Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) or self-education (also self-learning and self-teaching) is education without the guidance of masters (such as teachers and professors) or institutions (such as schools). Generally, autodidacts are individuals who choose the subject they will study, their studying material, and the studying rhythm and time. Autodidacts may or may not have formal education, and their study may be either a complement or an alternative to formal education. Many notable contributions have been made by autodidacts.

Etymology[edit source]

The term has its roots in the Ancient Greek words αὐτός (autós, lit. ''self'') and διδακτικός (didaktikos, lit. ''teaching''). The related term didacticism defines an artistic philosophy of education.

Terminology[edit source]

Various terms are used to describe self-education. One such is heutagogy, coined in 2000 by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon of Southern Cross University in Australia; others are self-directed learning and self-determined learning. In the heutagogy paradigm, a learner should be at the centre of their own learning.^[1]

Modern education[edit source]

Autodidacticism is sometimes a complement of modern education.^[2] As a complement to education, students would be encouraged to do more independent work.^[3] The Industrial Revolution created a new situation for self-directed learners.

Before the twentieth century, only a small minority of people received an advanced academic education. As stated by Joseph Whitworth in his influential report on industry dated from 1853, literacy rates were higher in the United States. However, even in the U.S., most children were not completing high school. High school education was necessary to become a teacher. In modern times, a larger percentage of those completing high school also attended college, usually to pursue a professional degree, such as law or medicine, or a divinity degree.^[4]

Collegiate teaching was based on the classics (Latin, philosophy, ancient history, theology) until the early nineteenth century. There were few if any institutions of higher learning offering studies in engineering or science before 1800. Institutions such as the Royal Society did much to promote scientific learning, including public lectures. In England, there were also itinerant lecturers offering their service, typically for a fee.^[5]

Prior to the nineteenth century, there were many important inventors working as millwrights or mechanics who, typically, had received an elementary education and served an apprenticeship.^[4] Mechanics, instrument makers and surveyors had various mathematics training. James Watt was a surveyor and instrument maker and is described as being "largely self-educated".^[6] Watt, like some other autodidacts of the time, became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Lunar Society. In the eighteenth century these societies often gave public lectures and were instrumental in teaching chemistry and other sciences with industrial applications which were neglected by traditional universities. Academies also arose to provide scientific and technical training.

Years of schooling in the United States began to increase sharply in the early twentieth century. This phenomenon was seemingly related to increasing mechanization displacing child labor. The automated glass bottle-making machine is said to have done more for education than child labor laws because boys were no longer needed to assist.^[7] However, the number of boys employed in this particular industry was not that large; it was mechanization in several sectors of industry that displaced child labor toward education. For males in the U.S. born 1886–90, years of school averaged 7.86, while for those born in 1926–30, years of school averaged 11.46.^[8]

One of the most recent trends in education is that the classroom environment should cater towards students' individual needs, goals, and interests. This model adopts the idea of inquiry-based learning where students are presented with scenarios to identify their own research, questions and knowledge regarding the area. As a form of discovery learning, students in today's classrooms are being provided with more opportunity to "experience and interact" with knowledge, which has its roots in autodidacticism.

Successful self-teaching can require self-discipline and reflective capability. Some research suggests that the ability to regulate one's own learning may need to be modeled to some students so that they become active learners, while others learn dynamically via a process outside of conscious control.^[9] To interact with the environment, a framework has been identified to determine the components of any learning system: a reward function, incremental action value functions and action selection methods.^[10] Rewards work best in motivating learning when they are specifically chosen on an individual student basis. New knowledge must be incorporated into previously existing information as its value is to be assessed. Ultimately, these scaffolding techniques, as described by Vygotsky (1978) and problem solving methods are a result of dynamic decision making.

The secular and modern societies gave foundations for a new system of education and a new kind of autodidacts. While the number of schools and students rose from one century to the other, so did the number of autodidacts. The industrial revolution produced new educational tools used in schools, universities and outside academic circles to create a post-modern era that gave birth to the World Wide Web and encyclopaedic data banks such as Wikipedia. As this concept becomes more widespread and popular, web locations such as Udacity and Khan Academy are developed as learning centers for many people to actively and freely learn together. The Alliance for Self-Directed Education (ASDE) is also formed to publicize and provide guidance or support for self-directed education.^[11]

In history, philosophy, literature, film and television[edit source]

The first philosophical claim supporting an autodidactic program to the study of nature and God was in the philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Alive Son of the Vigilant), whose titular hero is considered the archetypal autodidact.^[12] The story is a medieval autodidactic utopia, a philosophical treatise in a literary form, which was written by the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Tufail in the 1160s in Marrakesh. It is a story about a feral boy, an autodidact prodigy who masters nature through instruments and reason, discovers laws of nature by practical exploration and experiments, and gains summum bonum through a mystical mediation and communion with God. The hero rises from his initial state of tabula rasa to a mystical or direct experience of God after passing through the necessary natural experiences. The focal point of the story is that human reason, unaided by society and its conventions or by religion, can achieve scientific knowledge, preparing the way to the mystical or highest form of human knowledge.

Commonly translated as "The Self-Taught Philosopher" or "The Improvement of Human Reason", Ibn-Tufayl's story Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan inspired debates about autodidacticism in a range of historical fields from classical Islamic philosophy through Renaissance humanism and the European Enlightenment. In his book Reading Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan: a Cross-Cultural History of Autodidacticism, Avner Ben-Zaken showed how the text traveled from late medieval Andalusia to early modern Europe and demonstrated the intricate ways in which autodidacticism was contested in and adapted to diverse cultural settings.^[12]

Autodidacticism apparently intertwined with struggles over Sufism in twelfth-century Marrakesh; controversies about the role of philosophy in pedagogy in fourteenth-century Barcelona; quarrels concerning astrology in Renaissance Florence in which Pico della Mirandola pleads for autodidacticism against the strong authority of intellectual establishment notions of predestination; and debates pertaining to experimentalism in seventeenth-century Oxford. Pleas for autodidacticism echoed not only within close philosophical discussions; they surfaced in struggles for control between individuals and establishments.^[12]

In the story of Black American self-education, Heather Andrea Williams presents a historical account to examine Black American's relationship to literacy during slavery, the Civil War and the first decades of freedom.^[13] Many of the personal accounts tell of individuals who have had to teach themselves due to racial discrimination in education.

The working-class protagonist of Jack London's Martin Eden (1909) embarks on a path of self-learning to win the affections of Ruth, a member of cultured society. By the end of the novel, Eden has surpassed the intellect of the bourgeois class, leading him to a state of indifference and ultimately suicide.

Jean-Paul Sartre's Nausea (1938) depicts, as a secondary character, an autodidact.

Comic-book superhero Batman is frequently depicted as an autodidactic polymath who has acquired a vast range of skills over the years either by various trainers or having trained himself, and his expertise in various disciplines is virtually unmatched in the DC comics universe.

In The Ignorant Schoolmaster (1987), Jacques Rancière describes the emancipatory education of Joseph Jacotot, a post-Revolutionary philosopher of education who discovered that he could teach things he did not know. The book is both a history and a contemporary intervention in the philosophy and politics of education, through the concept of autodidacticism; Rancière chronicles Jacotot's "adventures", but he articulates Jacotot's theory of "emancipation" and "stultification" in the present tense.

The 1997 drama film Good Will Hunting follows the story of autodidact Will Hunting, played by Matt Damon. Hunting demonstrates his breadth and depth of knowledge throughout the film but especially to his therapist and in a heated discussion in a Harvard bar.

One of the main characters in The Elegance of the Hedgehog (2006), by Muriel Barbery, is an autodidact. The story is told from the viewpoint of Renee, a middle-aged autodidact concierge in a Paris upscale apartment house and Paloma, a 12-year-old daughter of one of the tenants who is unhappy with her life. These two people find they have much in common when they both befriend a new tenant, Mr. Ozu, and their lives change forever.

In the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, Ekalavya is depicted as a tribal boy who was denied education in the science of arms from royal teachers from the house of Kuru. Ekalavya went to the forest, where he taught himself archery in front of an image of the Kuru teacher, Drona, that he had built for himself. Later, when the royal family found that Ekalavya had practiced with the image of Drona as his teacher, Drona asked for Ekalavya's thumb as part of his tuition. Ekalavya complied with Drona's request, thus ending his martial career.

In Suits, the protagonist (Mike Ross) possesses a highly competent knowledge of the law despite not receiving any formal education in any law school. His knowledge is attributable to both his affinity for reading (autodidacticism), in addition to his eidetic memory.

Dr. Spencer Reid in Criminal Minds, played by Matthew Gray Gubler, is an autodidact with an eidetic memory.

In architecture[edit source]

Tadao Ando is a famous autodidact architect of the twenty-first century

Many successful and influential architects, such as Mies Van Der Rohe, Frank Lloyd Wright, Violet-Le-Duc, and Tadao Ando were self-taught.

There are very few countries allowing autodidacticism in architecture today. The practice of architecture or the use of the title "architect", are now protected in most countries.

Self-taught architects have generally studied and qualified in other fields such as engineering or arts and crafts. Jean Prouvé was first a structural engineer. Le Corbusier had an academic qualification in decorative arts. Tadao Ando started his career as a draftsman, and Eileen Gray studied fine arts.

When a political state starts to implement restrictions on the profession, there are issues related to the rights of established self-taught architects. In most countries the legislation includes a grandfather clause, authorising established self-taught architects to continue practicing. In the UK, the legislation,^[14] allowed self-trained architects with 2 years of experience to register. In France,^[15] it allowed self-trained architects with 5 years of experience to register. In Belgium,^[16] the law allowed experienced self-trained architects in practice to register. In Italy,^[17] it allowed self-trained architects with 10 years of experience to register. In The Netherlands, the "wet op de architectentitel van 7 juli 1987" along with additional procedures, allowed architects with 10 years of experience and architects aged 40 years old or over, with 5 years of experience, to access the register.^[18]

However, other sovereign states chose to omit such a clause, and many established and competent practitioners were stripped of their professional rights.^[19] In the Republic of Ireland, a group named "Architects' Alliance of Ireland" is defending the interests of long-established self-trained architects^[20] who were recently deprived of their rights to practice as per Part 3 of the Irish Building Control Act 2007.^[21]

Theoretical research such as "Architecture of Change, Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment"^[22] or older studies such as "Vers une Architecture" from Le Corbusier describe the practice of architecture as an environment changing with new technologies, sciences, and legislation. All architects must be autodidacts to keep up to date with new standards, regulations, or methods.

Self-taught architects such as Eileen Gray, Luis Barragán, and many others, created a system where working is also learning, where self-education is associated with creativity and productivity within a working environment.

While he was primarily interested in naval architecture, William Francis Gibbs learned his profession through his own study of battleships and ocean liners. Through his life he could be seen examining and changing the designs of ships that were already built, that is, until he started his firm Gibbs and Cox.

Future role[edit source]

The role of self-directed learning continues to be investigated in learning approaches, along with other important goals of education, such as content knowledge, epistemic practices and collaboration.^[23] As colleges and universities offer distance learning degree programs and secondary schools provide cyber school options for K-12 students, technology provides numerous resources that enable individuals to have a self-directed learning experience. Several studies show these programs function most effectively when the "teacher" or facilitator is a full owner of virtual space to encourage a broad range of experiences to come together in an online format.^[24] This allows self-directed learning to encompass both a chosen path of information inquiry, self-regulation methods and reflective discussion among experts as well as novices in a given area. Furthermore, massive open online courses (MOOCs) make autodidacticism easier and thus more common.

A 2016 Stack Overflow poll^[25] reported that due to the rise of autodidacticism, 69.1% of software developers appear to be self-taught.

Notable individuals[edit source]

Notable autodidacts can be broadly grouped in the following areas:

Artists and authors
Actors, musicians, and other artists
Architects
Engineers and inventors
Scientists, historians, and educators

References[edit source]

^ Samantha Chapnick & Jimm Meloy (2005). "From Andragogy to Heutagogy". Renaissance elearning: creating dramatic and unconventional learning experiences. Essential resources for training and HR professionals. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 36–37. ISBN 9780787971472.
^ "University lecturers do not guide their students' learning to the same extent; they do not organise their students' private study (no more set homework!); nor do they filter knowledge for you in the same way. There are two reasons for this. The first reason is that you are expected to be independent, capable of organising your life, your time, your studies and your learning, so that when you graduate you are able to function successfully in your chosen profession". Extract from: The student's guide to learning at university, by Geoffrey Cooper, published in 2003 Australia by TheHumanities.com, ISBN 1-86335-510-3
^ J. Scott Armstrong (2012). "Natural Learning in Higher Education". Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Archived from the original on 28 October 2012.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Thomson, Ross (2009). Structures of Change in the Mechanical Age: Technological Invention in the United States 1790–1865. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9141-0.
^ Musson; Robinson (1969). Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution. University of Toronto Press.
^ Robinson, Eric; McKie, Doublas. Partners in Science: Letters of James Watt and Joseph Black. Cambridge, Massachusetts. p. 4.
^ Jr, Quentin R. Skrabec (4 May 2012). The 100 Most Significant Events in American Business: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-39862-9. Archived from the original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
^ Two Centuries of American Macroeconomic Growth From Exploration of Resource Abundance to Knowledge Driven Development, pp 44 Archived 23 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine
^ Iran-Nejad, Asghar; Brad Chissom (1992). "Contributions of Active and Dynamic Self-Regulation to Learning". Innovative Higher Education. 17 (2): 125. doi:10.1007/bf00917134. S2CID 143153340.
^ Arentze, Theo; Harry Timmermans (2003). "Modeling learning and adaptation processes in activity-travel choice: A framework and numerical experiment". Transportation. 30: 37. doi:10.1023/A:1021290725727. S2CID 142721970. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
^ "About the Alliance". Alliance for Self-Directed Education. Archivedfrom the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Ben-Zaken, Avner (2010). Reading Ḥayy Ibn-Yaqẓan: A Cross-Cultural History of Autodidacticism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9739-9. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
^ Williams, H.A. (2005). Self-taught: Black American Education in slavery and freedom. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807829202.
^ Architects (Registration) Act 1931 Archived 3 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine (UK)
^ Loi n°77-2 du 3 janvier 1977 sur l'architecture Archived 25 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Architects Act in France)
^ Loi du 20 fevrier 1939 Archived 26 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine (Architects Act in Belgium)
^ legge 24 June 1923 No. 1395 Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Architects Act in Italy)
^ Refer to document on the Dutch Registration System drafted after a meeting between the General Secretary and Dr. Hans Groenevald, Director of the Stichting Bureau Architectenreglster, (SBA) in the Hague on 1 October 1993. 1 October 1993 is a significant date because on that day the protection of the title "architect" came into force in the Netherlands.
^ Refer to the example of the Republic of Ireland, where hundreds of professionally trained architects oppose new legislation that would prevent them from practicing. See Parliamentary records for more information.
^ You can access more information from AAoI website Archived 21 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^ For more information, you can access the full text from the Irish Building Control Act 2007 Archived 15 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^ Architecture of Change, Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment, Editors: Kristin Feireiss, Lukas Feireiss, ISBN 978-3-89955-211-9.
^ Hmelo-Silver, C.E.; R.G. Duncan; C.A Chinn (2007). "Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Krischner, Sweller and Clark". Educational Psychologist. 42 (2): 99. doi:10.1080/00461520701263368. S2CID 1360735.
^ Barab, S.A.; J.G. MaKinster; J.A. Moore; D.J. Cunningham (2001). "Designing and Building an online-community: The struggle to support sociability in the inquiry learning forum". Educational Technology Research and Development. 49 (4): 71. doi:10.1007/bf02504948. S2CID 17614349.
^ "Stack Overflow Developer Survey 2016". Archived from the original on 20 February 2017. Retrieved 16 November 2016.

자기주도적 학습

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.

자기주도적 학습(自己主導的學習)은 배움에 있어서 누군가에게 배우지 않고 스스로 목표를 세우고 하는 학습 방법이자 능력 개발 방법이다. 비슷한 단어로 자학자습(自學自習), 독학(獨學), 자습(自習)이 있다.

대한민국에서는 1990년 4월 7일에 공표된 독학에 의한 학위 취득에 관한 법률에 의해 독학자가 학위를 취득하는 제도 (독학학위제)가 있다.

혼자 공부를 함에 따라 개개인의 실력이 차이가 난다.

===

独学

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』

独学（どくがく、英語autodidacticism）とは、学ぶにあたって、先達者の指導を仰ぐことなく独力^{[注釈 1]}で目標をたてて習熟しようとする学習方法、能力開発の方法である。英語"self-taught" などとも言う。なお、ここで言う「学び」とは、学問が第一ではあるが、それに限らない。

一般的には自習も同義語だが、使用される場面が異なる^[1]。広くは教授行為と切り離された学習のことを自学自習、自習と言い、送付された資料を元に学習者自身の責任で学習が進められる種類の遠隔教育・通信教育にもその側面がある^[2]。

韓国では1990年4月7日に公布された「独学による学位取得に関する法律」により独学者が学位を得る制度ができ、試験等の業務は当初中央教育評価院で行われ後に韓国放送通信大学校に移管された^[3]^[4]。

日本における独学の歴史[編集]

近代的な学校制度が導入される明治時代までの日本では、農民や商人が学問に目覚めた場合、書物を読み、独学のかたわら同好の士と文通し、師を求めるという学校によらない学習手段が一般的であった^[5]。国文学の賀茂真淵と本居宣長は生涯において直接対面したのは松坂の一夜限りであったが、以後、手紙のやりとりで師弟として学問の継承、発展に寄与した。

考古学者の鳥居龍蔵と植物学者の牧野富太郎もそうした方法によって研究者になった。彼らは裕福な家庭に生まれたため、学校で立身出世する必要性を感じなかったことも大きい。ついには東京帝国大学を研究の場とした彼らであったが、大学ではすでに学歴が幅を利かせるようになっており、学歴のない者は差別的な扱いに苦しむこととなった^[5]。

明治時代、東京専門学校（現: 早稲田大学）が『早稲田講義録』を発行し、貧しくて高等教育を受けられない人々に大いに活用された。第二次世界大戦前は中学講義録や英語講義録、電気講義録、囲碁講義録などさまざまな講義録が発行され、中等・高等教育の大衆化に大いに寄与した^[6]。

著名な独学者[編集]

世に広く知られる独学者を列挙するが、より詳しくは「独学者の一覧（英語版）」を参照のこと。表記内容は左から順に、人名、独学による職業等、生誕年、各人が主たる就学時期に属していた国家や地域（出生地とは限らない）。

孔子 - 思想家、哲学者。紀元前551年生まれ。古代中国の魯国。^[7]
ソクラテス - 哲学者。紀元前469年頃の生まれ。古代ギリシア。
イブン・スィーナー - 哲学者。医者、科学者。980年生まれ。サーマーン朝。
レオナルド・ダ・ヴィンチ - 芸術家。科学者。1452年生まれ。イタリア。
ゴットフリート・ライプニッツ - 哲学者。数学者。1646年生まれ。ドイツ。
ベンジャミン・フランクリン - 政治家。物理学者、気象学者。1706年生まれ。アメリカ東部沿岸イギリス領植民地。
ウィリアム・ブレイク - 詩人として独学。1757年生まれ。イングランド。
二宮尊徳 - 農政家。思想家。1787年生まれ。日本。
マイケル・ファラデー - 化学者、物理学者。1791年生まれ。イングランド。
ジョン・スチュアート・ミル - 哲学者。経済学者。1806年生まれ。イングランド。
エイブラハム・リンカーン - 政治家。1809年生まれ。アメリカ合衆国。
ウジェーヌ・エマニュエル・ヴィオレ・ル・デュク - 建築家。1814年生まれ。フランス。
ハーマン・メルヴィル - 作家、小説家。1819年生まれ。アメリカ合衆国。
アルフレッド・ラッセル・ウォレス - 博物学者、生物学者、ほか。1823年生まれ。ウェールズ。
トーマス・エジソン - 発明家。1847年生まれ。アメリカ合衆国。
オリヴァー・ヘヴィサイド - 物理学者、数学者。1850]生まれ。イングランド。
ジョージ・バーナード・ショー - 劇作家。1856年生まれ。アイルランド。
牧野富太郎 - 植物学者。1862年生まれ。日本。
鳥居龍蔵 - 考古学者、人類学者、民俗学者。1870年生まれ。日本。
フョードル・シャリアピン - 声楽家として独学。1873年生まれ。ロシア帝国。
アルノルト・シェーンベルク - 作曲家。1874年生まれ。オーストリア。
山田孝雄 - 国語学者。1875年生まれ。日本。
竹久夢二 - 画家として。1884年生まれ。日本。
シュリニヴァーサ・ラマヌジャン - 数学者。1887年生まれ。インド。
ハワード・フィリップス・ラヴクラフト - 小説家、詩人。1890年生まれ。アメリカ合衆国。
吉川英治 - 作家、小説家。1892年生まれ。日本。
アーネスト・ヘミングウェイ - 小説家、詩人。1899年生まれ。アメリカ合衆国。
ホルヘ・ルイス・ボルヘス - 作家、詩人。1899年生まれ。アルゼンチン。
クラウディオ・アラウ - ピアニスト。1903年生まれ。アメリカ合衆国。
金子みすゞ - 詩人。1903年生まれ。日本。
ロンブ・カトー - 翻訳者、通訳者。1909年生まれ。ハンガリー。
伊福部昭 - 作曲家。1914年生まれ。日本。
ジョゼ・サラマーゴ - 作家。ジャーナリスト。1922年生まれ。ポルトガル。
高峰秀子 - 女優。1924年生まれ。日本。
マルコムX - 黒人指導者。1925年生まれ。アメリカ合衆国。
佐藤忠男 - 評論家。1930年生まれ。日本。
池田満寿夫 - 画家、作家、映画監督など「マルチタレント」。1934年生まれ。日本。
安藤忠雄 - 建築家。1941年生まれ。日本。
テリー・プラチェット - 作家。1948年生まれ。イングランド。
柳川範之 - 経済学。1963年生まれ。日本。
大平光代 - 弁護士。1965年生まれ。日本。
唐鳳（オードリー・タン） - プログラマーで政治家（中華民国行政院政務委員）。1981年生まれ。台湾。

脚注[編集]

[脚注の使い方]

注釈[編集]

^ 独りか複数人かは問題ではない。

出典[編集]

^ 柏木恭典「『独学』の積極的意味について－ラーメン屋店主の独学と教師の学び－」『千葉経済大学短期大学部研究紀要』第3号、千葉経済大学短期大学部、2007年、 39-54頁、 ISSN 13498312、 NAID 110006225531。
^ 苅谷剛彦、「学習の跳躍遠隔教育における学習と文化資本の変換」『教育学研究』 1993年 60巻 3号 p.219-227, doi:10.11555/kyoiku1932.60.219, 日本教育学会
^ 尹秀一「韓国における独学学位制度の展開」『創価大学別科紀要』第19号、創価大学別科日本語研修課程、2008年、 29-51頁、 ISSN 09164561、 NAID 110007144465。
^ 森利枝「韓国における独学による学位取得制度について」『学位研究』第15号、大学評価・学位授与機構、2001年11月、 39-74頁、 ISSN 09196099、 NAID 120005566603。
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2021/09/16

Autodidacticism - Wikipedia

Autodidacticism

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