2022/05/20

7] Mystical Tradition: Islam

 Mystical Tradition: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam



Table of Contents


Professor Biography ....................................................................................i
0] Course Scope 1
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Judaism1]
Lecture One A Way into the Mystic Ways of the West 4
Lecture Two Family Resemblances and Differences 9
Lecture Three The Biblical Roots of Western Mysticism 14
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Judaism2]
Lecture Four Mysticism in Early Judaism 18
Lecture Five Merkabah Mysticism 22
Lecture Six The Hasidim of Medieval Germany 26
Lecture Seven The Beginnings of Kabbalah 30
Lecture Eight Mature Kabbalah—Zohar 34
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Judaism3]
Lecture Nine Isaac Luria and Safed Spirituality 38
Lecture Ten Sabbatai Zevi and Messianic Mysticism 42
Lecture Eleven The Ba’al Shem Tov and the New Hasidism 46
Lecture Twelve Mysticism in Contemporary Judaism 50
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Christian4]
Lecture Thirteen Mystical Elements in the New Testament 54
Lecture Fourteen Gnostic Christianity 58
Lecture Fifteen The Spirituality of the Desert 62
Lecture Sixteen Shaping Christian Mysticism in the East 66
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Christian5]
Lecture Seventeen Eastern Monks and the Hesychastic Tradition 70
Lecture Eighteen The Mysticism of Western Monasticism 74
Lecture Nineteen Medieval Female Mystics 78
Lecture Twenty Mendicants as Mystics 82
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Christian6]
Lecture Twenty-One English Mystics of the 14th Century 86
Lecture Twenty-Two 15th- and 16th- Century Spanish Mystics 89
Lecture Twenty-Three Mysticism among Protestant Reformers 93
Lecture Twenty-Four Mystical Expressions in Protestantism 96
Lecture Twenty-Five 20th-Century Mystics 100
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Islam7]
Lecture Twenty-Six Muhammad the Prophet as Mystic................. 104
Lecture Twenty-Seven The House of Islam........................................ 108
Lecture Twenty-Eight The Mystical Sect—Shi’a.............................. 112
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Islam8]
Lecture Twenty-Nine The Appearance of Sufism............................. 116
Lecture Thirty Early Sufi Masters.......................................... 120
Lecture Thirty-One The Limits of Mysticism—Al-Ghazzali ........ 123
Lecture Thirty-Two Two Masters, Two Streams............................ 127
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Islam9]
Lecture Thirty-Three Sufism in 12th–14th Century North Africa...... 131
Lecture Thirty-Four Sufi Saints of Persia and India....................... 134
Lecture Thirty-Five The Continuing Sufi Tradition....................... 137
Lecture Thirty-Six Mysticism in the West Today ........................ 141

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Timeline ................................................................................................... 145
Glossary ................................................................................................... 154
Bibliography............................................................................................ 163
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Lecture Twenty-Six Muhammad the Prophet as Mystic

 

 

Scope: This lecture begins with an initial characterization of Islam as a religion by means of comparison with Judaism and Christianity, with particular attention to those elements that have drawn the allegiance of more than a billion adherents all over the world. It then turns to the life of the Prophet Muhammad, focusing especially on the incidents in his life, including the night journey and the ascent to heaven, that helped shape Islamic Mysticism. Finally, it gives attention to the special character of the Qur’an, the “Mother of All Books” as a revelatory text and as the source for mystical thought and experience within Islam.

 

Outline

I.      In the present historical context, the understanding of Islam as a religion is both important and difficult.

A.     The past and present importance of Islam in world history is easy to assess.

1.      Islam’s sudden rise in the 7th century C.E. and its astonishing success as a religious political movement over the succeeding centuries are matched by its intellectual and cultural influence. 2.       In the contemporary world, the geopolitical significance of Islam, particularly in its more assertive forms, is impossible to ignore, but it is the worldwide importance of Islam precisely as a religion that demands respectful attention.

B.     For outsiders, the difficulties in studying Islam stem partly from historical bias and partly from degrees of cultural distance for most observers.

1.      Christians in particular have shown deep bias against Islam in language and practice.

2.      Linguistic and cultural barriers have, until recently, kept many outsiders from a genuine engagement with Islam.

C.     Islam is considered a Western religion because of its structure, not because of its location.

1.      Islam is geographically and demographically distributed throughout the world in the manner of Christianity.

2.      It belongs with Judaism and Christianity because of its characteristic features: Monotheism, creation, revelation, history, law, faith, and future, all combined in a vision both simple and stringent.

II.    In every respect, Islam can look to the Prophet of God, the Rasul of Allah, Muhammad (570–632 C.E.) as its founder.

A.     Like Moses and Jesus, Muhammad (meaning “highly praised”) is subject to intense interpretation within the tradition; there are two main sources for his life. 

1.      The Qur’an mentions many aspects of the Prophet’s life and teaching in a nonsystematic and often allusive manner. 

2.      The Qur’an must be supplemented by the Hadith, stories concerning the Prophet that proliferated among followers after his death.

3.      Liberal and conservative Muslims disagree on the degree to which these sources should be critically analyzed.

B.     The significance of Muhammad’s mission is best measured against its historical backdrop.

1.      Pre-Islamic Arabia experienced profound social dislocation caused by the shift from Bedouin to merchant existence, from rural life to urban life.

2.      The religious context was one of native Polytheism, with some elements of Judaism and dissident Christianity.

3.      Muhammad’s hometown of Mecca housed the shrine of the Ka’bah, which was controlled by wealthy families of the city.

C.     Muhammad’s early life (570–610 C.E.) combined elements of normal endeavor and religious searching.

1.      A member of the Quraish tribe, he was an orphan raised by an uncle who ran a well called Zamzam.

2.      Muhammad became the business manager of a woman 15 years his senior, Kadijah, and married her in 595.

3.      Disturbed by the religious and moral corruption in Mecca, he sought solitude and prayer at Mount Hira, “wrapped in a mantle.”

D.     The Prophet’s call in 610 is, in the perspective of this course, a mystical experience.

1.      It is an encounter with the divine mediated by the angel Gabriel (Sura 53:4–12).

2.      Muhammad is called to be a prophet (Rasul) of Allah and to proclaim that Allah alone is God to all people and that all should submit (islama) to Allah in every aspect of life (Suras 96, 74, 73).

E.     After initial rejection, the Prophet’s message spread—by teaching, battle, and negotiation—throughout Arabia before his death.

1.      For 12 years in Mecca, his message had little success; he was mocked and few followed him.

2.      The Hijrah in 622 established the center of Islam in Medina, where Muhammad continued to recite the Qur’an, and began to extend the rule of Islam through Arabia.

3.      In 629–630, Muhammad made a triumphant return to Mecca; he then returned to Medina, where he died in 632. 

F.     Although Muhammad was the founder and organizer of Islam, he can also be regarded as a mystic.

1.      He was not an ascetic and resisted the tendency toward Monasticism; he died with many wives.

2.      Yet the revelation of the Qur’an continued throughout his life, and tradition holds that he experienced a mystical night journey to Jerusalem (Isra) and an ascent to heaven (Mi’raj).

3.      For Muslims, the single great miracle associated with Muhammad is the Qur’an.

III.  The Qur’an—the “Mother of All Books”—provides the symbolic framework for both Muslim life and mysticism.

A.     For Muslims, the Qur’an is, in the original Arabic, the literal word of Allah revealed to Muhammad.

1.      It was dictated by the angel Gabriel to Muhammad; his illiteracy emphasizes the miracle of revelation.

2.      It is a heavenly book, existing already with Allah; Muhammad was inspired to recite what he heard.

B.     The Qur’an was revealed in segments through all the stages of the Prophet’s career.

1.      The revelation began on Mount Hira in 610 and continued both in the first period in Mecca and more extensively in Medina.

2.      It was memorized by the Prophet’s followers and only recorded after his death.

C.     Relatively simple in arrangement, the Qur’an is stylistically powerful and complex in its contents.

1.      The 114 suras are arranged, after the first, by length, running from the longest to the shortest; their titles are roughly descriptive of content.

2.      They include content that is prophetic, legal, and historical.

3.      The Qur’an shows knowledge of Jewish and Christian traditions but reworks them thoroughly.

4.      It is a sacred text only in the original Arabic, and its beauty makes it the source of all Islamic poetry and prayer.

 

Recommended Reading:

Watt, W. M. Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman.

 

Questions to Consider:

1.      Compare and contrast the Jewish and Christian understanding of their Scripture as inspired and the Muslim understanding of the Qur’an.

2.      How does the career of Muhammad follow the classic pattern of the biblical prophet but also deviate from it?

Lecture Twenty-Seven The House of Islam

 

 

Scope: Islam as an exoteric tradition has a coherent and relatively simple structure. Drawing from the Qur’an, we examine, first, its basic convictions concerning God and the world, prophets and books, and submission and infidelity. These elements are given expression by the five pillars: the confession (shahadah), prayer (salat), fasting (sawm), and pilgrimage (Hajj). The Muslim community (umma) is given structure through the system of law (Shari’ah) drawn from the Qur’an and Hadith concerning the Prophet. The law, in turn, provides guidance through an interpretive process involving reason and consensus among scholars.

 

Outline

I.      This lecture takes on the basic structure of what is sometimes called the House of Islam. One of the compelling aspects of Islam is the stark simplicity of its framework, which places God and humans in clear relationship.

A.     As the name of the tradition suggests, full submission (islama) to God is demanded of every human being.

1.      Such faith, obedience, and submission were first modeled by Abraham, the hanyf, or “righteous man.”

2.      The opposite of islama is called shirk—the disposition of the idolater and infidel who does not submit to Allah.

B.     The essential structure of the faith that distinguishes Islam is expressed by three succinct statements.

1.      The shahadah is the confession of faith: “I bear witness that there is no God but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is the Rasul of Allah” (ashaduan la ilaha illa allah wa ashaduan muhammad rasul allah). 

2.      The fatihah (“opening”) is the first sura of the Qur’an: “Praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds, the Beneficent, the Merciful, Owner of the Day of Judgment, Thee alone do we worship; Thee alone we ask for help. Show us the straight path, the path of those whom Thou has favored; not the path of those who earn Thine anger nor of those who go astray.”

3.      The Besmillah is a formula that begins every sura in the Qur’an: “In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful” (besmillah al-rachman al-rahim).

II.    The doctrine connected to these simple professions of faith is equally straightforward and the classic expression of the Western type of exoteric religion.

A.     The Monotheism of Islam is strict and radical: Allah is alone God, the source of all creatures and in control of all that happens.

1.      Humans are God’s special creation and best demonstrate Allah’s true nature.

2.      Humans are created free to respond to Allah or not, and their deeds are strictly judged by Allah.

B.     God revealed his will for humans through a succession of prophets and the books that contain their prophecy.

1.      All the prophets (pre-Islamic Arabian, Old Testament, New Testament, and Muhammad) preach the same basic message of repentance from idolatry to submission to the one true God. 2. The message of the prophets is contained in Scripture: that of Moses in Torah, that of David in Zalm (the Psalms), that of Jesus in the Gospels, and that of Muhammad in the Qur’an.

3.    The books of the Jews and Christians, however, are corrupted, which is why a definitive prophecy was required: Jews reject

Jesus and make Torah equal to God, and Christians make Jesus a “partner of Allah.”

C.     The final judgment of humans is based on their fidelity, their submission to the will of Allah, as expressed in the deeds of their lives. The promise of a future resurrection is literal and physical: The delights of the righteous are endless.

D.     This summary camouflages real tensions that arise within Islamic thought and practice.

1.      Although the teaching is simple and straightforward, some issues, such as that involving divine power and human freedom, become endlessly complex.

2.      Similarly, Islam is both historical and ultimate: Moses and Jesus are predecessors as prophets, but Judaism and Christianity are wrong.

3.      Tension also exists between universality and particularity: The principle of islama is open to all, but Muhammad must be recognized as the Prophet; the Qur’an is meant for all but is to be read in worship only in Arabic.

III.  The House of Islam is supported by the five pillars of observance required of all Muslims.

A.     There is no ritual entrance into Islam except through the slow and deliberate enunciation of the shahadah. On practice, it is recited many times during every prayer service.

B.     Islam is a religion of frequent prayer (salat), consisting mainly of a series of prostrations, repeated individually five times daily and in common at worship in the mosque.

C.     The sharing of possessions through alms (zakat) takes place through free-will offerings and a yearly tax, used to care for the poor and needy. 

D.     The practice of fasting (sawm) is restricted to Ramadan (the ninth lunar month) in memory of the start of the recitation of the Qur’an and as discipline rather than as penitence.

E.     Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) is a once-a-lifetime obligation for those who are able to undertake it; the pilgrimage involves elaborate stages of purification, ritual movement, and prayer.

IV.   Like Judaism, Islam is a way of life that ideally encompasses all of society. From the start, the law (Shari’ah) has had a positive and important function.

A.     The material basis for law is kitab (what is written in Qur’an) and Sunna (the example of the Prophet), which can be derived from the Qur’an and Hadith.

B.     The formal basis for the law is the process of interpretation.

1.      The principle of ijtihad (systematic original thinking) applies logic and argumentation.

2.      Qiyas is the use of analogical reasoning: The ancient case is applied to changed circumstances.

3.      Consensus (ijma’) is the agreement of the teachers of the Islamic community concerning the legal determination.

C.     The role and relative weight of these factors have been the cause of debate and division within Islam.

 

Recommended Reading:

Rahman, F. Islam.

Questions to Consider:

1.      Consider the way that Islam both affirms and negates the religious claims of Jews and Christians.

2.      How does the notion of the “straight path” embrace both the individual Muslim and the Islamic community?

Lecture Twenty-Eight The Mystical Sect—Shi’a

 

 

Scope: Historical divisions within Islam are connected to disputes concerning authority. In the Sunni tradition, four schools of interpretation (the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi’i, and Hanbali) place an emphasis on different sources and procedures for determining the Sunna but are mutually accepting. The sect or party called Shi’a, by contrast, locates the heart of Islam in connection to the Prophet and the Prophet’s family; regards authority to reside not in the umma but in a prophetic imam descended from the fourth caliph, ‘Ali, who was assassinated in 661 C.E.; and understands the principle of dissimulation (taquiya) to apply both to history and to the Qur’an. This lecture traces the origin of the Shi’a, its principles, and its internal divisions.

 

Outline

I.      Islam emphasizes the unity of God and the unity of the umma (Muslim community), but like other historical religions, it has experienced internal divisions.

A.     The Sunni tradition, to which 8590 percent of Muslims worldwide adhere, has several distinct schools of Shari’ah to make appropriate legal determinations related to striving in the way of Allah.

1.      The Maliki (8th century), centered in Medina, emphasizes the Hadith for the establishment of the Sunna.

2.      The Hanafi (8th century) centered in Kufa, Iran, emphasizes qiyas, that is, reasoning from analogy.

3.      The Shafi’i (9th century), centered in Mecca, Baghdad, and Cairo and accepted by the majority of the Sunni tradition, is the most complex legal system, encompassing the Qur’an, Hadith, qiyas, and ijma’ (the principle of consensus).

4.      The Hanbali (9th century) is a conservative reaction that restricts the Sunna to Qur’an and Hadith; its contemporary importance stems from its adoption by the Wahhabi reform movement of the 19th century.

B.     The most fundamental and important conflict is that between the

Sunni tradition and the Shi’a (meaning “party” or “sect”). The

Shi’a accounts for approximately 1015 percent of Muslims worldwide but a majority in Iran (95 percent) and a substantial minority in other Middle Eastern countries.

II.    The origin of the division is found in the institution of the caliphate, more precisely, the nature and legitimacy of authority over the umma after the death of the Prophet.

A.     The Sunnis accept succession through the caliphate, a non-mystical and even secular authority over the umma exercised through (often-disputed) dynasties.

1.      The first of these dynasties was the Orthodox Caliphate (632661 C.E.) in Medina; the first four caliphs under this dynasty were Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and ‘Ali.

2.      The second dynasty, the Umayyad Caliphate (661751), was centered in Damascus.

3.      The ‘Abbasid Caliphate of Islam’s golden cultural age (7511258) was centered in Baghdad. This was the most stable dynasty, with 37 caliphs.

4.      The Ottoman Caliphate (12581924), in Istanbul, was a weak and often corrupt regime ended by the Turkish ruler Mustafa Kemal.

B.     The Shi’a protests the entire sequence of caliphs after ‘Ali: There are no legitimate heads of the umma within the caliphates, and authority is located only in the imams (“leaders”) descended from the family of the Prophet (Ahl al-Bayt, meaning “people of the Prophet’s house”).

1.      ‘Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad (husband of the Prophet’s daughter Fatima Zahra), was the true successor from the start, even if “hidden.”

2.      The pivotal event in the history of the Shi’a is the martyrdom of ‘Ali’s son Hussein, who led a revolt against the illegitimate caliphate in 680 C.E.

C.     The dispute over succession has led to dramatically different ways of viewing religious authority.

1.      For the Sunni tradition, authority resides in the Shari’ah, interpreted by the experts (ulama) and involving exoteric observance (fiqh).

2.      For the Shi’a, authority is connection to the Prophet, teaching is vested in the imam, and the most profound teaching is the esoteric understanding of the Qur’an and Hadith.

III.  The Shi’a has developed its own distinctive set of convictions and practices within the broad framework of Islam.

A.     Certain convictions, such as ideas relating to God’s oneness (Tawhid), justice (adalah), and final judgment (Qiyama), are also found in the Sunni tradition but given particular emphasis by the Shi’a. Other ideas are more distinctive.

1.      The imam’s authority is absolute; he is the Mahdi (“enlightened one”), sinless and infallible; in extreme positions, he is a radiance of divine light or even an incarnation of God.

2.      The Shi’a embodies a strong element of loss and restoration: The origin of the sect was tragic, and martyrdom is deeply imprinted in the tradition. The return of the 12th imam, Muhhamad, who died or disappeared in 873 C.E., will restore the fortunes of the oppressed devout.

3.      The principle of taquiya (“dissimulation”) is extended to an esoteric understanding of authority (‘Ali is the hidden imam) and the Qur’an (which reveals truths esoterically).

4.      The Shi’a has a powerful sense of having suffered persecution from the Sunni throughout history.

B.     Beyond the five pillars shared with all Muslims, which tend to be placed in a secondary position, are practices distinctive to the Shi’a.

1.      An additional tax (khums) of one-fifth of income is gathered and contributed to the imam.

2.      Striving in the way of Allah (jihad) means resistance externally to Islam’s enemies and internally to the lure of vices.

3.      An engaged and active style of piety is found in the practices of “commanding what is good” and “forbidding what is evil.”

4.      Similar sectarian reinforcement is found in loving the Ahl alBayt and dissociating from the enemies of the Ahl al-Bayt.

5.      The Shi’ites also have special holidays: the Prophet’s birthday, the 12th imam’s birthday, a commemoration of Hussein’s memory, the festival honoring Hussein’s household, and the date of Muhammad’s proclamation of ‘Ali as the imam.

IV.   As inevitably happens with religious splinter groups, the sectarian principle embedded in the Shi’a led to still further divisions.

A.     The majority of the Shi’ites are the Twelvers found predominately in Iran. 

1.      This group recognizes 12 imams. 

2.      The 12th imam, Muhhamad, is believed simply to have removed himself and will return as the Mahdi.

B.     The Seveners (Ismailites) recognize only seven of the imams as authentic.

C.     At least four other divisions can be identified, illustrating the truth that the more central a symbol, the more likely it is to be the cause of religious division.

 

Recommended Reading:

Nasr, S. H. Ideals and Realities of Islam.

 

Questions to Consider:

1.      Compare the central place of religious law in Judaism and Islam and its disputed place in Christianity.

2.      What aspects of the Shi’a justify calling it a “mystical sect”?