we choose the
nghc path we shall succeed and give the rest of the
world a fine example
102
THE JEWS
Whatever we do for Palestine we do it for the honour
and well-being of the whole Jewish people.
in
I am delighted to have the opportunity of addressing
a few words to the youth of this country which is
faithful to the common aims of Jewry. Do not be
discouraged by the difficulties which confront us in
Palestine. Such things serve to test the will to live of
our community.
Certain proceedings and pronouncements of the
English administration have been justly criticised. We
must not, however, leave it at that but learn by experi-
ence.
We need to pay great attention to our relations with
. the Arabs. By cultivating these carefully we shall be
able in future to prevent things from becoming so
dangerously strained that people can take advantage
of them to provoke acts of hostility. This goal is
perfeedy within our reach, because our work of con-
struction has been, and must continue to be, carried
out in such a manner as to serve the real interests of the
Arab population also.
In this way we shall be able to avoid getting ourselves
quite so often into the position, disagreeable for Jews
and Arabs alike, of having to call in the mandatory
power as arbitrator. We shall thereby be following not
merely the dictates of Providence but also our traditions,
which alone give the Jewish community meaning and
stability. For that community is not, and must never
become, a political one; this is the only permanent
source whence it can draw new strength and the Only
ground on which its existence can be justified.
103
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
IV
For the last two thousand years the common property
of the Jewish people has consisted entirely ©fits past.
Scattered over the wide world, our nation possessed
nothing in common except its carefully guarded
tradition. Individual Jews no doubt produced great
work, but it seemed as if the Jewish people as a whole
had not the strength left for great collective achieve-
ments.
Now all that is changed. History has set us a great
and noble task in the shape of active co-operarion in
the building up of Palestine. Eminent members of our
race arc already at work with all their might on the
realisation of this aim The opportunity is presented
to us of setting up centres of civilisation which the
. whole Jewish people can regard as its work. We nurse
the hope of erecting in Palestine a home of our own
national culture which shall help to awaken the near
East to new economic and spiritual life
The object which the leaders of Zionism have Uj
view is not a political but a social and cultural
one The community m Palestine must approach the
social ideal of our forefathers as it is laid down in the
Bible, and at the same time become.a seat of modem
intellectual life, a spiritual centre for the Jew of the
whole world In accordance with tins notion, the
establishment of a Jewish university in Jerusalem con-
stitutes one of the most important amis of the Zionist
organisation
During the last few months I have been to America
in order to help to raise the material basis for this
university there. The success of this enterprise was qmte
natural. Thanks to the untiring energy and splendid
104
• THE JEWS
sclf-sacrificing spirit of the Jewish doctors in America
we have succeeded in collecting enough .money for the
creation of a medical faculty, and the preliminary work
is being started at once. After this success 1 have no
doubt that the material basis for the other faculties
will soon be forthcoming. The medical faculty is first
of all to be developed as a research institute and to
concentrate on making the country healthy, a most .
important item in the work of development. Teaching
on a large scale will only become important later on.
As a number of highly competent scientific workers
have already signified their readiness to take up
appointments at the university, the establishment of a
medical faculty seems to be placed beyond all doubt.
I may add that a special fund for the university, entirely
dis.tinct from die general fund for the development of
the country, has been opened. For the latter consider-
able sums have been collected during these months in
America, thanks to the indefatigable labours of Pro-
fessor 'Weizmann and other Zionist leaders, chiefly
through the self-sacrificing spirit of the middle classes.
1 conclude with a warm appeal to the Jews in Germany
to contribute all they can, in spite of the present eco-
nomic difficulties, for the building up of the Jewish
home in Palestine. This is not a matter of charity but
an enterprise which concerns all Jews and die success
of whidi promises to be a source of the hiuhest satis-
taction to all.
en*?m“ J T Mcsn ?? u n °' J“' = charitable or colot
3“^?' 3 P r ° b, ' m °/ central importance for
Jewish people. Palcsnne is not primarily a place
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
refuge for the Jews of Eastern Europe but the embodi-
ment of the re-a wakening corporate spirit of the whole
Jewish nation Is it the right moment for tins corporate
sense to be awakened and strengthened? This is a
question to which I feel compelled, not merel) by m>
spontaneous feelings but on rational grounds, to return
an unqualified “yes ”
Let us just cast our eyes over the history of the lews
in Germany dunng the past hundred yean A century
ago our forefathers, with few exceptions, lived in the
ghetto They were poor, without political rights,
separated from the Genalcs by a barrier of religious
traditions, habits of life and legal restrictions, their
intellectual development was restricted to their own
literature, and they had remained almost unaffected by
the mighty advance of the European intellect which
dates from the Renaissance And yet these obscure,
humble people had one great advantage over us
of them belonged in every fibre of his being to a com-
munity in which he was completely absorbed, in wm cn
he felt himself a fully privileged member, and which
demanded nothing of hun mat was contrary to ™s
natural habits of thought Our forefathers in those days
were pretty poor specimens intellectually and ph) sically,
but socially speaking they enjoyed an enviable spin tun
equilibrium ,
Then came emancipation, which suddenly opened
up undreamed-of possibilities to the individual Some
few rapidly made a position for themselves m die
higher walks of business and soaal life They greedily
lapped up the splendid triumphs which the art and
science of the western world had achieved The)
joined m the process with burning enthusiasm, them-
selves making contributions of lasting value At the
106
THE JEWS
same time they imitated the external forms of Gentile
life, departed more and more from their religious and
social traditions, and adopted Gentile customs, manners
and habits of thought U seemed as though they were
completely losing their identity m the superior numbers
and more highly organised culture of the nations
among whom they h\ ed, so that in a few generations
there would be no trace of them left A complete dis-
appearance of Jewish nationality in Central and Western
Europe seemed inevitable
But events turned out otherwise Nationalities of
different race seem to have an instinct which prevents
them from fusing However much the Jews adapted
themselves, in language, manners and to a great extent
even m the forms of religion, to the European peoples
among whom they lived, the feeling of strangeness
between the Jews and their hosts never disappeared
This spontaneous feeling is the ultimate cause of anti-
Semitism, which is therefore not to be got nd of by
well-meaning propaganda Nationalities want to pur-
sue their own path, not to blend A satisfactory state of
affairs can only be brought about by mutual toleration
and respect
The first step m that direction is that we Jews should
once more become conscious of our existence as a
■nationality and regain the self-respect that is necessary
to a healthy existence We must leam once more to
glory in our ancestors and our history and once again
take upon ourselves, as a nation, cultural tasks of a sort
calculated to strengthen our sense of the community,
it u not enough for us to play a part as individuals in
the cultural development of the human race, we must
also tackle tasks which only nations as a whole can
pertonn Only so can the Jews regam social health
toy
TJIE WORLD AS I S££ XT
It is from this point of view that I would have joo
look at the Zionist movement To-day history has
assigned to us the task of taking an acme part in the
economic and cultural reconstruction of our native
land Enthusiasts, men of brilliant gifts, have cleared
the Waj, and many excellent members of our race arc
prepared to devote themselves heart and soul to the
cause May every one of them fully realise the import-
ance of this work and contribute, according to his
powers, to its success'
The Jewish Community
A speech in London
Ladies and Gendemen,
It is no easy matter for me to overcome my natural
inclination to a life of quiet contemplation Sue 1
could not remain deaf to the appeal of the O R.T and
O Z E societies 1 , for in responding to it I am respond-
ing, as it were, to the appeal of our sorely oppressed
Jewish nation
The posinon of our scattered Jewish community «
a moral barometer for the political world For what
surer index of political morality and respect for justice
can there be than the attitude of the nauonS towards a
defenceless mmont), whose pecuhanr) lies m th eir
preservation of an ancient cultural track non ?
This barometer is low at the present moment, as we
arc painfully aware from the way we arc crested Sut
it is this very lowness that confirms me in the conviction
that it is our duty to preserve and consolidate our
commumry Embedded in the tradition of the Jewish
* Jar sh ch*nt»ble association*
THE JEWS
people there is a love of justice and reason which must
continue to work for the good of all nations now and
in the future In modem times this tradition has pro-
duced Spinoza and Karl Marx
Those who would preserve the spirit must also look
after the body to which it is attached The O Z E
society literally looks after the bodies of our people
In. Eastern Europe it is working day and night to help
our people there, on whom the economic depression
has fallen particularly heavily, to keep body and soul
together , while the ORT society is trying to get nd
of a severe social and economic handicap under which
the Jews have laboured since the Middle Ages Because
we Were then excluded from all directly productive
occupanons, we were forced into the purely commercial
ones The only way of really helping the Jew in
eastern countries is to give him access to new fields of
activity, for winch he is struggling all over the world
This is the grave problem which the O R.T society
is successfully tackling
It is to you English fellow-Jews that we now appeal
to help us in tins great enterprise which splendid men
have set on foot The last few years, nay, the last few
days have brought us a disappointment which must
have touched you in particular nearly Do not gird
at fate but rather look on these events as a reason
for remaining true to the cause of the Jewish com-
monwealth I am convinced that m doing that
wc shall also indirectly be promoting those general
human ends which we must always recognise as the
Remember that difficulties and obstacles are a valu-
able source of health and strength to any society We
should not have survived for thousands of > ears as a
* 109
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
community if our bed had been of roses, of that I am
quite sure ,
r Bur we have a still fairer consolation Our friends
are not exactly numerous, but among them arc men
of noble spirit and strong sense of justice, who have
devoted their lives to uplifting human society an
liberating the individual from degrading oppression
We are happy and fortunate to have such men from
the Gentile world among us to-night, their presence
lends an added solemnity to this memorable evening
It gives me great pleasure to see before me Bemar
Shaw and H G Wells, to whose view of life I am
particularly attracted ,
You, Mr Shaw, have succeeded m winning the
affection and joyous admiration of the world w e
pursuing a path that has led many others to a mart) r s
crown You have not merely preached moral sermo
to your fellows, >ou have actually mocked at thing
which many of them held sacred You has c done w a
only the bom artist can do From ) our magic box >o
have produced innumerable little figures which, w
resembling human beings, arc compact not of Acs an
blood but of brains, wit and charm And ) et in a way
they are more human than we are ourselves, and on
almost forgets that they are creations not of nature u
of Bernard Shaw You make these charming Muc
figures dance in a miniature world in front ot w 1
the Graces stand sentinel and permit no bitterness to
enter He who has looked into tins little world
our actual world in a new light, its puppets m Jtn ^
ate themselves into real people, making them sue! e )
look quite different By thus holding die mirror UP t
us all you have had a hbcranng effect on us suer
hardly any other of our contemporaries has done an
no
THE JEWS
hive relieved life of something of its earth-bound
heaviness. For this we are all devoutly grateful to you,
and also cos&te, which along with grievous plagues has
also given us the physician and liberator of out souls.
I personally am also grateful to you for die unforgettable
words which you have addressed to my mythical name-
sake who makes life so difficult for me, although he is
really, for all his clumsy, formidable size, quite a harm-
less fellow.
To you all I say that the existence and destiny of our
people depends less on external factors than on ourselves
remaining faithful to the moral traditions which have
enabled us to survive for thousands of years despite the
heavy storms that have broken over our heads. In the
service of life sacrifice becomes grace,
Working Palestine
' Among Zionist organisations “Working Palestine’*
is the one whose work is of most direct benefit to the
most valuable class of people living there, namely those
who ate transforming deserts into flourishing settle-
ments by the labour of their hands. These workers are
a selection, made on a voluntary basis, from the whole
Jewish nation, an elite composed of strong, confident
and unselfish people. They are not ignorant labourers
who sell the labour of their hands to the highest bidder,
hut educated, intellectually vigorous, free men, from
whose peaceful struggle with a neglected soil the whole
Jewish nation are the gainers, directly and indirectly.
By lightening their heavy lot as far as we can we shall
be saving the most valuable sort of human life; for the
tint settlers struggle on ground not yet made habitable
ill
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
is a difficult and dangerous business involving a heavy
personal sacrifice. How true this is, only they can
judge who have seen it with their own eyes. Anyone
who helps to improve the equipment of these men u
helping on the good work at a crucial point.
It is, moreover, this working class alone that has it
in its power to establish healthy relations w™ ®
Arabs, which is the most important political task o
Zionism. Administrations come and go; but jt u
human relations that finally turn the scale in the
of nations. Therefore to support “Working Palestine
is at the same rime to promote a humane and wor y
policy in Palestine and to oppose an effective resistance
those undercurrents of narrow nationalism from " *
the whole political world, and in a less degree the smau
political world of Palestine affairs, is suffering.
Jewish Recovery
I gladly accede to your paper’s request that I *ho
address an appeal to the Jew’s of Hungary on be
Keren Hajcssod. .
The greatest enemies of the narional consaoi
and honour of the Jews arc fatty degeneratxon-Dy
which I mean the unconscionahlencss which c
from wealth and case — and a kind of inner depen e
on the surrounding Gentile world which co
from the loosening of the fabric of Jewish
The best in man can only flourish when lie loses tunwa
in a community. Hence die moral danger ot C J«.
who has lost touch with his own people and UT€&*
as a foreigner by die people of his adoption . On )
often a conrcmptible and joyless egoism lias 1X5 ' ,
from such ' rircumsrances. The weight of outwi
THE JEWS
oppression on the Jewish people is particularly heavy at
the moment Hut this very bitterness has done us good
A revival of Jewish national life, such as the last genera-
tion could never have dreamed of, has begun Through
the operation of a newly awakened sense of solidarity
among the Jews, the scheme of colonising Palestine,
launched by a handful of devoted and judicious leaders
m the face of apparently insuperable difficulties, has
already prospered so far that I feel no doubt about its
permanent success The value of this achievement for
the Jews everywhere is very great Palestine will be a
centre of culture for all Jews, a refuge for the most
grievously oppressed, a field of action for die best
among us, a unifying ideal, and a means of attaining
inward health for the Jews of the whole world
Antt-Semitism and Academic Youth
So long as we lived in the ghetto our Jewish nation-
ality involved for us material difficulties and sometimes
physical danger, but no social or psychological prob-
lems With emancipation the position changed, parti-
cularly for those Jews who turned to the intellectual
professions In school and at the university the young
Jew is exposed to die influence of a society with a
definite national tinge, which he respects and admires,
from which he receives his mental sustenance, to which
lie feels himself to belong, while it, on the other hand,
treats him, as one of an alien race, with a certain con-
tempt and hostility Driven by die suggestive influence
ol this psychological superiority rather than by utili-
tarian considerations, he turns his back on his people
and his traditions, and considers himself as belongL
cnnreU to the others while he mes m vam to conceal
”3
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
from himself and them the fact that-the' relation is not
reciprocal. Hence that pathetic creature, die baptised
Jewish Geheimrat of yesterday and to-day. In most
cases it is not pushfulness and lack of character that ha\e
made him what he is but, as I have said, the suggestive
power of an environment superior in numbers an
influence. He knows, of course, that many admirable
sons of the Jewish people have made important contri-
butions to the glory of European civilisation ; but base
they not all, with a few exceptions, done much tfte
same as he i . , .
In this case, as in many mental disorders, die cure
in a clear knowledge of one’s condition and its causes.
We must be conscious of our alien race and draw
logical conclusions from it. It is no use tr >™£ ,
convince die odiers of our spiritual and inte c
equality by arguments addressed to the reason, w k
their attitude does not originate in their intellects at •
Rather must we emancipate ourselves socially and supp )
our social needs, in the mam, ourselves. We must n
our own students’ societies and adopt an attitu
courteous but consistent reserve to rhe Gennles
let us live after our own fashion there and not . P
duelling and drinking customs which are foreign ^
our nature It is possible to be a civilised
and a good dozen and at the same time a faitmui J
who loves lus race and honours his fathers. y ’
remember this and act accordingly, the problem
anti-Semitism, in so far as it is of a social nature,
solved for us
THE JEWS
A Letter to Professor Dr. Hellpach, Minister of State
Dear Herr Hellpach,
I have read your article on Zionism and the Zurich
Congress and feel, as a strong devotee of the Zionist
idea, that I must answer you, even if it is only shortly.
The Jews are a community bound together by ties
of blood and tradition, and not of religion only : the
attitude of die rest of die world towards them is
sufficient proof of this. When I came to Germany
fifteen yean ago I discovered for the first time that I
was a Jew, and I owe this discovery more to Gentiles
than Jews.
The tragedy of the Jews is that they are people of a
definite historical type, who lack the support of a
community to keep them together. The result is a
want of solid foundations in the individual which
amounts in its extremer forms to moral instability.
I realised that die only possible salvation for die race
was dm every Jew in the world should become attached
to a living society to which the individual rejoiced to
belong and which enabled him to bear the hatred and
the 'humiliations that he has to put up with from the
rest of the world.
I saw worthy Jews basely caricatured, and the sight
made my heart bleed. I saw how schools, comic papers
and innumerable other forces of die Gentile majority
undermined the confidence even of the best of my
fcllow-Jews, and felt that tliis 'could not be allowed to
.continue.
. 1 realised that only a common enterprise dear
to the hearts of Jews all over the world could restore
this people to health. It was a great achievement of
ns
•rut WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
Herd's to have realised and proclaimed at the top of
his voice that, the traditional attitude of the Jews being
what it was, die establishment of a national home or,
more accurately, a centre in Palestine, was a suitable
obiect on which to concentrate our efforts.
All this you call nationalism, and there is something
in the accusation. But a communal purpose, wn thorn
which we can neither live nor die in this hosnle w ,
can always be called by that ugly name, hi any «
it is a nationalism whose aim is not power but dignity
and health, lfwc did not have to live among mtotaan ,
narrow-minded and violent people, I sho |
first to throw over all nationalism in favour o
humanity.
The obj ection that we Jews cannorbe P r0 P cr
German state, for example, if we want «°
of the
f the German state, lor example, ;
“ nanon,” is based on a misunderstanding “Tf
of the state which springs from the nlto , jj
national majorities. Against that Ultojeran . „
never be safe, whether we call ourselves a F°P‘
(or "nanon") or not. - e. ,, 1 -e
I have put all this with brutal franlmess fo
of brevity, but 1 know from your writings that )
a man who attends to the sense, not die lonn.
Letter to an Arab
March l Jlfc tP3°
Your letter has given me great pleasure. 5“
that there is good will available on your side : to
solnng the present difficulties in a manner w
both our nations. I beheve that these diitic
more psychological than real, and that thej can ^
* 116
THE JEWS
Zk if both sides bring honesty and good will to tb c
1 >«K"A*L Prc T P0S ‘“ 0n » bad .s the fact
before the mandatory°po\ver 'll 0dler “ ?PP? nents
'“'Worth) of both nation. j ^ US S , tate op a ® urs IS
0a { a „ “n Wkdfhod ^b/ altered **
< bffii l 'r B htbe y ° U h r!i 1 dllnJc th “ ^present
dut this | only m^peison l‘ 42 ^ “ me 1 must
ducus «d with nobody ? ! °P“*°n,- which I have
because I am not dus ietKr m
boghsh myself a,,j t not ca pable of writing it m
tesponsibdity f 0 ?r You”LTf f '° bear tbe
. f Pt, vy CoUnml .. .. , .
A p" " conciliation to
^AtabTsMi™^ 15 “ be for “'d to which' the jews
to 0 ^ 1 PObn “>Tt“cT tanVeS ' Wh ° m “>
Adoetot , , C ° mpOKd “Mows-
A doctor 1 , ' ampoKd “folW_
Aw U T-S b b y y tf CdlalAs ~n :
otlj nS men ’, , ™ la wyers ,
AnZl‘ ePre5 ' manve ’ ' ! «ted by the trade
05 fa«uS l " mi. arc (o
fores, o„ ” 0t t0 espouse *. , . 0I \ CC a wee k They
° f 4t 't l “ n ° n but consaem™ 1 mtcrcsts ° f d'eir
atm at the S y 3nd to dlc btst
- • ° f *' country Th j m ' of th = whole
Wd °! U,C country"' tu ' V ? lare of the whole
fatum,! 4 ? ate StaCTln^!^" 30011 * sh aU be
^ bu W°“' ,hera . esen°m dden “ 8 ‘ y= “>'
teacher! „ m P n vate When a
n an y subject lh winch not
Iirr
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
less than three members on each side concur, it may be
published, but only m the name of the whole CouncU
If a member dissents he may retire from the Coimai,
but he is not thereby released from the obbganon o
secrecy If one of the eleenve bodies above specified
is dissatisfied with a resolunon of the Council, it may
replace its representative by another
Even if t l is “Pnvy Council has no definite powen
it may ne, rtheless bring about the gradual composition
of differences, and secure a united representanon of the
common interests of the country before the mandatory
power, clear of the dust of ephemeral polmcs
Christianity and Judaism
If one purges the Judaism of the
Christianity as Jesus Christ taught it of all
additions, especially diose of the priests, one is 1
a teaching which is capable of cunng all die
It is the^duty of every man of good wdl to
stead fasti) m his own little world to make _
of pure humanity a living force so far as e
males an honest attempt m this direction
crushed and trampled under foot by his contempora
hc’may consider himself and the community to
he belongs lucky
A Foreuord
The following pages are devoted to an 3 PP^^ n ? c
of the achievements of the German Jews t ^
remembered that we are concerned here with a > .
people amounting in numbers, to no more
118
THE JEWS
population of a moderate-sized town, who have held
their own against a hundred times as many Germans,
in spite of handicaps and prejudices, through the
superiority of their ancient cultural traditions Whatever
attitude people may take up towards this little people,
nobody who retains a shred of sound judgment in these
times of confusion can deny them respect In these days
of the persecution of the German Jews especially, it is
time to remind the western world char it owes to the
Jewish people (<i) its religion and therewith its most
valuable moral ideals, and (6), to a large extent, the
resurrection of the world of Greek though r Nor should
it be forgotten that it was a translation of the Bible, that
is to say, a translation from Hebrew, which broughr
about die refinement and perfection of die German
language To-day the Jews of Germany find their fairest
consolation ui the thought of all they have produced
and achieved for humanity by dieir efforts in modem
tunes also, and no oppression however brutal, no
campaign of calumny however subtle will blind those
who have eyes to see to the intellectual and moral
qualities inherent in this people
119
Part V
SCIENTIFIC
SCIENTIFIC
:hc use of mathematical language can. give. As regards
us subject-matter, on the other hand, the physicist has
:o limit himself very severely . he must content himself
with describing die most simple events which can be
brought, wi thin the domain of our experience ; all *
svents of a more complex order are beyond the power*
of the human intellect to reconstruct with the subdel
accur acy a nd logi cal pe rfection which the dieoreHcal f
physicist demands Supreme purity, clarity and cer-
tainty are attained only by the sacrifice of completeness
But what can be the attraction of getting to know such
a tiny section of nature dioroughly, while one leaves
everything subder and more complex shyly and
timidly alonei Docs the product of such a modest
effort deserve to be called by die proud name of a
dicory of the Universe i
In my belief the name is justified , for die general
laws on which the structure of theoretical physics is
based claim to be vahd for any natural phenomenon
whatsoever. With them, it ought to be possible to
amve at the description, that is to say, the theory, of
f every natural process, mcludmg life, by means of pure
deduction, if diat process of deduction were not
far beyond die capacity of the human intellect
The physicist’s renunciation of completeness for his
cosmos is therefore not a matter of fundamental
principle
The supreme task of the physicist is to arrive at
those universal elementary laws from which die cosmos
can he built up by pure deduction There is no logical
path to dicse laws, onl) intuition, resting on sympa-
thetic understanding of experience, can reach them. , ,
In dm methodological uncertainty, one might suppose
that there were any number of possible systems of
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
theoretical ph)sics all with an equal amount to be said
for diem , and this opinion is no doubt correct, theoret-
ically But evolution has shown that at any given
moment out of all conceivable constructions one has
always proved itself absolutely superior to all the rest
Nobody who has really gone deeply into the matter
will deny that in practice the world of phenomena
unambiguously determines the theoretical system, in spite
of die fact that there is no logical bridge between
phenomena and their theoretical principles, this is w at
Leibnitz described so happily as a pre-cstabli
harmony” Physicists often accuse epistemologists o
not paying sufficient attention to this fact 1
seems to me, he- the roots of die controversy carrie on
some years ago between Mach and Planck , >
The longmg to behold this pre-established harmo y
is the source of the inexhaustible patience and endurance
with which Planck lias devoted himself, as we see, to
the most general problems of our science, refusing to
let himself be dn erted to more grateful and more cas y
attained ends I have often heard colleagues try to
attribute this attitude of his to extraordinary wilI-pov.e
and discipline — wrongly, m my opmion The
mind which enables a man to do work of this ^
akin to that of the religious worshipper or the lo\er ,
daily effort comes from no deliberate intention or P ro “
gramme, but straight from the heart There he sim
our beloved Planck, and smiles inside himself at my
childish poking-about with the lantern of Diogenes
Our affection for him needs no threadbare explanation.
May the love of science continue to illumine his pa
in the future and lead him to the solution of the mo
important problem m present-day physics, wrn
lias himself posed and done so much to sone MaN
126
SCIENTIFIC
succeed in uniting die quantum-theory and electro-
dynamics m a single logical system* ^
Inaugural Address to the Prussian Academy of Sciences <
(i9H)
Gentlemen,
First of all, I have to thank you most heartily for
conferring the greatest benefit on me that anybody can
confer on such an one as myself By electing me to
your Academy you have freed me from the distractions
and cares of a professional life and so made it possible
for me to devote myself entirely to saenufic studies
I beg that you will connnue to believe in my grantude
and my industry even when my efforts seem to )Ou to
yield blit a poor result
Perhaps 1 may be allowed & propos of this to make
a few general remarks on the relation of my sphere of
aenvit), which is theoretical physics, to experimental
physics A mathematician friend of mind said to me
the other day half in jest “The mathematician can do
a lot of dungs, but never what ) ou happen to want just
at the moment ” Much the same often applies to the
theorencal physicist when the experimental physicist
calls hun in What is the reason for this peculiar lack
of adaptability 1
The theorist’s method involves his using as his foun-
dation general postulates or ‘principles” from which
he can deduce conclusions His work thus falls into
n\o parts He must first discover his principles and
• men draw the conclusions which follow from them
For the second of these tasks he receives an admirable
equipment at school Once, therefore, he has per-
formed the first in some department or for some com-
127
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
plcx of related phenomena, he is certain of success,
provided his industry and intelligence are adequate
The first of these tasks, namely, that of establishing die
principles which are to serve as die starting-point of
his deduction, is of an entirely different nature Here
there is no method capable of being learnt and system-
atically applied that leads to the goal The scientist has'
to worm dicse general principles out of nature by
perceiving certain general features, which pemut of
precise formulation, m large complexes of empirical
facts
Once tins formulation is successfully accomplished,
mference follows on inference, often revealing relations
which extend far bejond the province of reality from
which the principles were originally drawn But as long
as die principles capable of serving as starting-points for
the deduction remain undiscovered, die individual fact
is of no use to the theorist, indeed he cannot even do
anything with isolated empirical generalisations of
more or less wide application No, he has to persist in
his helpless attitude towards die separate results of
empirical research, until principles which he can make
the basis of deductive reasoning have revealed them-
selves to him
This is the kind of position m which theory finds
itself at present in regard to the laws of hcat-radiaaon
and molecular movement-at low temperatures About
fifteen years ago nobod) )Ct doubted that a correct
account of the electrical, optical and thermal properties
of bodies was possible on the basis of Gahleo-Newtoruan
mechanics applied to the movement of molecules and
of Clerk Maxwells dicory of the elcctro-magnenc
field Then Planck showed that m order to establish
a law of heat-radiation consonant with experience, it
1 28
SCIENTIFIC
was necessary to employ a method of calculation uhose
mccmpoubUity wuli the principles of classical physics
became clearer and dearer For with this method of
calculation Planch introduced the quantum-hypothesis
into physics, which has since received bnlhant con-
firmation With this quantum-hypothesis he dethroned
'classical physics as applied to the case where sunicscnuy
small masses are mosed at sufficiently low speeds and
high rates of acceleration, so that, to-day the law's of
motion propounded by Galileo and Newton can only
be allowed -validity as limiting law In spue of assi-
duous efforts, however* the theorists have not yet
succeeded in replacing the principles of mechanics by '
others which fit in with Planck’s law of heat-radiation
or the quantum-hy pothesis No matter how definitely
it has been proved that heat is to be explained by mole-
cular movement, we have nevertheless to admit to-day
that our position in regard to the fundamental laws of
this motion resembles that of astronomers before
Newton in regard to the mouons of the planets
I have just now referred to a group of facts for the
theorencal treatment of which the principles are lacking
But it ma) equally well happen that clearly formulated *
principles lead to conclusions which fall entirely, or
almost entirely, outside the sphere of reality at present
accessible to our experience In that case it may need
many years of empirical research to ascertain whether
die theoretical principles correspond with reality We
have an instance of this in the theory of relativity
n nnalvsis nf the .... _ /» '
velocity of bght “ . 0f ** ~
He %zr from
- accept tbetheotyof,^™^
12p
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
On the contrary, there is nothing to prevent our framing
a general theory which takes account of the fact that
in experiments earned out on the earth we are wholly
unconscious of the earth's translator) motion This
involves using the principle of relativity, which says
that the laws of nature do not alter their form when
one proceeds from the onginal (correctl) chosen)
system of co-ordinates to a new one which is in uniform
translatory motion with respect to it This theory has
received impressive confirmation from experience and
has led to a simplification of the theoretical description
of groups of facts already connected together
On the other hand, from the theoretical point of
view this theory is not wholly satisfactory, because the
principle of relativity just formulated prefers uniform
motion If it is true that no absolute significance can
be attached to uniform motion from the physical point
of view, the question arises whether this statement must
nor also be extended to non-umform motions It has
become clear that one arrives at a quite definite enlarge-
ment of the relativity theory if one postulates a principle
of relativity in this extended sense One is led thereby
to a general theory of gravitation which includes
dynamics For the present, however, we have not the
necessary array of frets to test the legitimacy of our
introduction of the postulated principle
We have ascertained that inductive physics asks
questions of deductive, and vice versa to answer which
demands the exertion of all our energies May wc soon
succeed m making permanent progress by our united
efforts 1
130
SCIENTIFIC
Scientific Truth
(l) It is difficult even to attach a precise meaning
to the term “scientific truth. So different is the
meaning of the word “truth” according as we arc
dealing with a fact of experience, a mathematical pro-
position or a scientific theory. Religious truth .
conveys nothing clear to me at all,
(2) Scientific research can reduce superstition by
encouraging people to think and survey things in terms
of cause and effect. Certain it is that a conviction, akin
to religious feeding, of the rationality or intelligibility
of the world lies behind all scientific work of a higher
order.
(3) The firm belief, which is bound up with deep
feeling, in a superior mind revealing itself in the world
of experience, represents my conception of God, which
may therefore be described in common parlance as
“pantheistic” (Spinoza).
(4) Denominational traditions I can only consider
historically and psychologically ; they have no other
significance for me.
The Method of Theoretical Physics
If you want to find out anything from the theoretical
physicists about the methods they use, I advise you to
stick closely to one principle: don’t listen to their
words, fix your attention on their deeds. To die dis-
coverer in this field the products of his imagination
appear so necessary and natural that he regards them
and would have them regarded by others, not as
creations of thought but as given realities.
These words sound like an invitation to you to walk
THE WORLD AS I ^EB IT
out of this lecture You will say to yourselves the
fellow’s a working physi&st himself, and ought there-
fore to leave all questions of die structure of theoretical
sqence to the epistemologists
Against such enaefsm I can defend m> self from the
personal point of view by assuring you diat it is not at
my own instance but at the hind invitation of others
that I have mounted this rostrum, which serves to
commemorate a man who fought hard all his life for
the unity of knowledge Objectively, however, my
enterprise can be justified on the ground dm it may,
after all, be of interest to know how one looks upon his
own branch of science who has spent a lifetime m
striving with all lus nught to clear up and rectify its
fundamentals The way m which he regards its past
and present ma) depend too much on what he hppes
for the future and aims at m the present, but that is
the inevitable fate of anybody who has occupied himself
intensively with a world of ideas The same thing
happens to him as to the historian, who in the same wa),
even diough perhaps unconsciously, groups actual events
round ideals which he has formed for himself on the
subject of human society
Let us now cast an eye over the development of the
theoretical system, paying special attenuon to die
relations between die content of the theory and die
totality- of empirical fact Wc arc concerned with the
eternal antithesis between d e two inseparable com-
ponents of our knowledge, the empirical and the
rational, m our department
We reverence ancient Greece as the cradle of western
sacnce Here for the first time the world witnessed
die miracle of a logical sjstem which proceeded from
step to step with such precision that ever) .single one
U*
SCIENTIFIC
of its propositions was absolutely indubitable I refer
to Euclid s geometry This admirable triumph of
reasoning gave the human intellect the confidence in
itself necessary for * its subsequent achievements If
Euclid fails to kindle your youthful enthusiasm, then
you were not bom to be a scientific thinker
But before mankind could be npe for a science which
takes in the whole of reality, a second fundamental
truth was needed, which only became common pro-
perty among philosophers with the advent of Kepler
and Galileo Pure logical thinking cannot yield us any
knowledge of the empirical world , all knowledge of
reality starts froni cxpenence and ends in j t Proposi-
u5ns”arnvccl-at byTpurcty logical means are completely
empty as regards reality Because he saw this, and
particularly because be drummed it into the scientific
world, Galileo was the father of modem physics —
indeed, of modem science altogether
If, then, experience is the alpha and die omega of all
our knowledge of reality, what is the function of pure
reason m science ?
A complete systejn of theoretical physics is made up
of concepts, fundamental laws which are supposed to
be valid for diosc concepts, and conclusions to be
reached by logical deduction It is these conclusions
which must correspond with our separate experiences ,
m an) theoretical treatise their logical deduction
occupies almost the whole book
This is exactly what happens in Euclid’s geometry,
except that there the fundamental law arc called axioms
and there is no question of the conclusions having to
correspond to any sort of experience If, however, one
regards Euclidean geometry' as die saencc of the mutual
posiQonal^rclaaons of practically ngid bodies m space,
*33
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
that is to say, treats it as a physical science, without
abstracting from its original empirical content, the
logical homogeneity of geometry and theoretical
physics becomes complete
We have thus assigned to pure reason and experience
their places m a theoretical system of physics The
structure of the system is the work of reason, the
empirical contents and their mutual relations must find
their representation in the conclusions of the theory In
the possibility of such a representation lies the sole value
and justification of the whole system, and especially of
the concepts and fundamental principles which under-
lie it These latter, by the way, are free inventions of the
human intellect, which cannot be justified cither by the
nature of that intellect or in any other fashion a priori
These fundamental concepts and postulates, which
cannot be further reduced logically, form the essential
pare of a theory, which reason cannot touch it « the ^
grand object of all theory to make these irreducible
elements as simple and as few in number as possible,
without having to renounce the adequate representation
of any empirical content whatev cr
The view I have just outlined of the purely fictitious
character of die fundamentals of scientific theory was
by no means the prevailing one m the eighteenth or even
the nineteenth century But it is steadily earning ground
from the fact that the distance in thought between the
fundamental concepts and laws on one side and, on the
other, the conclusions wluch have to be brought into
relation with our experience grows larger and larger,
the simpler the logical structure becomes — that is to
say, the smaller die number of logically independent
conceptual elements which are found necessary to
support the structure #
*34
‘scientific
Newton, the first creator of a comprehensive, work-
able system of theoretical physics, still believed that the
basic concepts and laws of his system could be derived
from experience. This is no doubt the meaning of his
saying, hypotheses von jingo.
Actually the concepts of time and space appeared at
that time to present no difficulties. The concepts of
mass, inertia and force, and the laws connecting them
seemed to be drawn directly from experience. Once
this basis is accepted, the expression for die force of
gravitation appears derivable from experience, and it
was reasonable to hope for the same in regard to other
forces.
"Wc can indeed see from Newtons formulation of it
that the concept of absolute space, which comprised
that of absolute rest, made him feel uncomfortable; he
realised that there seemed to be nothing in experience
corresponding to this last concept. He was also not
• quite comfortable about the introduction of forces
operating at a distance. But the tremendous practical
success of his doctrines may well have prevented him
and the physicists o c the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries from recognising the fictitious character of
the foundations of his system.
The natural philosophers of those days were, on the
contrary, most of them possessed with the idea that
the fundamental concepts and postulates of physics
were not in the logical sense free inventions of the
human mind hut could be deduced from experience by
abstraction —that is to say by logical means. A dear
recognition of tht moneousness of tnis notion really
only came with the general theory of relativity, which
showed that one could take account of a wider range of
empirical facts, and that too in a more satisfactory and
- *35
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
complete manner, on a foundation quite different from
die Newtonian than was possible with it But quite
apart from the quesaon which is superior, the ficnaous
character of fundamental principles is perfectly evident
from die fact diat wc can point to two essentially differ-
ent principles, both of which correspond with experience
to a large extent, this proves at the same time that every
attempt at a logical deduction of the basic concepts and
postulates of mechanics from elementary experiences is
doomed to failure
If, then, it is true that this axiomatic basis of theo-
retical physics cannot be extracted from experience but
must be freely invented, can we ever hope to ibid the
right way ? Na> more, has this nght way any existence
outside our illusions i Can we hope to be guided in the
nght way by experience when there exist theories (such
as classical mechanics) which to a large extent do justice
to expenence, without getting to the root of the matter I
I answer without hesitation that there is, in my opinion,
a nght way, and that we are capable of finding it. Out
expenence hitherto justifies us in behoving that nature
is the realisanon of the simplest conceivable mathematical
ideas I am convinced that we can discover b> means
of purely mathematical constructions die concepts and
the laws connecting them with each other, which furnish
the key to the understanding of natural phenomena.
Expenence may suggest the appropnate mathematical
concepts, but they most certainly cannot be deduced
from it Expenence remains, of course, the sole
entenon of the physical utility of a mathemancal con-
struction But the creative principle resides in mathe-
matics In a certain sense, therefore, I hold it true that
pure thought can grasp reality, as the ancients dreamed
In order to justify this confidence, I ain compelled
136
SCIENTIFIC
to make use of a mathematical conception. The
physical world is represented as a four-dimensional
continuum. If I assume a Ricmannian metric in it and
ask what arc the simplest laws which such a metric can
satisfy, I amve at the relativist theory of gravitation in
empty space. If in that space I assume a vector-field or
an anti-symmetrical tensor-field which can be inferred
from it, and ask what are the simplest laws which such
a field can satisfy, I arrive at Clerk Maxwell’s equations
for empty space.
At this point we still lack a theory for those parts of
space in which electrical density does not disappear.
De Broglie conjectured the existence of a wave-field,
.which served to explain certain quantum properties of
matter. Dirac found in the spinors field-magnitudes of
a new sort, whose simplest equations enable one to a
large extent to deduce the properties of the electron.
Subsequently I discovered, in conjunction with my
e3! dl ? c s P“ 10rs f° rm 3 special case of anew
2” ° mathematically connected with the four-
dimensional system, which we called “semivectors.”
be re3?f eq -l d0n f l ° which such semivectors can
e^ t e e d n ^n/ UnUSh " k 7, t0 die ““demanding of the
eTnonde-U ° SOrtS particles, of dtffer-
chsrcc Th C ^ e<Jual tut °PP osite electrical
StoW T™*? 0 ? are, »f«r ordinary vectors.
«mXr W Tr d fi ? Ids ™ P«Me in a
if they desribed™ ° f four dlmm stons, and it looks as
CSSL Sf “ * observe is that aU
arrived at by die nri connecting them can be
137
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
In the limited nature of the mathematically existent
simple fields and the simple equations possible between
them lies the theorist’s hope of grasping the real in all
its depth
Meanwhile the great stumbling-block for a field-
theory of this land hes in the conception of the atomic
structure of matter and energy For the theory is
fundamentally non-atomic in so far as it operates
exclusively with continuous functions of space, in
contrast to classical mechanics, whose most important
element, the material pomt, in itself -mounts for the
atomic structure of matter
The modem quantum theory in the form associated
with the names of de Broglie, Schrodinger, and Dirac,
which operates with continuous funenons, has over-
come these difficulties by a bold piece of interpretation
which was first given a dear form by Max Bom
According to this, the spatial funenons which appear
in the equanons make no daun to be a mathematical
model of the atomic structure Those funenons are
only supposed to determine the mathemancal proba-
bihues of such structures occurring if measurements
were taken at a particular spot or in a certain state of
monon Tlus notion is logically unobjecnonable and
has important successes to its credit Unfortunately,
however, it compels one to use a continuum the
number of whose dimensions is not that ascribed to
space by physics hitherto (four) but rises indefinitely
with the number of the parades consntuung the s)stem
under considcranon I cannot but confess that I attach
only a transitory importance to tins interpretation I
soil beheve in die possibility of a model of reality—
that is to sa) , of a theory which represents dungs them-
sdves and not merely the probability of their occurrence
138
SCIENTIFIC
On the other hand it seems to me certain that we
must give up the idea of a complete localisation of the
particles In a theoretical model. This seems to me to
be the permanent upshot of Heisenberg s Uncertainty
Principle. But an atomic theory in the true sense of
the word (not merely on the basis of an interpretation),
without localisation of particles in a mathematical
model, is perfectly thinkable. For instance, to account
for the atomic character of electricity, the field equations
need only lead to the following conclusion : — A portion
of space (three-dimensional) at whose boundaries
electrical density everywhere disappears, always con-
tains a total electrical charge whose size is represented
by a whole number. In. a continuum-theory, atomic
characteristics would be satisfactorily expressed by
integral laws without localisation of the formation
which constitutes the atomic structure.
Not until the atomic structure had been successfully
represented in such a manner would 1 consider the
quantuin-nddle solved.
Address at Columbia University, New York
Science as something existing and complete is the *
most objective thing known to man. But science in the
making, science as an end to be pursued, is as subjective
and psychologically conditioned as any other branch of
human endeavour— so much so that the question,
"What is the purpose and meaning of science? receives
quue different answers at different rimes and. fewa.
different sorts of people.
\r’t^ COURC ’. univcrs % agreed that science has to
establish connections between the facts of experience,
ot such a kind that we can predict further occurrences
t!9
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
from those alrcad) experienced Indeed, according to the
opinion of man) positivists the completes! possible
accomplishment of this task is die only end of science
I do not believe, however, that so elementary an
ideal could do much to kindle the m\ esagator's passion,
from which really great achievements have arisen
Behind the tireless efforts of the investigator there lurks
a stronger, more mjstcnous drive it is existence and
reality that one wishes to comprehend But one shrinks
from the use of such words, for one soon gets into
difficulties when one has to explain what is real/) meant
b) “reality” and b) “comprehend” in such a general
statement
When w e strip the statement of its mystical elements
vve mean that vve arc seeking for the simplest possible
s) stem of thought winch will bind togedier the observed
facts By die “simplest” s)$tcm we do not mean die
one which die srudent wall have die least trouble m
assimilating, but the one which contains the fewest
possible mutually independent postulates or axioms,
since the content of diesc logical, mutuall) independent
axioms represents that remainder which is not com-
prehended
When a man is talking about scientific subjects, the
little word “I ’ should pla) no part in Jm exposition
But when he is talking about die purposes ana aims of
science, he should be pemutted to speak of himself,
for a man experiences no aims and desires so immedi-
atel) as his own The special aim which I have eon-
stantl) kept before me is logical umficanon in die field
of phj’sics To start with, it disturbed me that electro-
dynamics should pick out ewe state of motion in prefer-
ence toothers, without an> experimental’ juwmcrfltf®
for dm preferential treatment Tints arose die special
140
SCIENTIFIC
theory of relativity, -which, moreover, welded together
into scomprchensible unities the electrical and magnetic
fields, as well as mass and energy, or momentum and
energy, as the case may be. Then out of the endeavour
to understand inertia and gravitation as having a unified
character there arose die general theory’ of relativity/
which also avoided those implicit axioms which underlie
our thinking when we use special co-ordinate systems
in the process of formulating^ basic laws.
At the present time it is particularly disturbing that
the gravitational field and the electrical field should
enter into the theory' as mutually independent funda-
mental concepts After many years of effort, however,
an appropriate logical unification has been achieved—
t I VC ~ thr0US l 1 a new H^themaucal method,
coUaborat: ^ ********
^ Cre saU rcmams ““Standing an
£ “ of * e kmd, which has often
HEV b , ut found no sausfactory
in terms of r “Puliation atomic structure
based on 1, ® ekb " tbcor y All these endeavours are
comple,"K ha^ nV1 ' COOn ' hat eldsten “ *Wld have a
Etot^d !t “- T °- day we have k »
forced awav fro ^ rc for . ^owmg ourselves to be
from this wonderful behef.
Johannes Kepler
dttSSli— ““ when it h
\nman *' oi
*e serene greatness of y ^ t0 °<
■ »n™ SiStfCi s
141
THp WORLD AS I SEE IT
an accepted certainty How great must ins faith in
natural law have been, to have given him the strength
to devote ten y ears of hard and patient work to the
empirical investigation of the movement of the planers
and the mathematical laws of that movement, entirely
on his own account, supported by no one and under-
stood by very few* If we would honour his memory
worthily, we must get as clear a picture as we can of his
problem and the stages of us solution t
Copernicus had opened die eyes of the most intelligent
to the fact that the best way to get a clear grasp of die
apparent movements of the planets in the heavens was
by regarding them as movements round the sun con-
ceived as stationary If the planets mov ed uniform 1) m
a circle round the sun, it would have been compara-
tively easy to discover how these movements must
look from the earth Since, however, the phenomena
to be dealt with were much more complicated than
that, the rask was a far harder one The first thing to
be done was to determine these movements empirically
from the observations of Tycho Brahe Onl) then did
it become possible to think about discovering the
general laws which these movements satisfy
To grasp how difficult a business it wms cv en to luid
out about die actual movements of revolution, one has to
realise the following One can never see w here a planer
real]) is a r any given moment, bur only in what direcuon
it is seen just then from die eardi, which however,
is itself moving in an unknown manner round the sun
The difficulties dius seemed practically unsurmounfable
Kepler had to discov cr a way of bringing order into
this chaos To start with, he saw that it was ncccssarv
first to try to find out about the monon of the earth
itself This would have been simply impossible »
J 42
SCIENTIFIC
there had existed only the sun, the earth and thefed
stars, but no other planets For in that case one coulov
ascertain nothing empirically except how the direction
of the straight line sun-earth changes in the course of
the year (apparent movement of the sun with refer-
ence to the fixed stars) In this way it was possible to
discover that these directions all lav in a plane stationary
with reference to the fixed stars, at least with the
accuracy of observation achieved in those days, when
there were no telescopes By this means it could also
be ascertained m what manner the line sun-earth
revolves round the sun It turned out that the angular
velocity of this monon went through a regular change
in die course of die y car But this was not of much use,
as it was still not known how the distance between the
earth and die sun alters in the course of the year It
was only when these changes were known that die real
shape of die earth's orbit and the manner in which it is
described were discovered
Kepler found a marvellous way out of dns dilemma
In the first place, it followed from the observations of
the sun that the apparent path of the sun against die
background of die fixed stars differed m speed at
different times of die year, but that the angular vclocitv
of this movement was always die same at the same
•point in die astronomical year, and dicrefore that die
speed of rotation of the straight line cardi-sun was
r' I? 5 ^ ,C sarnc "hen it pointed to die same region
u i s , tars ^ was dius legitimate to suppose
that die earth s orbit was a self-enclosed one, described
o> die earth in the same way cvcrv year— which was
> no means obvious a prion For die adherent of die
Copcrnican sy stem it was dius as good as certain that this
must also apply to die orbits of the rest of the planets
THE WORLD AS I SEE I r
This certainly nude things easier But how to ascer-
c tain die real shape of the earth s orbit * Ima£ mc a bnghtly
shining lantern M somewhere in the pknc of the
orbit We know that this lantern remain 5 permanently
in its place and thus forms a kind of fixed tnangulanon-
point for determining the earth’s orbit, 4 point which
the inhabitants of the earth can take a sitjht on at 311 >’
time of y ear Let this lantern M be farther awa > l* rom
the sun than the earth With the help of suc h a hmrern
it "was possible to determine die earth’s orbit, in the
following way —
First of all, in every year there come 5 a moment
when the earth E lies exactly on the hnf joining the
sun S and the lantern M If at this moir^t 1°°*
from the earth B at the lantern M, our n* 16 0 * ‘ 5t S lA
will comade with the line SM (sun-lantel* 1 ) Suppose
the latter to be marked in the heavens fd° w imagine
the earth m a different posinon and at a deferent time
Since the sun S and the lantern M can b 0 ^ 1 ^ CJ1
from the earth, the angle at E m die maPg‘ c SEM is
known But we also know' die direction SE m
relation to the fixed stars through direct w** observa-
tions, while the direction of the line SM U* rclanon to
the fixed stars was finally ascertained prc\' 10m |>
in the triangle SEM vve also know the ^S* 6 at
Tlicrcforc, with the base SM arbitrarily hfd dowjn on
a sheer of paper, wc can, m virtue of out
of the angles at E and S, construct the tn^gk
We might do dus at frequent intervals during the year,
cadi time we should get on our piece ofpap^ 3 posmon
bf the eardi E with a date atrachcd to it arid a ceit^i
posmon m relation to the permanently fixed baseS
The earth's orbit would thereby be empin^ 1 )
mined, apart from its absolute sue, of co ufl*
144
SCIENTIFIC
‘ But, you will say, where did Kepler get fir Untsrn
M » His genius and Nature, benevolent in this 'Casr*
gave it to him There was, for example, the planet
Mars, and the length of the Martian year— i e , one
rotanon of Mars round the 'Sun — was known It may
happen one fine day that the sun, the earth and Mars
he absolutely in the same straight line This position of
Mars regularly recurs after one, two, etc Maroan
years, as Mars has a self-enclosed orbit At these known
moments, therefore, SM always presents the same
base, while the earth is always at a different point in
its orbit The observations of the sun and Mars at these
moments thus constitute a means of determining the
true orbit of the earth, as Mars then plays the part of
our imaginary lantern Thus it was that Kepler dis-
covered the true shape of the earth’s orbit and the
way m which the earth describes it, and we who come
after— Europeans, Germans, or even Swabians — may
well admire and honour him for it
Now that the earth’s orbit had been empirically
determined, the true position and length of the line SE
at anv moment was known, and it was not so terribly
difficult for Kepler to calculate the orbit and motions
of the rest of the planets too from observations — at least
m principle It was nevertheless an immense work, es-
pecially considering the state of mathematics at the time
Nov, came the second and no less arduous part of
Kepler’s hfc-vv ork The orbits were empirically known,
but their laws had to be deduced from the empirical
data. First he had to make a guess at the mathematical
nature of the curve described by the orbit, and then
«y it out on a \ ast assemblage of figures If it did not
fit, another hypothesis had to be devised ard again
tested After tremendous search, the conjecture that
MS
TKE WORLD AS I SEE IT
th£/ 6 rbit was an ellipse with the sun at one of its foci
'was found to fir the facts Kepler also discovered the
law governing die variation in speed during rotation,
which is that the line sun-planet sweeps out equal areas
in equal periods of nine Finally he also discovered
that the square of the period of circulation round the
sun vanes as the cube of the major axes of the ellipse
Our admiration for this splendid man is accompanied
by another feeling of admiranon and reverence, the
object of which is no man but the mvstenous harmony
of nature into which we are bom As far back as
ancient times people devised the lines exhibiting the
simplest conceivable form of regularity Among these,
next to the straight line and the arcle, the most import-
ant were the ellipse and the hyperbola We see the last
two embodied — at least very nearly so — in die orbits
of the heavenly bodies
It seems that the human mind has first to construct
forms mdependendy before we can find diem m things
Kepler’s marvellous achievement is a particularly fine
example of die truth that knowledge cannot spring
from experience alone but only from the comparison
of the inventions of the inrellecr with observ ed fact
The Mechanics of Neu ion and their Influence on the
Developn ent of Theoretical Ph)stcs
It is just two hundred )ears ago smcc Newton dosed
11s eyes for die last time It behoves us at such a
moment to remember this brilliant gemus, who deter-
mined the course of western thought, research and
practice to an extent that nobody before or since hu
nmc can touch Not only was he brilliant as an inventor
of certain key methods, but he also had a unique com-
146
SCIENTIFIC
maiid of the empirical material available m his day,
and he was marvellously inventive as regards mathe-
matical and ph) steal methods of proof m individual
cases For all these reasons he deserves our deepest
reverence The figure of Newton has, however, an
even greater Importance than his genius warrants from
the fact that destiny placed him at a turning-point m
die history of die human intellect. To see this vividly,
we have to remind ourselves that before Newton there
existed no self-contained system of physical causality
which was capable of representing any of the deeper
features of the empirical world
No doubt the great materialists of ancient Greece
had insisted that all material events should be traced
back to a strictly regular senes of atomic movements
without admitting any living creature’s will as an
independent cause And no doubt Descartes had in Ins
own way taken up this quest agent But tt remained
a bold ambmon, the problematical ideal of a school of
philosophers Actual results of a kind to support die
belief in die existence of a complete chain of physical
causation hardly existed before Newton P P
iT' 1 ob J cct %v f to answer thequesnon, Is there
such a thing as a simple rule by which one can calculate
tho movements of the heavenly bodies in our pUn et a“
— ■ TW ]™, gave , „
«nK ,rorn ,he *»ovenjea« « .they Werc
*47
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
complete answer to die question of how the planers
move round the sun (the elliptical shape of the orbit,
equal areas in equal times, die relation between the
tnajor axes and the period of circulation round the
sun) , but they did not satisfy the demand for causality
They are three logically independent rules, rescaling
no inner connection with each other. The third law
canno r simply be transferred quanntatively to other
central bodies than the sun (there is, for example, no
relation between the rotator)' period ofa planet round the
sun and that of a moon round its planet) The most
important point, however, is this these law are con-
cerned with the movement as a whole, and not with
the question how the state of motion of a system gives rise
to that which immediately follows it in time, they are, as we
should say now, integral and not differential laws
The differential law is the only form which com-
pletely satisfies the modem physicist's demand for
causality The clear concepnon of the differential law
is one of Newton’s greatest intellectual achievements
Ic was not merely the notion that was needed but
also a mathematical formalism which existed in us rudi-
ments but had to acquire a systematic form Newton
found this also m the differcnnal and the integral
calculus We need not consider the question here
whether Newton hit upon the same mathematical
methods mdependendy of Leibnitz or nor In any
case it was absolutely necessary for New ton to perfect
them, smee they alone could provide him with the
means of expressing his ideas
* Galileo had already made a considerable advance
towards a knowledge of the law of motion He du-
lire 'nrw xfi 'nanxci turi vi/t low *c K h/edws. falling
freely in the gravitational field of the earth nameh,
* 148
SCIENTIFIC
that a mass, (more accurately, mass-point) which is
unaffected by other masses, moves uniformly and in a
straight line The vertical speed of a free body m die
gravitational field increases uniformly with die time
It may seem tD us to-day to be but a short step from
Galileo's discoveries to Newton’s law of motion But
it should be observed that both the above statements
refer in their form to the motion as a whole, whereas
Newton $ law of motion provides an answer to the
question, How does the state of motion of a mass-point
behave in an infinitely short tune under the influence of
an external force? It was only by considermg what
takes place during an infinitely short time (the differ-
ential law) that Newton reached a formula which
applies to all motion whatsoever He took the con-
cept of force from staucs, which had already reached a
high stage of development The connection between
force ana acceleration was only made possible for him
by the mtroduenon of the new concept of mass, which
was supported, strange to say, by an illusory definition
Wc arc so accustomed to-day to the creation of concepts
corresponding to differentia! quonents diat we can
hardly grasp now what a remarkable power of abstrac-
tion it needed to reach die general differential law by a
crossing of two frontiers, m the course of which the
concept of mass had in addition to be invented
But a causal conccpnon of motion was still far from
being achieved For the motion was only determined
by the equation of motion in cases where the force
was given Inspired no doubt by the uniformity of
planetary motions, Newton conceived die idea that
the force operating on a mass was determined by the
position of all masses situated at a sufficiendy sma }\
distance from the mass in question It was not tdl this
149
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
connection was established that a completely causal
conception of motion was achieved How Newton,
starting from Keplers laws of planetary motion, per-
formed this task for gravitation and so discovered that
the kineac forces acting on the stars and gravit) were
o f the same nature, is well known It is the combination
of the Laws of Motion with the Law of Attraction
which consntuces that marvellous edifice of thought
which makes it possible to calculate the past and future
states of a system from the state obtaining u one
particular moment, in so far as the events fake place
under the influence of the forces of gravity alone The
logical completeness of Newton’s conceptual svsteni
lay m this, that die only dungs that figure as causes of
die acceleranon of the masses of a system are these
mosses themselves
On die strengdi of the basis here briefly sketched
Newton succeeded in explaining die motions of the
planets, moons and comets down to the smallest
details, as well as die tides and die processional move-
ment of the earth — a deductive achievement of unique
magnificence The discover) that the cause of die
monons of the heavenly bodies is identical with the
gravity with winch we arc so familiar from everyday
life must have been particularly impressive
But the importance of Newton s achievement was
not confined to the fact that it created a workable and
logically satisfactory basis for the actual science of
mechanics, up to the end of the nineteenth century it
formed die programme of every worker in the field of
theoretical physics All physical events were to be
rraced back to masses which are subject to Newton s
fews of motion The few of force suuply had to be
widened and adapted to the type of event under con-
150
SCIENTIFIC
sideration. Newton himself tried to apply this scheme
to optics, assuming light to consist of inert corpuscles.
Even the wave theory of light made use of Newton’s
law of motion, after it had been applied to the mass of
a continuum. Newton’s equations of motion were the
sole basis of the kinetic theory of heat, which not only
prepared people’s minds for the discovery of the law of
the conservation of energy but also led to a theory ol
gases which has been confirmed down to die last
detail, and a more profound view of the nature of the
second law of thermodynamics. The development of
electricity and magnetism has proceeded right down to
our own day along Newtonian lines (electrical and
magnetic substance, forces acting at a distance). Even
' the revolution in electrodynamics and optics brought
about by Faraday and Clerk Maxwell, which formed
the first great fundamental advance in theoretical
physics since Newton, took place entirely under the
argis of Nc won’s ideas Clerk Maxwell, Boltzmann
and Lord Kelvin never weaned of tracing the electro-
magnetic fields and their reciprocal dynamic actions
back to die mcchamcal action of hypothetical con-
tinuous media possessmg mass. As a result, however,
of die hopelessness or at any rate the lack of success of
those efforts, a gradual revolution m our fundamental
notions has taken place since the end of the nineteenth
century ; theoretical physics have outgrown the New-
tonian frame which gave stability and intellectual
guidance to science for nearly two hundred years.
Ndwton’s fundamental principles were so satisfactory
fwarcofview that the impetus to over-
haul diem could only spring from die imperious
demands of empirical fact. Before I go into this I
must insist that Newton himself was better aware of
151 - *
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
the weaknesses inherent in his intellectual edifice than
the generations of scientists which followed him. This
fact has always roused my respectful admiration, and I
should like, therefore, to dwell on it for a moment
(i) In spite of die fact that Newton’s ambiaon to
represent Jus system as necessarily conditioned by
experience and to introduce the smallest possible
number of concepts not directly referable to empirical
objects is everywhere evident, he sets up the concept
of absolute space and absolute arae, for which he has
often been cnacised in recent yean But in this point
Newton is particularly consistent He had realised that
observable geometrical magnmidcs (discanccsofraareml
points from one another) and dieir course in amc do
not completely characterise monon in its physical
aspects He proves this m the famous experiment with
the rotating vessel of water Therefore, in addition to
masses and their temporally vanablc distances, theremust
be something else that determines motion That “sorre-
tlnng’ he takes to be relation to “absolute space ’ He
is aware that space must possess a kind of physical
reality if Jus Jaws of monon are to base an) meaning, a
reality of the same sort as material points and the
intervals between them t
The dear realisation of this reveals both Newtons
wisdom and also a weak side to his thcor) For the
logical structure of die latter would undoubted!) be
more satisfactor) without this shadow') concept, w
that case onl) tilings whose relations to perception ate
perfectly clear (mass-points, distances) would enter
into the laws ,
(a) The mrroduenon of forces a rang clirccth and
instantaneously at a distance into the representation of
the effects ofgravuy is not in keeping with the character
152
\£IENTIFIC
of most of the processes familiar to us from everyday
life Newton meets this objection by pointing to the
fact tli at his law of reciprocal gravitation is not sup-
posed to he a final explanation but a rule derived by
induction from experience
(3) Newton’s doctrine provided no explanation for
the highly remarkable fact that the weight and the
inertia of a body are determined by the same quantity
(its mass) The remarkableness of this fact struck
Newton himself
None of these three points can rank as a logical
objection to the theory In a sense they merely represent
unsatisfied desires of die scientific spirit in its struggle
for a complete and unitary penetration of natural
events by thought
Newton’s doctrine of monon, considered as the key
idea bf die whole of theoreucal physics, received its
first shock from Clerk Maxwell’s theory of electricity
It became clear that the reciprocal actions between
bodies due to electric and magnetic forces were effected,
not by forces operating instantaneously at a distance,
but by processes wlucli are propagated through space
at a finite speed Faraday conceived a new sort of real
physical entity, namely die 4 field,” in addition to the
mass-point and its motion At first people tried, cling-
ing to die mechanical mode of thought, to look upon
it as a mechanical condiuon (motion or force) of a
hypothetical medium b> which space was filled up
(the edier) But when this interpretation refused to
work m spite of the most obstinate efforts, people gradu-
all> got used to the idea of regarding the “efeoro-
nugneoc fidd" as a final irreducible comnraent of
physical reality W c base H Hertz to thank for
definitely freeing the conception of the field fiom all
■53
THE WORLD IT
encumbrances derived from the Conceptual armour)' of
mechanics, and H. A. Lorcntz for freeing it from a
material substratum; according to the latter the only
thing left to acr as a substratum for the field was physical
- empty space (or ether), which even in the mechanics
of Newton had not been destitute of all physical
functions. By the time this point was reached, nobody
any longer believed in immediate momentary action at
a distance, not even in the sphere of gravitation, even
though no field-theory of the latter had been clearly
sketched out owing to lack of sufficient factual know-
ledge. The development of the theory of the elect ro-
magncnc field — once Newton's hypothesis of forces
acting at a distance had been abandoned — led to the
attempt to explain die Newtonian law of motion on
electro-magnetic lines or alternatively to replace it by
a more accurate one based on die field-theory. Even if
these efforts did not meet with complete success, still
the fundamental concepts of mechanics had ceased to
be looked upon as fundamental constituents of die
physical Universe.
The theory of Clerk Maxwell and Lorentz led
inevitably to die special theory of relativity, which
ruled out the existence of forces acting at a distance,
with the resulting destruction of the no don of absolute
simultaneity. This theory made it clear that mass is
not a constant quantity but depends on the cnerg)-
content — is indeed equivalent to it. It also showed that
Newton’s law of monon was only to be regarded as a
limiting law valid for small velocities; in its place if
put a new law of morion tn which the speed of light in'
vacuo figures as the critical velocity.
The general theory of relativity formed die bit
step in the development of die programme of die field-
154
SCIENTIFIC
theory. Quantitatively it modified Newtons theory
only slightly, hut all the more profoundly for that
qualitatively. Inertia, gravitation, and the metrical
behaviour of bodies and clocks were -reduced to a
single field quality, this field itself was again placed in .
dependence on the bodies (generalisation of Newton s
law of gravity or the field-law corresponding to it, as
formulated by Poisson). Space and time were thereby
divested not of their reality but of their causal absolute-
ness (absoluteness affecting but not affected) which
Newton had been compelled to ascribe to them in order
to be able to give expression to the laws then known.
The generalised law of inertia takes over the function
of Newton’s law of motion. This short account is
enough to show how die elements of the Newtonian
theory passed over into the general theory of relativity,
whereby the three defects above mentioned were over- %
come. It looks as if the law of motion could be deduced '
from the field-law corresponding to the Newtonian law
of force. Only when this goal has been completely reached
will it be possible to talk about a pure field-theory.
In a more formal -sense also Newton’s mechanics
prepared the way for the field-theory. The application
of Newton’s mechanics to continuously distributed
masses led inevitably to the discovery and application
of partial differential equations, which in their turn first
provided the language for die laws of the field-theory.
In this formal respect Newton’s conception of the
differential law constitutes the first decisive step in the
development which followed.
The whole evolution of our ideas about die processes
of nature, with which we have been concerned so far,
might be regarded as an organic development of
Newton s ideas. But while the process of perfecting
155
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
die field-theory was still in full swing, the facts of heat-
radiation, the spectra, radio-activity etc., revealed a
limit to the serviceableness of the whole intellectual
system which to-day still seems to us absolutely insuper-
able in spite of immense successes at certain points.
Many physicists maintain — and there are weighty
arguments in their favour — that in the face of these
facts -not merely the differential law but the law of
causation itself— hitherto the fundamental postulate of
all natural science — has collapsed. Even the possibility
of a spatio-temporal construction, which can be
unambiguously co-ordinated with physical events, is
denied. That a mechanical system is permanently
susceptible only of discrete energy-values or states — as
experience, so to speak, directly shows— seems at first
sight hardly deduable from a field-theory which
operates with differential equations. The Dc Broglic-
Schrpdwgcr method, which has in a certain sense die
character of a field-theory, docs indeed deduce the
discreteness of energy stares, in astonishing agreement
with empirical fact, on the basis of differential equations
operating with a kind of resonance-theory, but it has
to do without a localisation of the mass-particlcs and
without strictly causal laws. Who would presume
to-day to dcade the question whether the law of
causation and die differential law, diese ultimate
premisses of die Newtonian view of nature, must
definitely be given up i
Clerk MaxwelPs Injluer.ee on the Evolution of the lies
of Physical Reality
’Tut Wut5 Ttn an rmra’i '«xnVh vAepaAaA
[ perceiving subject is die basis of all natural science. Since,
156
SCIENTIFIC -
however, seme perception only gives information ofthis
external world or of “physical reality indirectly, we can
only grasp die latter by speculative means. It follows
from this that our notions ofpKysical Reality can never
he final. We must always be ready to change these
notions — that is to say, the axiomatic substructure of
physics — in order to do justice to perceived facts in the
most logically perfect way. Actually a glance at the
development of physics shows that it has undergone
far-reaching changes in the course of time.
The greatest change in the axiomatic substructure of
physics — in other words, of our conception of the
structure of reality — since Newton laid the foundation
of theoretical physics was brought about by Faraday’s
and Clerk Maxwell’s work on electro-magnetic pheno-
mena. We will try in what follows to make this
clearer, keeping both earlier and later developments
in sight.
According to Newton’s system, physical reality is
characterised by the concepts of time, space, material
point, and force (=reciprocal action of material points).
Physical events, in Newton’s view, are to be regarded
as the motions, governed by fixed laws, of material
points in space. The material point is our only mode of
representing reality, when dealing with changes taking
place in it. Perceptible bodies arc obviously responsible
for the concept of the material point; people conceived
it as an analogue of mobile bodies, stripping these of the
characteristics of extension, form, orientation in space,
and all “inward” qualities, leaving only inertia and
•crndnmtm anh aaciing inc concept ol force. The
material bodies, which had led psychologically to our
formation of the concept of the “material point ” had
now themselves to be regarded as systems of material
157
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
points It should be noted that this theoretical scheme is
m essence an atomistic and mechanistic one All happen-
ings were to be interpreted purely mechanically — that is
to say, simply as motions of material poults according
to Newton’s law of motion
The most unsatisfactory side of this system {apart
from the difficulties involved in the concept of “absolute
space” winch have been raised once more just recently)
lay in its description of light, which NewtPn also con-
ceived, m accordance with his system, as composed of
material points Even at that time the question, What
in that case becomes of the material points of which light
is composed, when the light is absorbed i was alread) a
burning one Moreover, it is unsatisfactory m any case
to maodu.ee mto the dsscossum. mateml points Qt quite
a different sort, which have to be postulated for the pur-
pose of representing ponderable matter and light
respectively Later on corpuscles of electuary were
added to these, making a third kmd, again with com-
pletely different characteristics It was further, a funda-
mental weakness that the forces of reciprocal action, by
which events are determined, had to be assumed hypo-
thetically in a perfectly arbitrary way Yet this con-
ception of the real accomplished much how came it
that people felt themselves impelled to forsake it?
In order to put his system into mathematical form at
all, Newton had to devise the concept of differential
quotients and propound the laws of monon in the form
of total differential equations — perhaps the greatest
advance in thought that a single individual was ever
privileged to make Partial differential equations were
not necessar) for dus purpose, nor did Newton make
any systematic use of them , but they were nccessars for
the formulation of the mechanics of deformable bodies,
158
SCIENTIFIC
this is connected with the fact that m these problems the
question of tow* bodies arc supposed to be constructed
out of material points was of no importance to begin
with
Thus the partial differential equation entered theo-
retical physics as a handmaid, but has gradually become
mistress This began in the nmeteenth century when
the wave-theory of light established itself under the
pressure of observed fact Light in empty space was
explained as a matter of vibrations of the ether, and it
seemed idle at that stage, of course, to look upon the
latter as a conglomeration of material points Here for
the first time the partial differcnual equation appeared
as the natural expression of the primary realities of
physics In a particular department o f theo rencal physics
the continuous field thus appeared side by side with the
material point as the representative of physical reality
This dualism remains even to-day, disturbing as it must
be to every orderly mind
If the idea of physical reality had ceased to be purely
atomic, it still remained for the time being purely
mechanistic, people still tried to explam all events m
terms of the motiou of inert masses, indeed no other
way of looking at things seemed conceivable Then
came the great change, which will be associated for all
time with the names of Faraday, Clerk Maxwell, and
Hertz. The hon’s share in this revolution fell to Clerk
Max^\ ell He showed that the whole of what was then
known about light and electro-magnetic phenomena
was expressed in his well-known double system of
' differential equations, m which the electric and the man
netic fields appear as the dependent variables Maxwell
m& d cX°n* ^ ^ th - — by
1 59
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
But he made use of several such constructions at the
same. tunc and took none of them really senously, so
that the equations alone appeared as the essential thing
and the strength of die fields as the ultimate entities, not
to be reduced to anything else By the turn of die
century the conception of the electro-magnetic field as
an ultimate entity had been generally accepted and
serious dunken had abandoned the belief in thcjustifica-
ti6n, or die possibility', of a mechanical explanation of
Clerk Maxwell's equations Before long they were, on
the contrary , actually trying to explain material points
and their inerna on field-theory lines with die help of
Maxwell’s theory, an attempt which did not, however,
meet with complete success
Neglecting the important individual results which
Clerk Maxwell’s life-work produced in several main
departments of physics, and concentrating on the
changes wrought by him in our concepnon of the nature
of physical reality, we may say tins — Before Clerk
Maxwell physical reality was conceived — in so far as it
was mtended to represent events m nature — as made up
of material points, whose changes consist exclusively of
motions which arc subject to partial differential equa-
tions After Maxwell they conceived physical reality as_
represented by conrinuSus fieldsT~not mechanically _
explicable, which ^re subject to partial - differential
'equations Tins change in the conception of reality is
the most profound and fruitful one that has come to
physics since Newton , but it has at die same time to be
admitted that die programme his not yet been com-
pletely earned out by any means The successful systems
of physics which hai e been cvolv cd smee rather represent
compromises between diesc two schemes, which for
that very reason bear a provisional, logically incomplete
SCIENTIFIC
character, although they may have achieved great
advances in certain particulars.
The first of these that calls for mention is Lorentz* s
the or)' of electrons, in which the field and the electrical
corpuscles appear side by side as elements of equal value
for die comprehension of reality. Next come die
special and general theories of relativity, which, though
based entirely on ideas connected widi die ficld-dieory,
' have so far been unable to avoid the independent intro-
duction of material points and total differential equations.
The last and most successful creadon of theoretical
physics, namely quantum-mechanics, differs funda-
mentally from both die schemes which we will for die
sake of brevity call die Newtonian and the Maxwellian.
For the quantities which figure in its laws make no
claim to describe physical reality itself, but only die
probabilities of the occurrence of a physical reality that
we have in view. Dirac, to whom, m my opimon, we
owe the most logically complete exposition of this
theory, nghdy points out that it would probably be
difficult, for example, to give a dicorctical description of
a photon such as would give enough information to
enable one to decide whethcr.it will pass a polanser
placed (obliquely) m its way or nor.
I am still inclined to the view that physicists will not
" m die long run content themselves with that sort of
indirect description of the real, even if die dieory can
eventually be adapted to the postulate of general rela-
tivity m a satisfactory manner. We shall then, I feel
sure, have to return to the attempt to carry’ out die pro-
gramme which may properly be described as the. Max-
wellian— namely, the description of physical reality in
terms of fields which satisfy partial differential equations
without singularities
* 161
THE W ORLD AS I SEE IT
Niels Bohr
When a later generation comes to write the history of
the progress made in ph) sics m our tjme, it will have
to connect one of the most important advances ever
made m our knowledge of the nature of the atom with
the name of Niels Bohr It was alrcad) known that
classical mechanics break down in relation to the ulti-
mate constituents of matter, also that atoms consist of
positively charged nuclei which are surrounded by a
layer of atoms of relatively loose texture But the
structure of the spectra, which was to a large extent
known empincall), was so profoundly different from
what was to be expected on our older theories that
nobody could find a convincing theoretical interpreta-
tion of the observed uniformities Thereupon Bohr in
the year 1913 devised an interpretation of the simplest
spectra on quantum-theory lines, for which he in a
short tunc produced such a mass of quantitative confir-
mation that the boldl) selected hypothetical basis ofhis
spcculanons soon became a mainstay for the ph) sics of
the atom Although less than ten >ears have passed
since Bohr s first discovery, the system conceived in its
main features and large!) worked out by him already
dominates both physics and chemistry so completely
that all earlier systems seem to the expert to date from
a long-vanished age The theories of X-ra) spectra, of
visible spectra, and of the periodic s) stem of the elements
are primarily based on the ideas of Bohr What is so
marvellously attracm e about Bohr as a scientific thinker
is lus rare blend of boldness and caution, seldom has
anyone possessed such an intuitive grasp of hidden
things combined with such a strong critical sense. With
all his knowledge of the details, his eye is immovably
162
SCIENTIFIC
fixed on the underlying principle He is unquestionably
one of the greatest discov crcrs of our age in the scientific
field
On the Theory of Relativity
An Address in London
It is a particular pleasure t<5 me to have the privilege
of speaking in the capital of the country from which
the most important fundamental notions of theoretical
physics have issued I am thinking of the theory of
mass motion and gravitation which Newton gave us
and of the concept of the electro-magnetic field, by
means of which Faraday and Clerk Maxwell put physics
on a new basis The theory of relativity may indeed be
said to have put a sort of finishing touch to the mighty
intellectual edifice of Maxwell and Lorentz, inasmuch
as it seeks to extend field-physics to all phenomena,
gravitation included
Turning to the theory of relativity itself, l am anxious
to draw attention to the fact that this theory is not
speculative in origin, it owes its invennon entirely to
the desire to make physical theory fit observed fact as
well as possible "W e have here no revolutionary act but
the natural continuation of a line that can be traced
through centuries The abandonment of a certain con-
cept connected with space, time and motion hitherto
treated as fundamental must not be regarded as arbitrary
but only as conditioned by observed facts
The law of the constant velocity of light m empty
space, wnicn Wbcen confirmed by the development of
electro-dynamics and optics, and '
legitimacy of all inertial systems
relativity), which was proved in a
163
— -V vi*. uic CLJUaj
(special principle of
paracularh incisive
THE WORLD KS I SEE IT
manner b> Michclson s famous experiment, between
them made it necessary, m the first place, that the concept
of nmc sliould be made relative, each inertia! system
being given its own special nmc As this notion was
developed it became clear thar the connection between
immediate experience on one side and co-ordinates and
time on the other had hitherto not been thought out
with sufficient precision It is m general one of the
essential features of the theory of relativity that it is at
pains to work out the relations between general con-
cepts and empirical facts more precisely The funda-
mental principle here is that the justification for a phvsi-
cal concept hes cxclusn cly in its clear and unambiguous
relation to facts that can be experienced
According to the special theory of relativit), spanal
co-ordinates and time still have an absolute character in
so far as they are directly measurable b) stationary clocks
and bodies But they arc relame in so far as they
depend on the state of motion of the selected incmal
system According to the special theory of relativit)
the four-dimensional continuum formed by the union
of space and time retains the absolute character which
according to the earlier theory, belonged to both space
and time separately (Mihkowsla) The influence of
motion (relative to the co-ordinate system) on the form
of bodies and on the motion of clocks, also the equiva-
lence of energy and inert mass follow from the inter-
pretation of co-ordinates and ome as products of
measurement
The general theory of relativity ow cs its existence in
the first place to the empirical fact of the numerical
equaht) of the inertial and gravitational mass of bodies
for which fundamental fact classical mechanics provided
no interpretation Such an interpretation is arrived at
164
SCIENTIFIC
by an extension of the principle of relativity to co-
ordinate systems accelerated relatively to one another
The introduction of co-ordinate systems accelerated
relatively to inertial systems involves the appearance of
gravitational fields relative to the latter As a result of
this, the general theory of relativity, which is based on
the equality of inertia and weight, provides a theory of
the gravitational field
The introduction of co-ordmatc systems accelerated
relatively to each other as equally legitimate systems,
such as they appear conditioned by the identity of
inertia and w eight, leads, in conjunction with the results
of die special theory of relativity, to the conclusion that
the laws governing the occupation of space by solid
bodies, when gravitational fields arc present, do not
correspond to the laws of Euclidean geometry An
analogous result follow's from the motion of clocks
This brings us to the necessity for yet anodicr generalisa-
tion of the theory of space and time, because the direct
interpretation of space and time co-ordinates by means
of measurements obtamable with measuring rods and
clocks now breaks down That generalisation of metric,
which had already been accomplished m the sphere of
pure mathematics by the researches of Gauss and Rjc-
mann, is essentially based on the fact that the metric of
the special theory of relativity can still claim validity for
small areas in the general case too
The process of development here sketched strips die
space- time co-ordinates of all independent reality The
metrically real is now only given through the combina-
tion of die space-time co-ordinates with the mathemati-
cal quantities which describe the gravitational field
There is yet mother factor underlying the evolution
of the general theory of relativity As Ernst Mach
165
T1IE WORLD AS I SEE IT
insistently pointed out, the Newtonian theory is unsarn-
factory in die following respect — If one considers
motion from the purely descriptive, not from the causal,
point of view, it only exists as relative motion of things
with respect to one another But the acceleration winch
figures in Newton’s equations of motion is unintelligible
if one starts with die concept of relative motion It
compelled Newton to invent a physical space in relation
to which acceleration was supposed to exist This intro-
duction ad hoc of the concept of absolute space, while
logically unexceptionable, nevertheless seems unsatis-
factory Hence the attempt to alter the mechanical
equations in such a way that? the inertia of bodies is
traced bach to relative motion on their part not as
against absolute space but as against the totality of other
ponderable bodies In the state of knowledge then
existing his attempt was bound to fail
The posing of the problem seems, however, entirely
reasonable This line of argument imposes itself with
considerably enhanced force in relation to the general
theory of relativity, since, according to that theory, the
physical properties of space are affected by ponderable
matter In my opinion, the general theory of relativity
can only Solve tins problem satisfactorily if it regards
the world as spatially seI£endosed The mathematical
results of the theory force one to this view, if one
believes that the mean density of ponderable matter m
the world possesses some ultimare value, however small
What is the Theory of Relativity* *
I gladly accede to the request of your colleague to
write somednng for The Times on relativity After the
lamentable breakdown of the old acme intercourse
1 66
* THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
mulatcd criteria which the separate processes or the
theoretical representations of them have to satisfy Thus
the science of thermodynamics seeks by analytical means
to deduce necessary' connections, which separate events
have to satisfy, from the universally experienced fact
that perpetual motion is impossible
The advantages of the construcuve theory are com-
pleteness, adaptability and clearness, those of the prin-
ciple-theory are logical perfection and security of the
foundations
The theory of relativity belongs to the latter class
In order to grasp its nature, one needs first of all to
become acquainted with the principles on which it is
based Before I go into these, however, I must observe
that the theory of relativity resembles a budding con-
sisting of two separate storeys, the special theory and
the general theory The speaal theory, on which the
general theory rests, applies to all ph>sica! phenomena
with the exception of gravitation , the general theory
provides the law of gravitation and its relations to the
other forces of nature
It has, of course, been known since 'the days of the
ancient Greeks that in order to describe the movement
of a body, a second body is needed to which the move-
ment of the first is referred The movement of a
vehicle is considered m reference to the earth’s surface,
that of a planet to the totality of the visible fixed stars
In physics the body to which events are spatially referred
is called the co-ordinate system The laws of the
mechanics of Galdeo and Newton, for instance, can only
be formulated with the aid of a co-ordinate system
The state of motion of the co-ordinate system may not,
however, be arbitrarily chosen, if the laws of mechanics
are tp be valid (it must be free from rotation and accclera-
168
SCIENTIFIC
non) A co-ordinate system which is admitted in
mechanics is called an "inertial system The state of
mouon of an inertial system is according to mechanics
not one that is determined unambiguously by nature
On the contrary, the following definiaon holds good —
a co-ordinate S) stem that is moving uniformly and in a
straight line relanvcly to an inertial system is likewise an
menial system By the “special principle of rclaavity
is meant the generalisaaon of tins definition to include
any natural event whatever thus, ever) universal law
of nature which is valid in relation to a co-ordinate
system C, must also be valid, as it stands, in relation to
a co-ordinate system C 1 , which is in uniform translatory
monon relanvcly to C
The second principle, on which the special theory of
relauvity rests, is the “principle of the constant velocity
of light in vacuo ” This principle asserts that light in
vacuo always has a definite velocity of propagauon,
independent of the state of moaon of the observer or of
the source of light The confidence which physicists
place m this principle springs from the successes achieved
by die electro-dynamics of Clerk Maxwell and Lorentz.
Both the abovc-menuoned principles are powerfull)
supported by experience, but appear not to be logically
reconcilable The special theory of relauvity finally
succeeded in reconciling them logically by a modifica-
uon of kinemaucs — i e , of the doctrine of the laws
relating to space and ume (from the point of view of
physics) It became clear that to speak of die simul-
tonaty °f two events had no meaning except m rclanon
* to-oriuiate system, and that the shape of
measurmg devices and the speed at which clods move
169
SCIENTIFIC
incma of a body arc controlled by the same constant
(Equality of inertial and gravitational mass ) Imagine a
co-ordinate system which is rotanng uniformly with
respect to an inertial system in the Newtonian manner
The centrifugal forces which manifest themselves in
relation to tins system must, according to Newton's
teaching, be regarded as effects of merna But these
centrifugal forces are, exactly like the forces of gravity,
proportional to the masses of the bodies Ought it nor
to be possible in this case to regard the co-ordinate sys-
tem as stationary and the centrifugal forces as gravita-
tional forces } This seems the obvious view, but classical
mechanics forbid it
This hasty consideration suggests that a general
theory of relativity must supply d e laws of gravitanon,
and the consistent following-up of the idea has justified
our hopes
But the path was thornier than one might suppose,
because it demanded the abandonment of Euclidean
geometry That is to say, the laws according to which
fixed bodies may be arranged m space do not com-
pletely accord with the spatial laws attributed to bodies
by Euclidean geometry Tins is what we mean when
we talk of die “curvature of space ” The fundamental
concepts of the “straight hne,’ die “plane” etc thereby
lose their precise significance in physics
In the general theory of relativity the doctrine of
space and time, or kinemancs, no longer figures as a
fundamental independent of the rest of physics The
geometrical behaviour of bodies and the motion of
docks rather depend on gravitanonal fields, which in
dieir turn are produced by matter
The new theory of gravitation diverges considerably,
as regards principles, from Newton’s theory But its
171
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
practical results agree so nearly with those of Newton’s
theory that it is difficult to find criteria for distinguishing
them which are accessible to experience Such have
been discovered so far —
(1 ) *In the revolution of the ellipses of the planetary
orbits round the sun (confirmed in the case ofMcrcury)
(2) In the curving of light rays by the action of gravi-
tational fields (confirmed by the English photographs
of eclipses)
(3) In a displacement of the spectral lines towards the
red end of the spectrum in the case of light transmitted
to us from stars of considerable magnitude (uncon-
firmed so far) 1
The chief attraction of the theory lies in its logical
completeness If a single one of the conclusions drawn
from it proves wrong, it mtut be given up , to modify
it without destroying the whole structure seems ro be
impossible
Let no one suppose, however, that the mighty work
of Newton can really be superseded by this or any other
theory His great and luad ideas will retain their unique
significance for all time as the foundation of otir whole
modem conceptual structure m the sphere of natural
philosophy
Addendum Some ofthe statements m yourpaper con-
cerning mv life and person owe their origin to the hi cl)
imagination of the writer Here is )ct another applica-
tion of the principle of relativity for the delectation of
the reader — To-day I am described in Germany as a
"German savant," and in England as a “Swiss Jew
Should it ever be my fate to be represented as a betc
noire , I should, on the contrary, become a "Swiss Jew
* Editor’* Note This criterion has also been confirmed in the meantime
SCIENTIFIC
for the Germans and a “German savant” for the
English
The Problem of Space, Ether, and the Field m Physics
Scientific thought is a development of pre-saennfic
thought As the concept of space was already funda-
mental in the latter, we must begin with the concept ot
space in pre-scicnufic thought There are two ways or
regardmg concepts, both of which are necessary to
understanding The first is that of logical analysis It
answers the question, How do concepts and judgments
depend on each other? In answering it we are on com-
paratively safe ground It is the security by whic 1 we
are so much impressed m mathematics But this secu-
rity is purchased at the price of emptiness of content
Concepts can only acquire content when they are con-
nected, however indirectly, with sensible experience
But no lo gical investi g ation can revg aLthisconnection^
lfcanpriTy he expenencedT~ And yet it is this connection
"tHaTdetemunes the cognitive value of systems of con-
Take an example Suppose an archeologist belonging
to a later culture finds a text-book of Euclidean geo-
metry without diagrams He will discover how the
words “point,” “straight line,” “plane, are used m the
propositions He will also see how the latter are deduced
from each other He will even be able to frame new
propositions according to the known rules But the
framing of these propositions will remain an empty
word-game for him, as long as “point, straight line,
“plane etc “convey nothing” to lum Only when they
do convey something will geometry possess any real
content for him The same will be true of analytical
173
SCIENTIFIC
Now as regards the concept of space, this seems to
presuppose the concept of the sohd object. The nature
of the complexes and sense-impressions whvh are prob-
ably responsible for that concept has ofi-n been
described The correspondence between certain visual
and tactile impressions, the fact that they can be con-
tinuously followed out through time, and that the -1
impressions can be repeated at any moment (taste, sight),
arc some of those characteristics Once the concept of
the solid object is formed in connection with the
experiences just mentioned — which concept by no
means presupposes that of space or spatial relation the
desire to get an intellectual grasp of the relations of such
sohd bodies is bound to give rise to concepts which
correspond to their spatial relations Two solid objects
may touch one another or be distant from one another
In the latter case, a third body can be inserted between
them without altering them in any way , m the former
not These spatial relations arc obviously real in the
same sense as the bodies themselves If two bodies are
of equal value for the filling of one such interval, they
will also prove of equal value for the filling of other
intervals The interval is thus shown to be independent
of the selection of any special body to fill it, the same
is universally true of spatial relations It is plain that
this independence, which is a principal condition of the
usefulness of framing purely geometrical concepts, is
not necessanly a prion In my opinion, this concept of
the interval, detached as it is from die selection of any
special body to occupy it, is the starting-point of the
whole concept of space
Considered, then, from the point of view of sense
experience, die development of the concept of space
seems, after diese bnet mdicauons, to conform to the
175
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
mechanics, and indeed of any exposition of the logically
deductive sciences. *
What docs this talk of "straight line,*’ "point, 1 '
"intersection" etc. ‘"conveying something to one"
meant It means that one can point to the parts of
sensible experience to which those words refer. This
extra-logical problem is the essential problem, which
the archxologist will only be able to solve intuitively,
by examining his experience and seeing if he can dis-
cover anything which corresponds to those primary
terms of the theory and the axioms laid down for them.
Only in this sense can die question of the nature of a
conceptually presented entity be reasonably raised.
With our pre-scicntific concepts we are. very much
in the position of our archarologist in regard to 'the
ontological problem. We have, so to speak, forgotten
what features in the world of experience caused us to
frame those concepts, and we have great difficulty in
representing the world of experience to ourselves with-
out the spectacles of the old-established conceptual
interpretation. There is the furdier difficulty that our
language is compelled to work with words which are
inseparably connected widi those primitive concepts.
These are the obsrades which confront us when we try
to describe the essential, nature of the p re-scientific con-
cept of space.
One remark about concepts in general, before we
turn to the problem of space - concepts have reference
to sensible experience, bur they are never, in a logical
sense, deduable from them. For tins reason I have never
been able to understand the quest of the a priori in the
Kano an sense. In any ontological question, the only
possibleprocedure is to seek out those characteristics m the
complex of sense experiences to which die conccptsrcfcr.
174
SCIENTIFIC
Now as regards the concept of space this seems to
presuppose the concept of the solid obj-ct. The nature
of the complexes and sense-impressions whvh arc prob-
ably responsible for that concept has ofi-n been
described The correspondence between certain visual
and tactile impressions, the fact that they can be con-
tinuously followed out through time, and that thc v
impressions can be repeated at any moment (taste, sight),
are some of those charactensncs Once die concept of
the solid object is formed m connection with the
experiences just mentioned — which concept by no
means presupposes that of space or spatial relation — the
desire to get an intellectual grasp of the relations of such
solid bodies is bound to give rise to concepts which
correspond to their spanal relations Two solid objects
may touch one another or be distant from one another
In die latter case, a third body can be inserted between
them without altering them m any way , in the former
not These spanal relations are obviously real in the
same sense as the bodies themselves If two bodies arc
of equal value for the filling of one such interval, diey
will also prove of equal value for the filling of other
intervals The interval is thus shown to be independent
of the selection of any special body to fill it , the same
is universally true of spatial relaoons It is plain that
this independence, which is a principal condition of the
usefulness of framing purely geometrical concepts, is
not necessarily a prion In my opinion, this concept of
the interval, detached as it is from the selection or any
special body to occupy it, is the starting-point of the
•whole concept of space
Considered, then, from the point of view of sense
expenence, the development of the concept of space
seems, after these bnef indications, to conform to the
175
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
following schema— solid body, spatial relations of solid
bodies, interval, space Looked-at in this way, space
appears as .something real in the same sense as solid
bodies ■* ~ •
^ It is clear tliat the concept of space as a real thing
already existed in the extra-scientific conceptual world
Euclid's mathematics, however, knew nothing of this
concept as such , they confined themselves to the con-
cepts of the object, and the spanal rclanons between
objects The. point, the plane, the straight line, length,
are solid objects idealised All spatial relations are
reduced to those of contact (the intersection of straight
lines and planes, points lying on straight lines, ere.)
Space as a continuum does not figure m the conceptual
system at all This concept was first introduced by
Descartes, when he described the pomt-m-space bv its
co-ordinates Here for the first time geometrical
figures appear, up to a paint, as parts of infinite space,
which is conceived as a three-dimensional continuum
The grear superiority of the Cartesian treatment of
space is by no means confined to the fact that it applies
analysis to the purposes of geometry The main point
seems rather to be this — The geometry of the Greeks
prefers certain figures (the straight hne, die plane) in
geometrical descriptions, other figures (e g , the clhpse)
are only accessible to it because it constructs or defines
them with die help of the point, the straight line aiid the
plane In the Cartesian treatment on the other hand, all
surfaces are, in principle, equally represented, without
any arbitrary preference for linear figures in die con-
struction of geometry
In so far as geometry is conceived as the science of
laws go\ eming the mutual relations of practically rigid
bodies m space, it is to be regarded as the oldest branch
176
SCIENTIFIC
of physics. This science was able, as 1 have already
observed, to dispense with the concept of space as
such; the ideal corporeal forms — point, straight line,
plane, length— being sufficient for its needs. On the
other hand, space as a whole, as conceived by Descartes,
was absolutely necessary to Newtonian physics. For
dynamics cannot manage with the concepts of the mass-
point and the (temporally variable) distance between
* mass-points, alone. In Newton’s equations of motion
the concept of acceleration plays a fundamental part,
which cannot be defmed by the temporally variable
intervals between points alone. Newton’s acceleration
is only thinkable or definable in relation to space as a
whole. Thus to the geometrical reality of the concept
of space a new inertia-determining function of space
was added. When Newton described space as absolute,
he no doubt meant this real significance of space, which
made k necessary for him to attribute to it a quite definite
state of motion, which yet did not appear to be fully
determined by the phenomena of mechanics. This
space was conceived as absolute in another sense also ;
its inertia-determining effect was conceived as autono-
mous, i.e., not to be influenced by any physical circum-
stance whatever ; it affected masses, but nothing affected
it.
And yet in tire minds of physicists space remained
until the most recent time simply the passive container
of aU events, playing no pan in physical happenings
itself. Thought only began to rake a new turn with
the wave theory of light and the theory of the electro-
magnetic field of Faraday and Clerk Maxwell. It
became clear that there existed in free space conditions
which propagated themselves in waves, as well as
.localised fields which were able to exert force on clec-
177
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
meal masses or magnetic poles brought to the spot
Since it -would have seemed utterly absurd to the
physicists of the nineteenth century to attribute physical
functions or states to space itself, they in\ ented a medium
pervading the -whole of space, on the model of ponder-
able matter — the ether, which was supposed to act as a
vehicle for electro-magnetic phenomena, and hence for
those of light also The states of this medium, imagined
as constituting the electro-magnetic fields, were at first
thought of mechanically, on the model of the clastic
deformations of rigid bodies But this mechanical
theory of the edier was never quire successful, and so the
idea of a closer explanation of the nature of the cthcnc
fields was given up The ether thus became a kind of
matter whose only function was to act is a substratum
for electrical fields which were by their very nature not
further analvsable The picture was, then, as follows —
Space is filled by the ether, in which the material
corpuscles or atoms of ponderable matter swim, the
atomic structure of the latter had been securely estab-
lished by the turn of the century
Smcc the reciprocal action of bodies was supposed to
be accomplished through fields, there had also to be a
f raw rational field in the ether, whose field-law had,
oweser, assumed no clear form at that time The
ether was only accepted as the seat of all operations of
force which make themselves effective across space
Since it had been realised that electrical masses in
motion produce a magnetic field, whose energy acted as
a model for inertia, inertia also appeared as a field-
acaon localised in the ether
The mechanical properties of the ether were at first a
mystery Then came H A Lorenrzs great iistmcr/
All the phenomena of electro-magnetism then known
178
SCIENTIFIC
could be explained on the basis of two assumptions that
the ether is firmly fixed in space — that is to Say, unable
to move at all , and that electricity is firmly lodged in
the mobile elementary parades To-dav his discovery
may be expressed as follows — Physical space and the
ether are only different terms for the same thing , fields
are physical condmons of space For if no particular
state of motion can be ascribed to the ether, there does
not seem to be any ground for introducing it as an
entity of a special sort alongside of space But the
physicists were still far removed from such a way of
thinking , space was still, for them, a rigid, homogeneous
something, susceptible of no change or condmons
Only the genius of Riemaim, solitary and uncompre-
hended, had already won its way by the middle of last
century to a new concepuon of space, in which it was
deprived of its rigidity and its power to take part in
physical events recognised as possible This intellectual
achievement commands our admirauon all the more
for having preceded Faraday’s and Clerk Maxwell’s
field-theory of electricity Then came the special theory
of relativity with its recognition of the physical equiva-
lence of all inertial systems The inseparableness of
time and space emerged m connecaon with electrodyna-
mics, or die law of the propagation of light Hitherto
it had been silently assumed that the four-dimensional
continuum of events could be split up into time and
space in an objective manner — le, that an absolute*
significance attached to the “now” in the world of
events With the discovery of the relanviry of simul-
taneity, space and time were merged in a single con-,
tinuum. in the same way as the three dimensions of
space had been before Phvsical space was thus in-
creased to a four-dimensional space which also included
179
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
the. dimension of time The four-dimensional space of
the jpecial theory of relativity is just as rigid and abso-
lute as Newton’s space
The thcoty of relativity admirably exemplifies the
fundamental character of die modem development of
theoretical science The hypotheses with which it starts
become steadily more abstract and remote from experi-
ence On die other hand it gets nearer to die grand
aim of all science, which is to cover the greatest possible
number of'emp meal facts by logical deduction from the
smallest possible number of hypotheses or axioms
Meanwhile the tram of thought leading from the axioms
to the empirical facts or verifiable consequences gets
steadily longer and more subtle The theoretical scientist
is compelled in an increasing degree to he guided by
purely mathematical, formal considerauons in his
search for a theory, because the physical experience of
the expen mentor cannot lift him into die regions of
highest abstraction The predominantly inductive
methods appropriate to die youdi of science are giving
place to tentative deduction Such a theoretical struc-
ture needs to be very thoroughly elaborated before it
can lead to conclusions which can be compared with
expenence Here, too the observed fact is undoubtedly
the supreme arbiter, but it cannot pronounce sentence
until the wide chasm separating die axioms from dieir
verifiable consequences has been bridged by much
intense hard thinlang The theorist has to set about this
Herculean task m the clear consciousness that his efforts
may only be destined to deal the death-blow to his
theory The dieorist who undertakes such a labour
should not be carped at as fanciful , on the contrary,
he should be encouraged to give free reign to his fancy
for there is no other way to die goal His is no idle day-
180
SCIENTIFIC
dreaming, but a search for the logically simplest possi-
bilities and their consequences This plea was needed m
order to make the hearer or reader more ready to follow
the ensuing train of ideas with attention , it is the line of
thought which has led from die special to the general
theory of relativity and dience to its latest offshoot, the
unitary field-theor} In this exposinon the use of
madiemancal symbols cannot be avoided
We start with die special dieory of relativity This
theory is still based directly on an empirical law, that of
the constant velocity of light Let P be a pomt m
empty space, P' one separated from it by a length do
and infinitel) near to it Let a flash of light be emitted
from P at a time t and reach P' at a time t -f- dt Then
do* = c*dt*
f dx, dx, dx, arc the orthogonal projections of do,
and die imaginary tune co-ordinate V-i ct = x. is
introduced, dicn the above-mentioned law of the con-
stancy of die propagation of light takes the form
ds* = dx,* + dx,* + dx,* -f dx.* = o
Since this formula expresses a real situation, we may
attnbme a real meaning to the quannty ds even sup-
posing the neighbouring points of the fdur-dimcnsional
ZT.T are , selcctcd m such a wa Y ds belong-
nectcd SU r h u mCmc 13 calkd „ con _
»^c Th = of»ch a
lem to the D osmrT°,“ lc 0 na ' 1 UUm, 5 full y c< l ul ™-
metry The ^ ie 1X101113 °f Euclidean geo-
^ ThC defimn S ^nation of the memo is dius
181
THE WORID AS I SEE IT
nothing but the Pythagorean theorem applied to the
differentials of the co-ordmatcs
Such alteration of the co-ordmatcs (by transforma-
tion) is permitted in the special theory of rclanvit),
smee in the new co-ordmatcs too the magnitude ds*
(fundamental invariant) is expressed In the new dif-
ferentials of the co-ordinates by the sum of the squares
Such transformations arc called Lorentz transformations
The heuristic method of the special theory of rela-
tivity is characterised by the following principle — Onlv
those equations are admissible as an expression of natural
laws which do not change their form when the co-
ordinates are changed by means of a Lorentz transforma-
tion (co-variance of equations m rclanon to Lorentz
transformations)
This method led to the discovery of die necessary
connection between impulse and energy, the strength
of an clectnc and a magnetic field electrostatic and
elcctro-d) nainic forces inert mass and energy, and the
number of independent concepts and fundamental
equations was thereby reduced
This method pointed beyond itself Is it true that the
equations which express natural laws are co-variant in
rclanon to Lorentz transformanons onl) and not in
relanon to other transformations t Well formulated in
that way die question really means nothing, since e\ cry
system of equations can be expressed ui general co-
ordinates Wc must ask. Ate not die laws of nature
so constituted that dicy rcccne no real simplification
through the choice of any one particular set of co-ordi-
nates t .
We will only mention in passing diat our empire*!
principle of die equality of men ana* Aravy m****
prompts us to answer tins question in the affirmative
1S2
SCIENTIFIC
If we elevate the equivalence of all co-ordinate systems
for the formulation of natural laws into a principle, we
amve at the general theory of relativity, provided we
stick to the law of the constant velocity of light or to
the hypothesis of the objective significance of die
Euclidean metric at least for infinitely small portions of
four-dimensional space
This means diat for finite regtons of space the exist-
ence (significant for physics) of a general Riennnman
metric is presupposed according to the formula
ds* = ^ ^
v-'&v*
whereby the summation is to be extended to all index
combinations from 1 1 to 44
/The structure of such a space differs absolutely
radically in one respect from diat of a Euclidean space
The coefficients^ arc for die tune being any functions
whatever of the co-ordinates xi to x*, and the structure
of the space is not really determmed until diese functions
£nv are really known It is only determmed more
closely by specifying laws which the metrical field of
the^ v satisfies On physical grounds this gave rise to
the conviction that the metrical field was at the same
time die gravitational field
Since the gravitational field is determined b) the
configuration of masses and changes with it, the geo-
metric structure of this space is also dependent on
physical factors Thus according to this theory space is
—exactly as Riemann guessed— no longer absolute , its
structure depends on physical influences Physical geo-
metry is no longer an isolated self-contained science like
the geometry of Euclid
The problem of gravitation was thus reduced to a
183
” THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
mathematical problem it was required to find the
simplest fundamental equations "which are co-variant in
relation to any transformation of co-ordinates whatever
I Will not speak here of die way this theory has been
confirmed by experience, but explain at once why
Theory could not rest permanend) satisfied with this
success Gravitation had indeed been traced to the
structure of space, but besides the gravitational field
there is also die electro-magnetic field Tins had, to
begin with, to be mtroduced into the theory as an
entity independent of gran cation Additional terms
which took account of the existence of the electro-
magnetic field had to be included in die fundamental
equations for the field But die idea that there were two
structures of space independent of each odicr, the
metric-gravitational and the elcctro-magnenC, was in-
tolerable to the theoretical spirit We arc forced to the
belief that both sorts of field must correspond to a
unified structure of space
The "unitary ficld-dieor) " which represents itself as
a mathematically independent extension of the general
theory of rclamit), attempts to fulfil this last postulate
of the field theory The formal problem should be put
as follows — Is there a theory ofthe continuum in which
a new structural element appears side b) side with the
metric such diat it forms a single whole together wadi
the metric » If so, what are the simplest field-laws to
which such a continuum can be made subject 1 And
finally, are diesc field-laws jvctl fitted to represent the
properties of the gravitational field and die electro-
magnetic field? Then there is the further ijvesnon
whether die corpuscles (electrons and protons) can be
regarded as locations of particularly dense fields, whose
movements arc determined by the field equations At
184
SCIENTIFIC
present there is only one way of answering the first tlirce
questions The space structure on which it is based
may be described as follows, and the description
applies equallv to a space of any number of dimen-
sions
Space has a Ricmanman metric Tins means that the
Euclidean geometry holds good m the infinitesimal
neighbourhood of every point P Thus for the neigh-
bourhood of every point P there is a local Cartesian
svstem of co-ordmatcs, m reference to \\ hich the metric
is calculated according to the Pythagorean theorem
If we now imagine the length I cut off from the positive
axes of these local systems, we get the orthogonal
local unit vector Such a local unit vector is to be found
in every other point P' of space also Thus, if a linear
element (PG or P'G ) starting front die pouits P or P',
is given, then the magnitude of this linear element can
be calculated by die aid of the relevant local unit vector,
from its local co-ordinates by means of Pythagoras’s
theorem There is therefore a definite meaning in
speaking of the numerical equality of the linear
elements PG and P'G'
It is essential to observe now diat the local orthogonal
unit vectors are not completely deterinmed by the
metric For we can still select the orientation of die unit
vectors perfeedy freely without causmg any alteration in
the result of calculating the size of the linear elements
according to Pythagoras’s theorem A corollary of this
is that in a space whose structure consists exclusively of
a Riemannian metric, two linear elements PG and P'G'
«naT u\r tfsnrjrxrcu? wmV regain 1 nr ahnr* rrrjgmvmdr iVav
not their direction, m particular, there is no sort of
point in saying that the two linear elements are parallel
to one another In this respect, therefore, the purely
185
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
metrical (Riemanman) space is less rich m structure than
the Euclidean
Since v. c arc looking for a space which exceeds Rie-
manman space m wealth of structure, the obvious dung
is to ennch Riemanman space by adding the relation of
direction or parallelism Therefore for every direction
through P let there be a definite direction through P',
and let tins mutual relation be a determinate one We
call the directions thus related to each other “parallel ”
Let this parallel relation further fulfil the condition of
angular uniformity if PG and PK are two directions m
P, P'G' and P'K' the corresponding parallel directions
through P', then the angles KPG and K'P'G' (measur-
able on Euclidean lines m the local system) should be
equal
The basic space-structure is tiiereb) completely
defined It is most easil) described mathematically as
follow — In the definite point P we suppose an orthog-
onal unit v ector with definite, freely chosen orientation
In every other pome P' ofspace we so onent its local unit
vector that its axes are parallel to the corresponding axes
at the point P Given the above structure of space and
free choice in the onentauon of the unit \ ecror at one
point P, all unit vectors are thereby completely defined
In the space P let us now imagine an) Gaussian system
of co-ordinates and that in every point the axes of the
unit vector there are projected on to it This system of
n* components completely describes the structure of
space
This spatial structure stands, in a sense, midway be-
tween the Riemanman and the Euclidean In contrast
to the former, it has room for the straight line that is to
say a line all of whose elements are parallel to each other
in pairs The geometry here described differs from the
1S6
SCIENTIFIC
Euclidean in the non-existence of the parallelogram If
at the ends P and G of a length PG two equal and
parallel lengths PP’ and GG* are marked off, P G is in
general neither equal nor parallel to PG
The mathematical problem now solved so far is this —
What are the simplest conditions to which a space-
structure of the kind described can be subjected i The
chief quesnon which soil remains to be investigated is
this — To what extent can physical fields and primary
entmes be represented by solutions, free from singulari-
ties, of the equanons which answer the former quesnon ?
Notes on the origin of the general theory of Relativity -
I gladly accede to the request that I should sav some-
thing about the history of my own scientific work
Not that I have an exaggerated notion of the importance
of my own efforts, but to write the history of other
men’s work demands a degree of absorption in other
people s ideas which is much more in the line of the
trained historian, to throw light on one’s own earlier
thinking appears incomparably easier Here one has an
immense pull over everybody else, and one ought not to
leave the opportunity unused out of modesty
When, by the special theory of relativity, I had arrived
at the equivalence of all so-called inertial systems for the
formulation of natural laws (1905), the quesnon whether
“ ere not a further equivalence of co-Ordinate sys-
tems followed naturally, to say the least of it To put
U UX i ai \ 0 “ lc ^ only a relative meaning can be
atta ed to the concept of velocity, ought we neverthe-
less to persevere in treating acceleranon as an absolute
concept 1
From the purely "kinematic point of view there was
187
THE WORLD AS I SEE II”
no doubt about the relativity of all motion* whatever,
but physically speaking, the inertial* sy ste m seemed to
occupy a privileged posinon, which made the use of
co-ordinate systems moving in other ways appear
artificial
I was, of course, acquainted with Mach’s View, accord-
ing to which it appeared conceivable that what inertial
resistance counteracts is not acceleration as such but
acceleration with respect to the masses (if die other
bodies existing m die world There wa* something
fascinating about this idea to me, but it provided no
workable basis for a new theory
I first came a step nearer to the solution pf the prob-
lem when I attempted to deal with the lavV °f gravity
within the framework 61 file special theory rfx drsavtzj
Like most writers at the nme, I med to frame a f eld-
law for gra/itation, since it was no longer possible, at
least in any natural way, to introduce direct action at a
distance, owing to the abolition of the notion of abso-
lute simultaneity
The simplest thing was, of course, to retain the
Lsphciin scalar potential of gravity, and fP complete
the equation of Poisson in an obvious manner by a term
differentiated as to time m such a way that die special
theory of relativity was satisfied The law of motion or
the mass point in a gravitanonal field had also to be
adapted to the speaal theory of relativity Th e P at h was
not so wumstakably marked out here, sinctf die inert
mass of a body might depend on the gravitational
potential In fact this was to be expected on account or
the principle of the inertia of energy .
These investigations, however, led to a res u ’ r which
raised my strong suspicions According xO classics
mechanics the vertical acceleration of a body m die
188
SCIENTIFIC
vertical gravitational field is independent of the hori-
zontal component of velocity Hence in such a gravi-
tational field the vertical acceleration of a mechanical
system or of its centre of gravity works out indepen-
dently of its internal kinetic energy !But in the theory
I advanced the acceleration of a falling fiody was not
independent of the horizontal velocity or the internal
energy of a system
This did not fit m with the old experimental fact that
all bodies have the same acceleration in a gravitational
field This law, which may also be formulated as the
law of the equality of inertial and gravitational mass,
was now brought home to me m all its significance I
was in the highest degree amazed at its persistence and
guessed that in it must lie die key to a deeper under-
standing of inertia and gravitation I had no serious
doubts about its strict validity, even without knowing
the results of the admirable experiments of Eotvos,
which — if my memory is nght — I only came to know
later
I now abandoned as inadequate the attempt to treat
the problem of gravitation, in the manner outlined
above, within the framework of the special theory of
relativity It clearly failed to do justice to the most
fundamental property of gravitation The principle of
the equality of ineraal and gran rational mass could now
be formulated quite clearly as follows — In a homo-
geneous gravitational field all motions take place in the
same way as in the absence of a gravitational field in
relauon to a uniformly accelerated co-ordinate system
If this principle held good for any events whatever (the
“pnnaple of equivalence”), this was an indication that
the pnnaple of relativity needed ro be extended to
co-ordmate systems in non-umform monon with re-
189
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
spect to cacli other, if wc were to reach an easy and
natural theory of the gravitational field Such reflec-
tions kept me bus) from 1908 to 19 11, and I attempted
to draw special conclusions from them, of which I do
not propose to speak here For the moment the one
important thing was the discovery that a reasonable
theory of gravitation could only be hoped-for from an
extension of the principle of relativity
What was needed, therefore, was to frame a theory
whose equations kept their form in the case of non-
linear transformations of the co-ordmatcs Whether
this was to apply to absolutely any (constant) transfor-
mations of co-ordinates or only to certain ones, I could
not for die moment say
I soon saw that bringing in non-hnear transforma-
tions, as the principle of equivalence demanded, was
inevitably fatal to the simple physical interpretation of
the co-ordinates — 1 e , that it could no longer be required
that differentials of co-ordinates should signify direct
results of measurement with ideal scales or docks I
was much bothered by this piece of knowledge, for it
took me a long time to see what co-ordinates in general
really meant in physics I did not find the way out of
this dilemma till 1912, and then it came to me as a result
of the following consideration —
A new formulation of the law of inertia had to be
found which in case of the absence of a real “gravita-
tional field with application of an inertial system' as 3
co-ordinate system passed over mto Galileo’s formula
for the principle of inertia The latter amounts to this
A material point, which is acted on by no force, will be
represented in four-dimensional space by a straight hne,
that is to say, by a hne that is as short as possible or,
more correctly, an extreme line This concept p re-
190
SCIENTIFIC
supposes that of the length of a linear element, that is to
say, a metric In the special theory of relativity, as
Minkowski had shown, tins metric was a quasi-Euchdean
one, 1 e , the square of the “lengdi” ds of the linear
element was a definite quadratic function of the dif-
ferentials of the co-ordinates
If other co-ordinates are introduced by means of a
non-linear transformation, ds* remains a homogeneous
'function of the differentials of the co-ordmates, but the
coefficients of this function (g^) cease to’ be constant
and become certam functions of the co-ordmates In
mathematical terms this means that physical (four-
dimensional) space has a Ricmanman metric The
timc-like extremal lines of this metric furnish the law
of monon of a material point which is acted on by no
force apart from the forces of gravity The coefficients
(&iv) of this metric at the same nme describe the
gravitational field with reference to the co-ordinate
system selected A natural formulation of the principle
of equivalence had thus been found, the extension of
which to any gravitanonal field* whatever formed a
perfectly natural hypothesis
The solunon of the above-mentioned dilemma was
therefore as follows — A physical significance attaches
not to the differentials of the co-ordinates but only to
the Ricmanman metric co-ordmated with them A
workable basis had now been found for the general
theory of relativity Two further problems remained
to be solved, however
(1) If a field-law is given m the terminology of the
special theory of relanvity, how can it he transferred to
die case of a Riemanman Vnetnc ?
(2) What are the differential laws which determine
the Ricmanman metric (lc, g^) itself »
191
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
spcct to each other, if we were to reach an easy and
natural theory of the gravitational field Such reflec-
tions kept me bus) from 1908 to 1911, and I attempted
to draw special conclusions from them, of which I do
not propose to speak here For the moment the one
important thing was the discovery char a reasonable
theory of gravitation could only be hoped-for from an
extension of the principle of relativity
What was needed, therefore, was to frame a theory
whose equations kept their form in the case of non-
linear transformations of the co-ordinarcs Whether
this was to apply to absolutely any (constant) transfor-
mations of co-ordinates or only to certain ones, I could
not for the moment say
I soon saw that bringing in non-linear transforma-
tions, as the principle of equivalence demanded, was
inevitably fatal to the simple physical interpretation of
the co-ordinates— -1 c , that it could no longer be required
that differentials of co-ordinates should signify direct
results of measurement with ideal scales or clocks I
was much bothered by this piece of knowledge, for it
took me a long time to see what co-ordinates m general
really meant in physics I did not find the way out of
this dilemma till 1912, and then it came to me as a result
of the following consideration
A new formulanon of the law of inertia had to be
found which in case of the absence of a real “gravita-
tional field with application of an inertial system as a
co-ordinate system passed over into Galileo’s formula
for the principle of inertia The latter amounts to this —
A material point, which is acted on by no force, will be
represented in four-dimensional space by a straight line,
that is to say, by a line that is as short as possible or,
more correctly, an extreme hnc This concept pre-
190
SCIENTIFIC
Relativity and the Ether
Why is it that alongside of the notion, derived by
abstraction from everyday life, of ponderable matter
ph) stcists have set die notion of the existence of another
sort of matter, the ether ? The reason lies no doubt in
those phenomena which gave nse to the theory of
forces acting at a distance, and in those properties of
light which led to the wave-theory Let us shordy
consider these two dungs
Non-physical thought knows nothing of forces
acting at a distance When we try to explain our
experiences of bodies by a complete causal scheme,
there seems at first sight to be no reciprocal interaction
except what is produced by means of immediate con-
tact, e g , the transmission of motion by impact, pressure
or pull, heating or inducing combustion by means of a
flame, etc To be sure, gravity, that is to jay, a force
acting at a distance, does play an important pan m every-
day experience But smee the gravity of bodies presents
itself to us in common life as something constant,
dependent on no vanable temporal or spanal cause, we
do not ordinarily dunk of any cause m connection with
it and thus are not conscious of its character as a force
acting at a distance It was not till Newton’s theory of
gravitation that a cause was assigned to it , it was then
explained as a force acting at a distance, due to mass
Newton’s theory certainly marks the greatest step ever
taken m linking up natural phenomena causally And
yet his contemporaries were by no means satisfied with
it, beam se rc seemed to contradict the prmapfc dented
from die rest of cxpenence, that reciprocal action only
takes place b) means of direct contact, not by direct
action at a distance, without any means of transmission
193
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT -
I worked on these problems from 1912 ro 1914
together with my friend Grossmann Wc found that
the mathematical methods for solving problem (1) lay
read) to our hands in the infinitesimal differential cal-
culus of Rica and Levi-Civita
As for problem (2), its solution obviously needed
invariant differential systems of the second order taken
from guv We soon saw that these had ahead) been
established by Riemann (the tensor of curvature) We
had already considered the right field-equations for
gravitanon two >ears before the publication of the
general theory of rclaavit) , but we were unable to sec
how they could be used m phjsics On the contrary, I
felt sure that the) could not do jusnee to experience
Moreover I believed that I could show on general con-
siderations that a law of gravitanon invariant in relation
to any transformanon of co-ordinates whatever was
inconsistent with the pi-maple- of causation These were
errors of thought which cost me two years of exces-
sively hard work, until I finally recogmsed them as such
at the end of 1915 and succeeded in linking up with the
facts of astronomical experience, after having ruefully
returned to the Riemanruan curvature
' In the light of knowledge attained, the happ) achieve-
ment seems almost a matter of course, and any intelligent
student can grasp it without too much trouble But the
years of anxious searching in the dark, with their
intense longing, their alternations of confidence and
exhaustion, and the final emergence into the light, —
only those who have experienced it can understand
that
SCIENTIFIC
other beyond die small deformations winch correspond
to the waves ©flight
This theory, also called the theory of the stationary
luminiferous ether, derived strong support from the
experiments, of fundamental importance for the special
theory of relativity too, of Fizeau, which proved con-
clusively that the luminiferous ether does not participate
in the motions of bodies The phenomenon of aberra-
tion also lent support to the theory of the quasi-ngid
ether
The evolution of electrical theory along the lines laid
down by Clerk Maxwell and Lorentz gave a most
peculiar and unexpected turn to the development of
our ideas about the ether For Clerk Maxwell himself
the ether was still an entity with purely mechanical
properties, though of a far more complicated kind than
those of tangible solid bodies But neither Maxwell
nor his successors succeeded m thinking out a mechanical
model for the ether capable of providing a satisfactory
mechanical interpretation of Maxwell’s laws of the
clectro-dynamic field The laws were clear and simple,
the mechanical interpretations clumsy and contradictory
Almost imperceptibly theoretical physicists adapted
themselves to this state of affairs (which was a most
depressing one from the pome of view of their mechan-
istic programme) especially under the influence of the
electro-dynamic researches of Heinnch Hertz Whereas
they had formerly demanded of an ultimate theory
that it should be based upon fundamental concepts of a
purely mechanical kind (e g , mass-densities* velocities,
deformations, forces of gravitation), they gradually
became accustomed to admitting electric and magnetic
field-strength as fundamental concepts alongside of the
mechanical ones, without insisting upon a mechanical
195
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
Man’s durst for knowledge only acquiesces in such a
dualism reluctantly How could unity in our concep-
tion of natural forces be saved ? People could -cither
attempt to treat die forces which appear to us to act by
contact as acting at a distance, though only making
themselves felt at very small distances , this was the way
generally chosen b) Newton's successors, who were
completely under the spell of his teaching Or they
could take the line that Newton's forces acting at a
distance only appeared to act thus dirccdy, that they
were real!) transmuted by a medium which permeated
space, cither by motions or by an elasuc deformation of
this medium Thus the desire for unity in our view of
the nature of these forces led to the hypothesis of the
ether It certainly led to no advance in the theory of
gravitation or m physics generally to begin with, so
that people got into the habit of treating Newton’s
law of force as an irreducible axiom. But the ether
hypothesis was bound always to play a part, even if it
was mostly a latent one at first, in the thinking of
physicists
When the extensive similadt) which exists between
the properties of light and those of the clastic waves in
ponderable bodies wras revealed in the first half of the
nineteenth century, the ether h>po thesis acquired a new
support It seemed beyond a doubt that hght was to be
explained as the vibration of an elastic, inert medium
filling the whole of space It also seemed to follow
necessanl) from the polansabihty of hght that this
medium, the ether, must be of the nature ofa solid body,
because transverse waves are only possible in such a
body and not in a fluid Thu inevitably led to the
theory of the “quasi-ngiu ’ luminiferous ether, whose
parts are incapable of any motion with respect to each
194
SCIENTIFIC
by divesting the ether of its mechanical, matter of its
electro-magnetic properties Inside material bodies no
less than in empty space the ether alone, not atomically
conceived matter, is the seat of electro-magnetic fields
According to Loren tz the elemenrary parades of matter
are only capable of executing movements, their electro-
magnenc activity is entirely due to the fact that they
carry electric charges Lorentz thus succeeded in
reducing all electro-magneac phenomena to Maxwell’s
equations for a field in vacuo
As regards the mechanical nature of Lorentz’s ether.
one might say of it, with a touch of humour, that
immobility was the only mechanical property which
Lorentz left it It may be added that the whole differ-
ence which the special theory of relativity made in our
conception of the ether lay m this, that it divested the
ether of its last mechanical quality, namely immobility,
How this is to be understood I will explain immediately
The Maxwell-Lorentz theory of the electro-magneac
field served as the model for the space-time theory and the
kinematics of the special theory of relaavity Hence it
satisfies the condmons of the special theory of relaavity ,
but looked-at from the standpoint of the latter, it takes
on a new aspect If C is a co-orainate system m respect
to which the Lorentzian ether is at rest the Maxwell-
Lorentz equaaons hold good first of all m regard to C
According to the special theory of relaavity these same
equaaons hold good in exactly the same sense in regard
to any new co-ordinate system C * which is in uniform
translatory monon with respect to C We are now faced
with the awkward quesaon why the system C, which is
physically perfectly equivalent to the system C', should
be distinguished from thelatter byassumingthattheether
is at rest in respect to it Such an asymmetry of the
197
THE WORLD AS ! SEE IT
interpretation of them The purely mcchamsnc view of
nature was thus abandoned Tins change led to a dual-
ism in the sphere of fundamental concepts which was in
the long run intolerable To escape from it, the con-
verse attempt was made to reduce mechanical concepts
to deem cal ones The experiments with p-rays and
high velocity cathode rays did much to shake confidence
m the strict vabdity of Newton’s mechanical equations
Heinrich Hertz took no 5 reps towards nungating this
dualism Matter appears in his work as the substratum
not only of \eIoanes, kinetic energy, and mechanical
forces of gravity, but also of electro-magnenc fields
Since such fidds are also found m a vacuum — ie, in
unoccupied ether — the ether also appears as the sub-
stratum of electro-magnenc fidds, ennrel) similar in
nature to ponderable matter and ranking alongside lr
In the presence of matter ic shares in the monons of the
latter and has a velocity everywhere in empty space,
the ether velocity nowhere dianges discontinuous!)
There is no fundamental distinction between the Hert-
zian ether and ponderable matter, which partly consists
of ether
Hertz’s theor) not only suffered from the defect that
it attributed to matter and the ether both mechanical
and electrical properties, wnth no rational connection
between them, it was also inconsistent with the result
of Hzeau’s famous experiment on the veloaty of the
propagation of light in a liquid in motion and other
well-authenticated empirical facts
Such was the position when H A Lorentz entered
the field. Lorentz brought theory into harmony wath
experiment, and did it by a marvellous simplification of
banc concepts He achieved this advance in the science
of dectnaty the most important since Clerk Maxwell,
196
SCIENTIFIC
by divesting the ether of its mechanical, matter of its
electro-magncnc properties. Inside material bodies no
less than in empty space the ether alone, not atomically
conceived matter, is the seat of electro-magnetic fields.
According to Lorentz the elementary parades of matter
are only capable of executing movements ; their electro-
magnetic activity is entirely due to the fact that they
carry electric charges. Lorentz thus succeeded in
reducing all electro-magnetic phenomena to Maxwell's
equations for a field in vacuo.
As regards the mechanical nature of Lorentz’s ether,
one might say of it, with a touch of humour, that
immobility was the only mechanical property which
Lorentz left it. It may be added that the whole differ-
ence which the special theory of relativity made m our
conception of the ether lay m this, that it divested the
ether of its last mechanical quality, namely immobility,
How this is to be understood I will explain immediately.
The Maxwell-Lorentz theory of the electro-magnetic
field served as the model for the space-time theory and the
kinematics of the special theory of relaavity. Hence it
satisfies the conditions of the special theory of relaavity ;
but looked-at from the standpoint of the latter, it takes
on a new aspect If C is a co-orainate system m respect
__ to winch the Lorentzian ether is at rest, the Maxwell-
Lorentz equations hold good first of all in regard to C.
Accordmg to the special theory of relaavity these same
equations hold good m exactly the same sense m regard
to any new co-ordinate system C\ which is in uniform
translatorymoaon with respect to C. We are now faced
with the awkward question why the system C r . which is
physically perfectly equivalent to the system C\ should
be distinguished from the latter by assuming that the ether
is at rest in respect to it. Such an asymmetry of the
197
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
theoretical structure, to which there is no corresponding
asymmetry in the sjstem of empirical facts, is intolerable
to the theorist In m) view the physical equivalence of
C and C' with the assumption that the ether is at rest in
respect to C but in motion with respect to C\ though
not absolutely wrong from a logical point of view, is
nevertheless unsatisfactory
The most obvious line to adopt in the face of this
situation seemed to be the following — There is no such
thing as the ether The electro-magnetic fields are not
states of a medium but independent realities, which
cannot be reduced to terms of anything else and arc
bound to no substratum, any more than are the atoms
of ponderable matter This view is rendered the more
natural by the fact that, according to Loren tz’s theory,
electro-magnetic radiauon carries impulse and energy
like ponderable matter, and that matter and radiauon,
according to the special theory of relativity, are both
of them only particular forms of distributed energy,
inasmuch as ponderable mass loses its exceptional
position and merely appears as a particular form of
energy
In the meantime more exact reflection shows that this
denial of the existence of the ether is not demanded by
the restricted principle of relativity Wc can assume the
existence of an ether , but we must abstain from ascribing
a definite state of motion to it, 1 e , w-e must divest it bv
abstraction of the last mechanical characteristic which
Lorcntz left to it Wc shall see later on that this way of
looking at it, the intellectual possibility of which I shall
try to make clearer by a comparison that does not quire
go on afl fours, is justified by the results of the general
theory of relativity
Consider waves on foe surface of water Tfirrt are
198
SCIENTIFIC
two quite different things about this phenomenon which
may be described One can trace the successive changes
which take place in the undulating surface where the
water and the air meet One can also — with the aid of
small floating bodies, say — trace the successive positions
of the individual particles If there were in the nature of
the case no such floating bodies to aid us m tracing the
movement of the particles of liquid, if nothmg at all
could be observed in the whole procedure except the
fieenng changes m the posinon of the space occupied b>
the water, we should have no ground for supposing that
the water consists of particles But we could none the
less call it a medium
Something of the same sort confronts us m the electro-
magnetic field We may conceive the field as consisting
of lines of force If we try to think of these lines of
force as something material in the ordinary sense of the
word, there is a temptation to ascribe the dynamic
phenomena involved to their monon, each single line
being followed out through time It is, however, well
known that this way of looking at the matter leads to
contradictions
Generalising, we must say that we can conceive of
extended physical objects to which the concept of
motion cannot be applied They must not be thought
of as consisting of particles, whose course can be fol-
lowed out separately through time In the language of
Minkowski this is expressed as follows — Not every
extended entity m the four-dimensional world can be
regarded as composed of world-lines The special
principle of relativity forbids us to regard the ether as
composed of particles, the movements of which can be
follow ed out through time, but the theory is not incom-
patible with the ether hypothesis as such Only wc
199
TfiE WORLD AS I SEE IT
must take care not to asenbe a state of motion to the
ether
From the point of view' of the special theory of
relativity the ether hypothesis does certainly seem an
empty one at first sight In the equations of an electro-
magnetic field, apart from the density of the electrical
charge, nothing appears except the strength of the field
The course of electro-magncnc events in a vacuum
seems to be completely' determined by that inner law,
and independent of other physical quantities The
electro-magnetic field seems to be the final irreducible
reality , and it seems superfluous at first sight to postulate
a homogeneous, isotropic ethenc medium, of which
these fields are to be considered as states
On the other hand, there is an important argument
m favour of the ether hypothesis To deny the existence
of the ether is, m the last analysis, to deny all
physical properties to empty space But such a view is
inconsistent with the fundamental facts of mechanics
The mechanical behaviour of a corporeal system floating
freely m empty space depends not only on the relative
positions (intervals) and veloanes of its masses, but also
on its state of rotation, which cannot be regarded,
physically speaking, as a property belonging to the
sy stem as such In order to be able to regard die rotation
of a system at least formally as something real, Newton
regarded space as objective Since he treats his abso-
lute space as a real thing, roranon with respect to
absolute space is also something real to him Newton
could equally well hase called his absolute space “the
ether” , all that matters is that another and imperceptible
ennty, in addition to observable objects, has to be
regarded as real, in order char aeccleranon, or rotation,
may be regarded as real
200
SCIENTIFIC
Mack did indeed tty to avoid the necessity for postu-
lating an imperceptible real entity, by substituting in
mechanics a mean velocity with respect to the totality
of masses m the world for acceleration with respect to
absolute space But inertial resistance with respect to
the relative acceleration of distant masses presupposes
direct action at a distance Since the modem physicist
does not consider himself entitled to assume that, this
view brings him back to the ether, which has to act as
the medium of inertial action This conception of the
ether, to which Mach’s approach leads, differs m
important respects from that of Newton, Fresnel and
Lorcntz Mach’s ether not only conditions the behaviour
of inert masses but is also conditioned, as regards its
state, by them
Mach’s notion finds its full development in the ether
of the general theory of relativity According to this
theory the metrical properties of the space- time con-
tinuum in the neighbourhood of separate space-time
points are different and conjointly conditioned by
matter existing outside the region m question This
spatio-temporal variability of the relations of scales and
clocks to each other, or the knowledge that “empty
space” is, physically speaking, neither homogeneous nor
isotropic, which compels us to describe its state by means
of ten functions, the gravitational potentials ^ v , has no
doubt finally disposed of the notion that space is
physically empty But this has also once more given
the ether nonon a definite content — though one very
different from that of the ether of the mechanical wav c-
thmty aT Tbit, eshec o£ the. general theory of
relativity is a medium which is itself free otdll mechanical
and kinematic properties, but helps to determine
mechanical (and electro-magnetic) events
201
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
The radical novelty in the ether of the general theory
of relativity as against the ether of Lorcntz lies in this,
that the state of the former at every pomt is determined
by the laws of its relationship with matter and with the
state of die ether at neighbouring points, expressed in
the form of differential equations, whereas the state of
Lorentz’s ether, m the absence of electro-magnetic fields,
is determined by nodimg outside it and is the same
everywhere The ether as conceived by the general
theory of relativity passes over into Lorentz’s if con-
stants are substituted for the spatial functions describing
its state, dius neglecting the causes conditioning the
latter One ma) therefore say diat the ether of die
general theory of relativity is derived by relativisanon
from die ether of Lorentz
The part which die new ether is destined to play in
the physical scheme of the future is still a matter of
uncertainty Wc know that it determines both materia)
delations in the spacc-nmc continuum, c g , the possible
configurations of solid bodies, and also gravitational
fields, but wc do not know whether it plays a materia!
part in the structure of the eleeme particles which
constitute matter Nor do we know whether its struc-
ture only differs materially from that of Lorentz’s in
the proximity of ponderable masses, whether, in fact,
the Geometry of spaces of cosmic extent is, taken as a
whole, almost Euclidean Wc can, how c\ er, maintain
on the strength of die relativistic cquanons of gravita-
tion that spaces of cosmic proportions must depart from
Euclidean behaviour if there is a positive mean density
of matter, however small, in the Universe In this case
the Universe must necessarily form a dosed space of
finite size, this 512c being determined by die value of
the mean density of matter
202
SCIENTIFIC
If we consider the gravitational field and the electro-
magnetic field from the standpoint of the ether hypo-
thesis, we find a norahle fundamental difference between
the two No space and no portion of space is without
gravitational potential, for this gives it its metrical
properties without which it is not thinkable at all The
existence of the gravitational field is directly bound up
with the existence of space On the other hand, a por-
tion of space without an electro-magnetic field is per-
fectly conceivable, hence the electro-magnetic field, m
contrast to the gravitational field, seems m a sense to
be connected with the ether only in a secondary way,
since its formal nature is by no means determined by
the gravitational ether In the present state of theory it
looks as if the electro-magnetic field, as compared with
the gravitational field, were based on a completely new
formal motive, as if nature, instead of endowing the
gravitational ether with fields of the electro-magnetic
type, might equally well have endowed it with fields of
a qtute different type, for example, fields with a scalar
potential
Since according to our present-day notions the pri-
mary particles of matter are also, at bottom, nothing but
condensations of the electro-magneac field, our modem
view of the Universe recognises two realities which are
conceptually quite independent of each other even
though they may be causally connected, namely, the
gravitational ether and the elcctro-magnetic field, or —
as one might call them — space and matter
It would, of course, be a great step forward if we
succeeded in combining the gravitational field and the
cleetro-magnctic field into a single structure Only so
could the era in theoretical phy sics inaugurated by Fara-
day and Clerk Maxwell be brought to a satisfactory dose
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
The antithesis of ether and matter would then fade
aviay, and the whole of physics would become a com-
pletely enclosed intellectual system, like geometr),
kinematics and the theory of gravitation, through the
general theory' of relativity An exceedingly brilliant
attempt in this direction has been made by the irtathc-
matician H Weyl, but I do not think that it will stand
the test of reality Moreover, in thinking about the
immediate future of theoretical phj’sics we cannot
unconditionally dismiss the possibdit> that the facts
summarized in the quantum theory may set impassable
limits to the field-theory
We may sum up as follows — According to the
general theory of relativity space is endowed with
physical qualities, m this sense, therefore an ether
exists Space without an ether is inconceivable For
in such a space there would not only be no propagation
of light, but no possibility of the existence of scales and
clocks, and therefore no spatio-temporal distances in
the physical sense But dus ether must not be diought
of as endowed with the properties characteristic of
ponderable media, as composed of particles the motion
of which can be followed, nor may the concept of
monon be applied to it
The cause of the formation of v candcis in the courses of
mers and of Beer's Lau , as it ts called
It is common knowledge that streams rend ro curve
m serpennne shapes instead of following die line of die
maximum declivity of the ground It is also well known
to geographers that die nvers of the northern hemi-
sphere tend to erode dnefh on die right side The
mersof die southern hemisphere behave in the opposite
204
SCIENTIFIC
way (Beer’s law) Many attempts have been made
to explain this phenomenon, and 1 am not sure whether
anything I say in the following pages will be new to the
expert , some of the relevant considerations are in any
case known Nevertheless, having found nobody who
thoroughly Understood the elementary principles in-
volved, I think it is proper for me to give the following
short qualitative exposition of them
First of all, it is clear that the erosion must be stronger
the greater the velocity of the current where it touches
the bank in question, or the more steeply it falls to zero
at any particular point of the confining wall This is
equally true under all circumstances, whether the ero-
sion depends on mechanical or on physico-chemical
factors (decomposmon of the ground) We must con-
centrate our attention on the circumstances which affect
the steepness with which the velocity falls at the wall
In both cases the as> mmctryhn relation to the fall in
velocity in question is indirectly due to the occurrence
of a circular motion to which we will next direct our
attention I begm with a little experiment which any-
body can easily repeat
Imagine a flat-bottomed cup full of tea At the bottom
there are some tea-leaves, which stay there because they
are rather heavier than the liquid they have displaced
If the hquid is made to rotate by a spoon, the leaves will
soon collect in the centre of die bottom of the cup
The explanation of this phenomenon is as follows —
The rotanon of die hquid causes a centrifugal force ro
act on it This in itself would give rise to no change m
the flow of the hquid if the latter rotated like a solid
body But m the neighbourhood of die walls of the
cup the hquid is restrained by fnenon, so that the
angular velocity with which it circulates is less diere
205
THE WORLD AS 1 SEE IT
than in other places nearer the centre. In particular, the
angular velocity of circulation, and therefore the centri-
fugal force, will be smaller near the bottom than higher
up. The result of this will be a circular movement of
the liquid of the type illustrated in Fig. r, which goes on
increasing until, under the influence of ground fricnon,
it becomes stationary. The tea leaves arc swept into
tlie centre by the circular movement and act as proof
of irs existence.
Fig «
The same son of tiling happens with a curving
stream (Fig 2) At every section of its course, where
it is bent, a centrifugal force operates in the direction of
Ground Plan
Fig 1
the outside of the curve (from A to B) This force is less
strong near the bottom, where the speed of the current
is reduced by friction, than higher abosc the bottom.
Tins causes a circular movement of die kind illustrated
m the diagram Even where there u no bend in the
206
SCIENTIFIC
river, a circular movement of the land shown in Fig 2
will still take place, if only on a small scale and as a
result of the earth’s rotation The Utter produces a
Coriolis force, acting transversely to the direction of
the current, whose Tight-hand horizontal component
amounts to 2 v fl sin 9 per umt of mass of the liquid,
where v is the velocity of the current, £2 the speed of
the earth’s rotation, and 9 the geographical latitude
As ground friction causes a diminution of this force
towards the bottom, this force also gives rise to a circu-
lar movement of the type indicated m Fig 2
After this preliminary discussion we come back to
the qucsnon of the distnbunoh of velocities over the
cross section of the stream, which is the controlling
factor in erosion For this purpose we must first realise
how the (turbulent) distribution of veloanes takes
place and is maintained If the water which was pre-
viously at rest were suddenly set m motion by the
action of an evenly diffused accelerating force, the dis-
tribution of velocities over the cross section would be
even at first A distribution of velocities gradually
increasing from the confining walk towards the centre
of the cross secnon would only establish itself after a
time, under the influence of friction at the walls A
disturbance of the (roughly speaking) stationary distri-
bution of veloanes over the cross secnon would only
gradually set in again under the influence of fluid fnc-
non Hydrodynamics explains the process by which
this stadonary dismbunon of veloanes is established in
the following way — In a systemanc distnbunon of
current (potential flow\ all the vortex-filaments are con-
centrated at the walls They detach themselves and
slowly move towards the centre of the cross-sccnon of
die stream, distributing themselves over a layer of
207
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
increasing thickness The drop in velocity at the con-
taining walls thereby gradually diminishes Under the
action of the internal friction of the liquid the vortex
filaments in the inside of the cross section gradually get
absorbed, their place being taken by new ones which
form At the wall A quasi-staaonary distribution of
velocities is thus produced The important thing for us
is that the adjustment of the distribution of velocities
till it becomes stationary is a slow process That is why
relatively insignificant, constantly operative causes are
able to exert a considerable influence on the distribution
of velocities over the cross section let us now con-
sider what sort of influence the arculir monon due to
a bend in the nver or the Conohs-force, as illustrated in
Kg 2, is bound to exert on the distribution of velocities
over the cross section of the river The pamcles of
liquid in most rapid motion will be furthest away from
the walls, that is to say, m the upper part above the
centre of the bottom These most rapid parts of the
water will be driven by the circular motion towards die
nght-hand wall, while the left-hand wall gees die
water which comes from the region near the bottom and
has a specially low velocity Hence in die case depicted
m Kg 2 the erosion is nccessanl) stronger on the right
side than on the left It should be noted that dm explana-
tion is essentially based on the fact that the slow circu-
lating movement of die wafer exerts a considerable
influence on the distribution of velocities, because the
adjustment of velocities which counteracts this conse-
quence of the- circulating movement is also a slow pro-
cess on account ofmtcmal friction
We have now revealed die causes of the formanon of
meanders Certain details can, however, also be-
deduced without difficult} from these facts. Erosion
20 S
SCIENTIFIC
will inevitably be comparatively extensive not merely
on the right-hand wall but also on the right half of
the bottom so that there will be a tendency to assume
the shape illustrated in Fig 3
Moreover, the water at the surface will come from
the left-hand wall, and will therefore, on the left-hand
side especially, be moving less rapidly than the water
rather lower down It should further be observed that
the circular motion possesses inertia The circulation
will therefore onl) achieve its maximum extent behind
the position of the greatest curvature, and the same
naturally applies to the asymmetry of the erosion
Hence in the course of erosion an advance of the wave-
lines of the meander-formation is bound to take place
m the direction of the current Finally, die longer the
cross section of the nver, the more slowly will the
circular movement be absorbed by friction , the wave-
line of die meander-formation will therefore increase
with the cross secnon of the nver
The Fleltner-sfup
The history of scientific and technical disco\ery
teaches us that the human race is poor in independent
thinking and cream e imagination E\en when die
external and scientific requirements for the birth of an
— 09
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
idea have long been there, it generally needs an external
.stimulus to make it actually happen; man has, so to
speak, to stumble right up against the thing before the
idea comes. The Flettner-sbip, which is just now filling
the whole world with amazement, is an excellent
example of this commonplace and, for us, far from
flattering truth. It also has the special attraction in its
favour that the way m which the Flettner rotors work
remains a mystery* to most laymen, although their
action can be explained by mechanical forces which we
all believe ourselves to understand instinctively.
The scientific basis for Flettner s invention is really
some two hundred years old. It has existed ever since
Euler and Bernoulli determined the fundamental lav’s
of the fnctionless motion of liquids The practical
possibility of achieving it, on the other hand, has only
existed for a few decades — to be exact, since we have
possessed practicable small morors Even then the dis-
covery did not come automadcally, chance and experi-
ence had to intervene several times first
The Flcttner-ship is closely akin to the sailing-ship in
the way it works, as in the latter, the force of the wind
is the only motive-power for propelling the ship , but
instead of sails, the wind acts on vertical sheet-meta!
cylinders, which are kept rotating b> small motors
These motors only have to overcome the small amount
of friction which the cylinders encounter from the sur-
rounding air and m their bearings The monvc power
for the ship is, as I said, provided by the wind alone
The rota ting, c) hnders look like ship's funnels, only they
arc several times as high and thick The area they
present to the wind is some ten nmes smaller than that
of the equivalent tackle of a sailing-ship
“But now on earth do these rotating cy hnders pro-
210
SCIENTIFIC
duce motive power?” the layman asks in despair 1
will attempt to answer this question as far as it is
possible to do so without using mathematical lan-
guage
In all motions of fluids (liquids or gases) where the
effect of friction can be neglected the following remark-
able law holds good —If the fluid is moving at different
velocities at different points m a uniform current, the
pressure is less at those points where the velocity is
greater, and vice versa Tins is easily understood from
the primary law of the motion If in a liquid in motion
there is present a velocity with a right-ward direction
increasing from left to right, the individual particle of
liquid is bound to undergo acceleration on its journey
Part de of Liquid
Pressure _
on the left
Acceleration
Fg 4
from left to nghc In order that this acceleration may
take place, a force has to act oil the particle in a right-
ward direction This requires that die pressure on its
left edge should be stronger than that on its right
Therefore, the pressure m the* liquid is greater on the
left than on the nght when the \eloaty is greater on
the nght than on die left
This law of the unerse ratio of the pressure to the
velocity obviously makes it possible to determine the
force of pressure produced by the motion of a liquid
(or gas), simply b> knowing the distnbunon of veloci-
ties in the fluid I will now proceed to show, by a
21 1
Pressure
on the nght
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
familiar example — that of the scent-spra) — how the
principle cm be applied.
Through a pipe slightly widened at its aperture A air
is expelled at a high velocity by means of a compressible
rubber bulb.. Thejer of air goes on spreading uniformly
in all directions as it travels, in the course of which the
velocity of the current gradually sinks to zero. Accord-
ing to our law it is clear that there is less pressure at A,
owing to the high ‘velocity, than at a greater distance
Tig j
from the aperture; at A there is suction, in contrast to
the more distant, stationary air. If a pipe P, with both
its ends open, is stood up with its upper end m die rone
of high velocity and its low cr end m a vessel filled with
a liquid, the vacuum at A will draw the liquid upwards
out of the vessel, and the liquid on emerging at A wall
be divided into tiny drops and whisked off by the
current of air.
After this preliminary canter let us consider die
monon of a fluid around a Flermcr cy hndcr.
Let C be the cylinder as seen from above. Let it not
rotate to begin with Let the wind be blowing in the
direction indicated by the arrows- It has jo make a cer-
tain detour round the cylinder C, m die course of which
ir passes A and B ar the same velocity. Hence the pres-
212
SCIENTIFIC
sure will be the same at A and B, and there is no dynamic
effect on the cylinder. Now let the cylinder rotate in
the direction of the arrow P. The result is that the
current of wind as it goes past the cylinder is divided
unequally between the two sides, for the motion of the
wind will be aided by the rotation of the cylinder at B,
and hindered at A The rotanon of the cylinders gives
rise to a motion with a greater velocity at B than at A
Hence the pressure at A is greater than at B, and the
cylinder is acted upon by a force from left to right,
which is made use of to propel the ship.
ttt
Fig 6
One would have thought that an inventive bram
might have hit upon this idea by itself, 1 e , without an
extraneous cause However, what actually happened
was as follows It was observed m the course of experi-
ence that even m the absence of wind the trajectories
of cannon balls exhibited considerable, irregular, and
variable lateral deflections from the verncal plane
through the initial direction of the shots This strange
phenomenon was necessarily connected, on grounds of
symmetry, with the rotation of the cannon balls, as
there could be no other conceivable reason for a lateral
asymmetry in the resistance of the air After this
phenomenon had caused a good deal of trouble to the
213
THE WORLD AS I SEE IT
experts, a Berlin professor of physics, Magnus, dis-
covered the right explanation about half way through
last century. It is the same as the one I have already
given for the force which acts .on the Fletmer cylinder
in the wind ; only the place of the cylinder C is taken by
a cannon ball rotating about a vertical axis, and that of
the wind by the relative motion of the air with reference
to the flying cannon bill. Magnus confirmed his
explanation by experiments with a rotating cylinder,
which was not materially different from a Fletmer
cylinder. A little later the great English physicist Lord
Rayleigh independently discovered the same phe-
nomenon again in regard to tennis balls and also gave
the correct explanation. Quite a short rime ago die
well-known professor Prandd made an accurate experi-
mental and theoretical study of fluid morion around
Magnus cylinders, in the course of which he devised and
earned out practically the whole of Flettner's invention.
Prandtl’s experiments were seen by Fletmer, and sug-
gested to him that this device might be used to take die
place of sails. Who knows if anyone else would have
thought of it if he had not*.
