8] A Comprehensive Contemplative Approach from the Islamic Tradition
Aisha Hamdan
Islam is more than simply an organized religion; it is a way of life that penetrates every thought, emotion, and action of its adherents. Com- prehensive guidance is provided for even the most mundane aspects of life and encompasses the religious, spiritual, psychological, physi- cal, social, political, and economic. Foundational to this system is the development of human potential and purification of the soul. This is achieved through complete submission and obedience to Allah, our Creator. Through this process, the human being experiences inner peace, contentment, and bliss, the elusive elements that humans have strived to attain since the beginning of their existence. The soul is pro- vided with the food that it longs for through prayer, supplication, reading of the Holy Qur’an, remembrance of Allah, etc. In times of adversity and tribulation, the believer calls upon Allah, relies upon Him, and seeks refuge in Him, only to find the pressure of life washed away like dust on a rainy day.
The Arabic word for contemplation and reflection is tafakkur. The
ability to reflect, to contemplate, and to understand is one of the greatest blessings that Allah has bestowed upon humans.1 Through proper use of this ability, the human should easily find the truth of Allah’s Oneness and Uniqueness and develop a keen desire to worship Him. This understanding frees him from the traps of Satan and engagement in mindless and useless pursuits. It inspires him to pre- pare for the Hereafter and focus on the important things in life, which,
in turn, leads to inner peace, contentment, and general well-being. In the Islamic framework, contemplation is generally thought to be a specific form of remembrance. For purposes of this chapter, I will broaden the definition to encompass other traditional practices and attitudes.
Islam offers a comprehensive system of contemplative practices primarily for preventive purposes. This chapter will introduce the primary contemplative practices within traditional Sunni Islam. The foundation of contemplation is the five daily prayers through which the believer is consistently linked to his Creator. This is sup- ported by other contemplative practices such as remembrance of Allah, reading of Qur’an, supplication, and specific contemplation. The specific description and details of these practices are elucidated in the Qur’an and the Sunnah (practices or way) of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), and can even be traced back to previous Prophets (peace be upon all of them). Focus- ing on the spiritual modeling of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), the essential components of these contemplative practices will be presented with an emphasis on the nurturing of attitudes and beliefs and the resultant benefits for devotees. The empirical literature related to the practices will be reviewed as well as current or potential applications in various settings. Finally, sug- gestions for future research will be addressed, highlighting the need to explicate the mechanisms of action in the religiosity/spirituality and mental health link.
CONTEXT
The formal prayers in Islam are the main source of contemplative practice for Muslims. All of the previous prophets sent by the Creator of the heavens and the earth were commanded to perform the prayers and the movements in the prayers were common among them.2 After Abraham (peace be upon him) built the Ka’bah in Makkah (present- day Saudi Arabia), he said, as mentioned in the Qur’an, “O Lord, I have settled some of my descendents in an uncultivated valley near Your sacred House, our Lord, that they may establish prayer.”3 Abraham also said, “My Lord, make me an establisher of prayer, and [many] from my descendents. Our Lord, and accept my supplication.”3
While referring to the Prophets Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (peace be upon them), the Qur’an says: “And We made them leaders guiding
[men] by Our command, and We inspired to them the doing of good deeds, establishment of prayer and giving of zakah (alms-giving).”3 Allah revealed to Moses (peace be upon him), “Indeed, I am Allah. There is no deity except Me, so worship Me and establish prayer for my remembrance.”3 Jesus (peace be upon him) said, “Indeed, I am the servant of Allah. He has given me the Scripture and made me a Prophet. And He has made me blessed wherever I am and enjoined upon me prayer and zakah (alms-giving) as long as I remain alive.”3
After the testimony of faith, formal prayer was the first religious duty made obligatory upon the Muslim community, three years before the emigration of the Prophet and a group of believers from Makkah to Madinah. The significance of the prayer is supported by the fact that its obligation was ordered in heaven by Allah Himself during the Prophet’s night journey from Makkah to Jerusalem and then into the heavens (Israa’ and Mi’raaj).4 Initially Allah ordered 50 prayers per day, but these were reduced several times (on the recommendation of Prophet Moses) until they were 5. The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) then said that Allah proclaimed, “These are five prayers and they are all (equal to) fifty (in reward) for My Word does not change.”5
Prayer is one of the pillars of Islam, a basic foundation upon which other aspects are built. Most scholars agree that not praying and deny- ing its obligation is disbelief and takes the person outside the folds of Islam. Millions of Muslims around the world regularly complete their five daily prayers. In fact, throughout the world, at any one time, there are Muslims praying. There may be variations due to culture or reli- gious sect, but the Sunnah (practices or way) of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) is clear, detailed (see discussion below), and should be followed. Regarding the more informal practices of supplications, remembrance of Allah, and specific contemplation, many Muslims regularly engage in these practices, again with variations that may or not reflect the practices of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him).
DIMENSIONS OF THE PRACTICE
This section will first provide detailed instructions regarding the formal practice of the five daily prayers in Islam. This will be followed by a discussion of the more informal practices including remembrance of Allah, supplication, and specific contemplation.
FORMAL PRACTICE—OBLIGATORY PRAYERS
The five formal, daily prayers are an obligation for each Muslim who is mature and sane. They are completed in a structured format in the Arabic language and at specific times throughout the day. The decree for prayer is mentioned several times in the Qur’an: “Indeed, prayer has been decreed upon the believers a decree of specified times.”3 “Maintain with care the [obligatory] prayers and [in particular] the middle [i.e., ’asr] prayer and stand before Allah, devoutly obedient.”3 “He has certainly succeeded who purifies himself and mentions the Name of his Lord and prays.”3
Prayer is a fundamental practice in Islam and it indicates the human’s intention and desire to submit to and worship Allah. It frees the individual from associating partners with Allah and is essential for purification of the soul. Allah mentions, “You can only warn those who fear their Lord unseen and have established prayer. And whoever purifies himself only purifies himself for [the benefit of] his soul. And to Allah is the [final] destination.”3 Prayer provides the believer with a continuous source of strength, protects and purifies him from sinful behavior, develops his character and conduct, instills self-discipline and perseverance, and leads to feelings of peace and contentment.
It is not only a matter of praying, but rather “establishing the prayer,” which entails performing the prayer according to the guide- lines of the Qur’an and Sunnah (in terms of manner, time of prayers, and attention during prayer). Devotion to prayer is a characteristic of the true believer. In describing the believers, Allah states, “They are humbly submissive in their prayers”;3 “And who (strictly) guard their prayers”;3 and “Those who believe in the Hereafter believe in it [the Qur’an], and they are maintaining their prayers.”3 The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) also described the prayer in its proper time as being the best deed. Abdullah ibn Masood, one of his companions, said, “I asked the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), ‘Which deed is most beloved to Allah?’ He replied, ‘The prayer in its proper time.’ ”5
Sulaiman Nadwi describes the prayer in the following way: “What is Salat (Prayer)? It is the expression of devotedness by the created to his Creator with his whole being, i.e., heart, tongue, feet and hands; it is the remembrance of the Most Merciful and the Most Gracious; it is the thanksgiving for His limitless favors; it is the praise and adoration
for the eternal beauty of His creation and acknowledgement of His Unity and Greatness; it is the communication of soul with the Beloved Lord; it is the complete obeisance by body and soul to the Master; it is the dedication of one’s internal feelings; it is the natural music of one’s heart-string; it is the tie of relationship between the Creator and the created and the latter’s strong bond of devoutness; it is the comfort for the agitated and uneasy mind; it is the solace for the restless soul; it is the remedy for the hopeless heart; it is the natural internal call of a receptive and sensitive mind; it is the purpose of life and the essence of existence.”2
Times of the Prescribed Prayers
The following are the specific times for the prayers:
Dawn (Fajr): from the first light appearing in the sky until sunrise Noon (Thuhr): from the decline of the sun (about 20 minutes after
it has reached its zenith) until ’asr
Afternoon (’Asr): from mid-afternoon (when the length of a shadow is equal to the length of its object) until maghrib
Sunset (Maghrib): from the disappearance of the sun until “isha”
Night (“Isha”): from the disappearance of the red glow in the sky (about one and a quarter hours after sunset) until midnight (halfway between maghrib and fajr)4
Conditions of Prayer
Certain conditions or prerequisites are required before beginning the prayer:
1. Knowledge that the time for prayer has arrived.
2. Ablution (wudhu’)—see description below.
3. Cleanliness of body, clothing, and place of prayer (free from blood, vomit, urine, excrement).
4. Proper covering of the body—men must cover from the navel to (and including) the knees as a minimum; women must cover all of the body except the face and hands.
5. Facing the direction of the qiblah (the Ka’bah in Makkah).
6. Intention in the heart to perform a particular prayer.4
Ablution
Prior to the formal prayer, the person must perform wudu or ablution. Prayer, in fact, is invalid without proper ablution. Ablution involves washing several body parts as described below:
1. Having the intention in the heart to purify oneself for prayer.
2. Saying “In the name of Allah, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful.”
3. Washing the hands three times.
4. Rinsing the mouth and nostrils three times.
5. Washing the face three times.
6. Washing the right forearm including the elbow three times, fol- lowed by the left forearm.
7. With water on the hands, wiping over the head and hair once, then the ears with the thumbs and index fingers.
8. Washing the right foot including the ankle three times, followed by the left foot.
Note: In some cases, a person must complete ghusl or a full bath.
This would be required for the following: (1) ejaculation of sperm due to sexual desire, (2) contact between genitalia of husband and wife, (3) completion of woman’s menstruation, (4) completion of postpartum bleeding, and (5) upon converting to Islam.
Components of the Prayer
The following are the components of the daily prayer:6
1. Turn one’s face and whole body toward the Qiblah (Ka’bah in Makkah), intending by the heart to perform the prayer that he wants to fulfill, whether it is an obligatory prayer or a supereroga- tory prayer. He should make a sutra (i.e., a barrier in front of the worshipper).
2. Say “Allahu Akbar” (Allah is the Greatest) and look downward to the place of prostration. While saying this, the worshipper should raise his hands to the level of the shoulders or near to the lobes of the ears.
3. Put the right hand over the left hand and left wrist, and put them both over the chest.
4. It is recommended that the worshipper recite this opening suppli- cation, saying: “Praise and glory be to Allah. Blessed be Your Name, exalted be Your Majesty and Glory. There is no god but You.” He may say any other supplications that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be on him) used to say in his prayers.
5. The worshipper then says “I seek protection of Allah against the accursed Satan, In the name of Allah, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful,” and recites al-Fatihah (opening chapter of the Qur’an): “[All] praise is [due] to Allah, Lord of the worlds— the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful, Sovereign of the Day of Recompense. It is You Alone we worship and You Alone we ask for help. Guide us to the straight path—the path of those upon whom You have bestowed favor, not of those who have evoked [Your] anger or of those who are astray.”
6. The worshipper bows in “ruku,” raising his hands up to the level of his shoulders or ears while saying “Allahu Akbar,” then bends down, making his head and back on one level and putting his hands with the fingers spread on his knees. He should say thrice at least: “Glory be to my Lord, the Almighty.” It is advisable to say in addition to that, while bowing: “Glory be to Thee, O Allah, and I praise Thee, forgive me my sins.”
7. To raise the head up from bowing, raise the hands to the level of the shoulders or ears, saying “Allah listens to him who praises Him.” While resuming the standing position, say: “Our Lord, praise be for Thee only, praises plentiful and blessed as to fill the heavens, the earth, what in between, and fill that which will please Thee besides them.” The worshipper is advised to put his hands on his chest, as he had done before he bowed.
8. To prostrate saying “Allahu Akbar,” the worshipper should touch the ground with his hands before touching it with his knees, if that is possible for him. His fingers and toes should be directed toward the Qiblah, and his hands should be stretched, the fingers close together and not separated. In prostration, the worshipper should make sure that these seven parts touch the ground: the forehead, the nose, both hands, both knees, and the internal parts of the toes. Then the worshipper should say thrice or more: “Glorified is my Lord, the Exalted.”
It is recommended for the worshipper to increase supplications during prostration because the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said: “As for bowing you should glorify your Lord
during performing it, as for prostration, you should do your best to supplicate and ask for more from Him, because your supplica- tions during prostration are more worthy to be accepted.”
9. He should raise his head from prostration saying “Allahu Akbar,” then lay his left foot flat on the ground and sit upon it, keeping his right foot erected, his hands on his thighs and knees, and say “O my Lord, forgive me, have mercy on me, guide me, provide me with your blessings and console me.”
10. To prostrate again saying “Allahu Akbar,” repeat during the prostration what was done and said in the first prostration.
11. Then the worshipper raises his head saying “Allahu Akbar,” taking a pause similar to the pause between the two prostrations; this is called “the pause for rest.” Then the worshipper rises up and stands, reads al-Fatihah and some other verses of the Qur’an, and does just as he did in the first unit of prayer.
12. If the prayer consists of two units of prayer (i.e., morning prayer), the worshipper sits after the second prostration, with his right foot erect, sitting on his left foot laid down, putting his right hand on his right thigh, all his fingers close-fisted save the index finger (or keeping both the little and ring fingers closed, while rounding his thumb and middle finger in a ring shape), which he uses to point out as a sign for his monotheistic belief, and his left hand is put on his left thigh. The worshipper recites the fol- lowing: “Greetings, prayers and the good things of life belong to Allah. Peace, mercy and blessing of Allah be on you, O Prophet. May peace be upon us and on the devout slaves of Allah. I testify that there is no god but Allah and I testify that Mohammed is His slave and messenger. O Allah, bless Mohammed and his family as You blessed Ibrahim and his family. You are the Most-Praised, the Most-Glorious. O Allah, bestow Your grace on Mohammed and his family as You bestowed it on Ibrahim and his family. You are the Most-Praised, The Most-Glorious.”
13. The worshipper then asks Allah’s protection from four evils, saying “My Lord, I ask your protection from torment of the Hell, torment of the grave the trials in life-time and after death, and from the impostor Antichrist.” He may supplicate to Allah at this time.
14. The worshipper terminates his prayer by turning his face to the right, and then the left, saying “Peace and mercy of Allah be on you” each time.
15. In case of a three-unit prayer (i.e., evening) or a four-unit prayer (i.e., noon prayer, late afternoon prayer) the worshipper stands up after reciting the Tashahud according to the manner stated before, and raises his hands up to the level of his shoulders saying “Allahu Akbar.” The worshipper puts his hands over his chest as it has been explained before, and recites only al-Fatihah. He then completes the prayer as described above.
NONOBLIGATORY PRAYERS
In addition to the five obligatory prayers, there are nonobligatory, optional prayers that the worshipper may engage in during specific times or situations. They have generally been legislated to make up for any deficiencies in the performance of obligatory prayers. There are several prayers in this category, but the primary ones include the following:
1. Sunnah prayers (regular practice of the Prophet) before or after the formal prayers (two units before fajr, four units before dhuhr and two or four after it; two units after maghrib, two units after “isha”).
2. Night prayers (tahajjud)—includes 11 or 13 units of prayer usually done after one has slept and best during the last part of the night; taraweeh are prayers performed at night in congregation or indi- vidually during the month of Ramadan.
3. Witr prayer—final prayer of the night, which concludes the vol- untary night prayers so that they become an odd number.
4. Mid-morning prayer (duha)—two to eight units from when the sun is about a spear’s length above the horizon continuing until the sun reaches its meridian.
5. Friday prayer (Jumu’ah)—congregational prayer that is obliga- tory for men (women and children may attend, but are not required to do so); consists of two units replacing the four units of dhuhr prayer, which is preceded by a sermon given by the imam (religious leader).
6. Holiday (Eid) prayers—following the month of fasting of Ramadan and on the tenth day of Hajj (pilgrimage); special congregational prayer of two units held after sunrise followed by a speech by the imam.
INFORMAL PRACTICES
In addition to the regular obligatory prayers mentioned above, there are several other more informal tools the worshipper may utilize to maintain serenity throughout the day. These include remembrance of Allah (dhikr), supplication (du’a), and specific contemplation and reflection.
Remembrance of Allah (dhikr)
Believers are encouraged to remember Allah throughout the day. Allah says, “O you who have believed, remember Allah with much remembrance and exalt Him morning and afternoon. It is He who confers blessing upon you, and His angels [ask Him to do so] that He may bring you out from darknesses into the light. And ever is He, to the believers, Merciful.”3 “And when the prayer has been con- cluded, disperse within the land and seek from the bounty of Allah, and remember Allah often that you may succeed.”3 “Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah. Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allah hearts are assured.”
The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) said, “Shall I inform you of the best of your deeds, the one that raises you most in rank, most purifying to your Lord, which is better for you than giving gold and silver and better for you than meeting your enemy and striking their necks and them striking your necks?” They said, “Certainly, [tell us].” He said, “It is the remembrance of Allah, the Exalted.”1 He (peace and blessings be upon him) also said, “The simili- tude of the one who remembers his Lord and the one who does not remember his Lord is like the similitude of death and life.”5
There are two different types of dhikr or remembrance of Allah.
The first is the more formal or ritualized form wherein the individual remembers Allah at specific times and occasions throughout the day, using the precise words as they were transmitted by Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). The prayer itself as mentioned above is the most important of the formal type of remem- brance of Allah.1 Allah says, “Indeed, I am Allah. There is no deity except Me, so worship Me and establish prayer for My remembrance.”3 Other times of formalized dhikr include following each of the five daily prayers, in the morning and evening, before and after eating, upon entering or leaving the house, upon entering or leaving the mosque, upon entering or leaving the bathroom, after sneezing, etc.
It is important to mention that one must do one’s best to use the exact wording of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) and to avoid innovation (e.g., repeating the word Allah or one of Allah’s Names), which was not done by the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) himself.
The other type of remembrance of Allah is the constant, unwavering form in which the individual is continuously mindful of Allah as he conducts his daily routine and activities. This entails a higher level of spiritual development and is achieved by dutifully and devotedly prac- ticing the first type of dhikr. It can also be achieved by remembering the true purpose of life and our ultimate goal, which is the Hereafter.
Supplication (du’a)
Allah says, “And when My slaves ask you (O Muhammad) concern- ing Me, then (answer them): I am indeed near. I respond to the invoca- tions of the supplicant when he calls on Me.”3 Supplication is another form of worship that is beneficial for purification of the soul and for overcoming any tribulation that an individual may face. Supplication demonstrates the worshipper’s sense of humility, powerlessness, and weakness while affirming Allah’s Power and Ability to respond and carry out His decree. If the supplication is made with sincere intention, it can relieve worry and distress, and bring a sense of peacefulness. Allah responds to each supplication and may fulfill the person’s hopes by executing that which is requested; if not, He will give something better. The Messenger (peace and blessings be upon him) said, “There is no Muslim who supplicates Allah with a supplication that does not contain anything sinful or asks for the ties of kinship to be broken save that Allah gives him one of three things: either He will give him what he asks for soon, or He will delay it for him for the Hereafter or He will keep a similar evil away from him.”1
There are many types and examples of supplications used by
the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Anas reported, “The most frequent invocation of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) was: ‘O Allah! Give us in this world that which is good and in the Hereafter that which is good, and save us from the torment of the Fire.’ ”7 To relieve anxiety and distress, he would say, “There is no-one who is afflicted by distress and grief, and says, ‘O Allah, I am Your slave, son of Your slave, son of Your maidservant; my forelock is in Your hand, Your command over me is forever executed and Your decree over me is just. I ask You by every
name belonging to You which You have named Yourself with, or revealed in Your Book, or taught to any of Your creation, or You have preserved in the knowledge of the Unseen with You, that You make the Qur’an the life of my heart and the light of my breast, and a depar- ture for my sorrow and a release for my anxiety,’ but Allah will take away his distress and grief, and replace it with joy.”8
Supplication is also beneficial as a form of protection. The suppli- cant may pray to Allah for refuge from distress, heading it off before it occurs. For example, the Prophet Muhammad would say, “O Allah, I seek refuge with You from grief and worry, from incapacity and laziness, from cowardice and miserliness, from being heavily in debt and from being overpowered by men.”7 Several of the remembrances that are prescribed for Muslims throughout the day are supplications and may include this preventive aspect.
Specific Contemplation and Reflection
This is the category that is generally considered when discussing contemplation. An important type of specific contemplation is reflect- ing upon Allah’s creation in nature. This is mentioned many times in the Qur’an. “Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day are signs for those of under- standing—who remember Allah while standing or sitting or [lying] on their sides and give thought to the creation of the heavens and the earth saying, ‘Our Lord, You did not create this aimlessly; exalted are You [above such a thing]; then protect us from the punishment of the fire.”3 Through contemplation of nature, the believer draws closer to Allah in awe of His strength and power to create such amazing beauty. It increases his faith, love, and gratitude for the many bounties that he has received from Allah. It should also make one aware of how dependent he is upon the Creator for everything and reduce any tendency for arrogance.
The believer is also encouraged to contemplate death and what will happen to him in the grave, on the Day of Resurrection, and in the Hereafter. The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said, “Increase your remembrance of the destroyer of pleasures: death. No one thinks about it during times of straitened circumstances except that it makes it easier upon him. And no one thinks about it during times of ease except that it constrains it upon him.”1 This type of contemplation reminds the individual that he will not live forever, but that he will move on to another life. He will then work hard to
prepare for that Day by engaging in more good deeds and avoiding sinful behavior.
Related to remembrance of death is the realization of the true nature of existence in this worldly life. Life is only a transient phase that is filled with various diversions and fleeting pleasures. Allah says, “And the worldly life is not but amusement and diversion; but the home of the Hereafter is best for those who fear Allah, so will you not reason?”3 and “And present to them the example of the life of this world, [its being] like rain which We send down from the sky, and the vegetation of the earth mingles with it and [then] it becomes dry rem- nants, scattered by the winds. And Allah is every, over all things, Perfect in Ability. Wealth and children are [but] adornment of the worldly life. But the enduring good deeds are better to your Lord for reward and better for [one’s] hope.”3 Having the realization of the fleeting nature of this world leads the believer to become detached from it and to deal and cope with it in the appropriate manner.1
CULTIVATION OF ATTITUDES
From the perspective of Islam, Allah created humans with the potential for both good and evil. The test for every human being is to choose which of these characteristics he will support and develop and which he will attempt to control or eliminate.1 Allah says in the Qur’an, “And [by] the soul and He who proportioned it and inspired it [with discernment of] its wickedness and its righteousness. He has succeeded who purifies it, and he has failed who instills it [with corruption].”3 The choices that he makes will be reflected in his behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.
In order to support the contemplative practices mentioned above, it is important for the believer to follow the guidance of Allah in all areas of life and work on developing noble and virtuous characteristics. The character traits that one should strive to develop include humility, honesty, patience, trustworthiness, gentleness, justice, etc. This is the path of purification of the soul and the path of moderation and balance. As the human would be fulfilling his natural inclination to worship Allah, there will be no conflict in his personality or distress. Good mental and emotional health can also be attained by restraining the negative attributes of the self (i.e., jealousy, greed, anger, etc).
Purification of the soul and subsequent personality/character devel- opment occurs by bringing out what is best in the soul and minimizing
or completely eradicating its evils.1 The soul can be purified through performance of acts of worship such as prayer, fasting, charity, etc. Purification is also achieved by obeying the commands of Allah, avoiding the prohibited, and being conscious of Allah at all times. Islam offers a comprehensive model of living that encompasses the psychological, physical, social, political, and economic, and thus guidance is provided for every area of life. The guidance comes from the Qur’an and the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (peace and bless- ings be upon him).
SPIRITUAL MODELS
The Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) provides not only the ideal model to achieve inner serenity and well- being through the contemplative practices described above but also an overall philosophy and approach to life. Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) was conferred the status as a final and universal role model for Muslims until the end of time. His exam- ple is one of exceptional morality, righteous behavior and character, and outstanding skills, all of which are characteristics that reflect his position as a Prophet.9 The Holy Qur’an refers literally to the status of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) as a role model: “There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern for anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and [who] remembers Allah often.”3 The Arabic word uswa in the verse means example or model that should be obeyed and followed. A person who follows another imitates their behavior, attitude, and style. This verse shows the importance of Prophet Muhammad’s Sunnah (way or path) in the lives of Muslims who practice his way in almost every aspect of life.
Following the Prophet’s Sunnah is a form of obedience to Allah. Allah
says, “Whoever obeys the Messenger verily obeys Allah; but if any turn away, We have not sent you to watch over their (evil deeds).”3 Any knowledge that came from the Messenger actually originated with Allah. Several verses in the Qur’an order the Muslims to follow and obey the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him). For example, Allah says, “Say, Obey Allah and obey the Messenger. But if you turn away, he is only responsible for the duty placed on him and you for that placed on you. If you obey him, you shall be on right guidance. The Messenger’s duty is only to preach the clear (message).”3 This verse
indicates that the person who obeys the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) will be on right guidance.
The Sunnah of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) is reported through the Ahadith, and consists of his sayings, actions, and
silent approvals. These are considered inspiration from Allah and are second only to the Qur’an in terms of significance and evidence. The Prophet’s Sunnah has been preserved in books, the most famous of which are Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. The Prophet’s Compan- ions recorded or memorized his statements and actions, which were transmitted from generation to generation by scholars. A strict method- ology of Ahadith was developed to determine authentic (sahih) Ahadith from those that were weak or fabricated.
REVIEW OF THE THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL LITERATURE
The main area of empirical literature in relation to Muslims and the religiosity and practice of Muslims pertains to mental health. There is limited information related to physical health, although several articles focus on fasting during Ramadan and various health outcomes.
RELIGIOSITY AND MENTAL HEALTH
Researchers investigating the relationship between religiosity and mental health in Muslim populations have focused on several varia- bles, primarily religious coping, well-being, happiness, life satisfac- tion, marital satisfaction, anxiety, and depression. Several researchers have also looked at death anxiety and suicidal thoughts/behaviors, anti- social behavior, and alcohol use/abuse. Researchers of religious coping have found that Muslims commonly engage in religious coping when faced with challenges or traumas in life.10 In their study of 38 parents of children diagnosed with cancer in the United Arab Emirates, Eapan and Revesz found that 100 percent of the participants relied upon reli- gion to cope with the experience.11 Religious coping would obviously involve some of the contemplative practices discussed above.
Several researchers have reported a positive association between Islamic religiosity and well-being, happiness, life satisfaction, overall mental health, and marital satisfaction.12–14 Some of these have used single-item, self-ratings of level of religiosity, but others have utilized
religiosity scales that encompass beliefs alone or beliefs and practices. For example, in a cross-sectional study of 1,000 Pakistanis ranging in age from 16 to 80 using a religiosity scale (beliefs and practices), Suhail and Chaudhry found a positive relationship between religiosity and well-being.13
Some of the above-mentioned researchers as well as others have reported a negative association between Islamic religiosity and depres- sion and anxiety, in general,15,16 as well as between religiosity and stress, death anxiety, suicide, alcohol use/abuse/dependence, and antisocial behavior/delinquency.17–19 These associations remained even after con- trolling for such variables as gender, age, social class, marital status and ethnicity. The results are similar to those reported with non-Muslim populations.
RELIGIOUS PSYCHOTHERAPY WITH MUSLIMS
At least four studies have found that a form of religious psycho- therapy may be effective with Muslim clients who suffer from anxiety, depression, and bereavement.20–23 Participants in the religious psychotherapy groups in each of these studies responded significantly faster than those receiving standard treatment. For several of the stud- ies, the positive outcomes were maintained at six months follow-up.
Razali, Hasanah, Aminah, and Subramaniam studied the effective- ness of religious-sociocultural components in the treatment of Muslim patients with generalized anxiety disorders and major depression.23 Negative or maladaptive thoughts of participants were identified and altered to correspond with traditional Islamic beliefs derived from the Qur’an and hadith (sayings and customs of the Prophet Muhammad [peace and blessings be upon him]). Discussions regarding other reli- gious issues and cultural beliefs related to the illness were conducted, and advice was provided to change behavior to correspond with the customs of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). Contemplative practices such as prayer, reading of Qur’an, and remembrance of Allah were also generally encouraged. Patients receiv- ing additional religious psychotherapy showed significantly more rapid improvement in anxiety or depressive symptoms than patients in the control group at 4 and 12 weeks.
Azhar and Varma randomly assigned patients (n = 64) to either a reli- gious psychotherapy group or to standard psychotherapy without religious content.20 Both of the groups were given weekly psychotherapy
and mild doses of antidepressant medications. The study group was given additional religious psychotherapy each week (15–20 sessions). After one month and three months of therapy, patients receiving reli- gious psychotherapy showed significantly more improvement than the control group on depressive symptoms (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression). At the end of six months, this difference became nonsignificant.
Azhar and Varma conducted a similar experiment to the one men- tioned above, but with 62 patients with generalized anxiety disorder.21 After three months of treatment, the study group had significantly better improvement than the control group, indicating that they responded faster to religious psychotherapy. At six months, no signifi- cant difference was found between the groups.
The same authors carried out a similar study with 30 patients experiencing bereavement.22 There was significant improvement in depressive symptoms (using the Hamilton Depression Scale) in the study group as compared with the control group on day 30, 90, and
180. The authors concluded that patients responded faster to religious psychotherapy than conventional psychotherapy.
In summary, the evidence indicates that being religious and engaging in religious practices, such as the contemplative practices mentioned above, has a beneficial effect upon the psychological and emotional health of Muslim adherents.
APPLICATIONS/INTERVENTIONS
Due to the religious nature of these practices, application would be limited to Muslim clients or patients, rather than being used for the gen- eral public. For this reason, the most appropriate settings for integration would be medical, psychological, or pastoral care. Examples of religious psychotherapy with Muslim patients have already been described in the empirical section. These therapeutic strategies could readily be inte- grated into standard psychotherapy to enhance treatment outcomes or to speed the process of recovery.
In health care settings, physicians, nurses, and other health care professionals may support patients who wish to include contempla- tive practices in their daily routines. This would initially require completing a brief spiritual history with the patient to gather infor- mation regarding the importance of religion in his or her life. It may be appropriate to refer some patients to an imam, Muslim
chaplain, or community resources for assistance and guidance in car- rying out their religious practices. Being a medical patient often poses special challenges, leading to questions regarding acceptable choices and behaviors.
For example, there are special rulings regarding formal prayer that may apply to the medically ill patient. He must do every obligatory aspect of the prayer to the extent possible. In cases of difficulty or hardship, the prayer may be revised according to the following:
1. The sick person must perform the obligatory prayers standing even if bending or leaning against something (i.e., a wall or stick).
2. If he is unable to stand, then he may pray sitting (sit cross-legged during standing and bowing positions).
3. If he is unable to pray sitting, then he should pray on his right side, facing the Qiblah. If he is unable to face the Qiblah, he may pray in any direction he is facing.
4. If he is unable to pray on his side, then he may pray on his back, with his feet toward the Qiblah, attempting to raise his head in that direction. If he is unable to direct his feet toward the Qiblah, then he may pray in the direction he is facing.
5. The sick person should bow and prostrate in prayer, but if he is unable to, he should indicate by inclining his head, making the prostration lower than the bowing.
6. If he is unable to incline his head in bowing and prostration, he should indicate with his eyes, closing them a little for bowing and closing them more tightly for the prostration.
7. If he is unable to incline his head or indicate with his eyes, he should pray with his heart (intentions), reciting and intending the bowing and prostrating in his heart.
8. The sick person must offer each prayer at its stated time. If it is difficult for him, then he may combine the dhuhr and ’asr prayers as well as the maghrib and “isha” prayers.24
Special supplications are also available for those who have medical or mental health problems, such as the following: “O Allah, Lord of the people, take away the disease and cure me; You are the One Who cures and there is no cure except Your Cure—a cure that leaves no disease,” or “O the Lord of Glory and Honor, O Ever Living One, O Eternal One, I seek help through Your mercy.”
NEW RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
It is important to note that the Muslim believer/worshipper is in no need of scientific evidence to demonstrate the efficacy of these beliefs and practices. It is sufficient that it is mentioned in the Holy Qur’an and that he feels it in his life. For those interested in research outcomes, it would be beneficial to conduct further research in the area of mechanisms of action.
Park, for example, suggests that one way to study the influence of religiosity/spirituality on health is to focus on “the role of the explicit and implicit health-related influences that various traditions and ways of being religious or spiritual impart to global meaning systems, and thus, indirectly, to health.”25
The theodicies of various traditions are suggested to have an impact upon beliefs, goals, and values, which may then influence mental health on multiple levels and through multiple pathways. Some exam- ples of possible influences might include methods of dealing with stressors, general orientation toward life, and explanations for tribula- tions and sufferings. The theodicy of Islam is rich in this regard as it provides a comprehensive guide to life. Further research and investi- gation would elucidate the specific components and mechanisms by which Islamic beliefs and practices impact upon both the mental health of its adherents. This may include such components as under- standing the nature of this life, reliance upon Allah, hopefulness, understanding the purpose of afflictions, remembering the Hereafter and the rewards that will be obtained for patience, etc.
CONCLUSION
Islam offers a comprehensive system of contemplation that guides the individual to the straight path that results in tranquility and happi- ness in this life, and will lead him to Paradise in the Hereafter. The most fundamental aspect of contemplation in this framework is the five daily, obligatory prayers. These are enriched by various other practices including nonobligatory prayers, remembrance of Allah, supplication, specific contemplation and reflection, and following the teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah, as modeled by Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him). The ultimate purpose of these acts of worship is the realization of tawheed or belief in and worship of one true God, Allah. The individual who implements these practices is
submitting to Allah and thus fulfilling his true purpose in life. The spiri- tual and psychological contentment that is experienced is beyond description and has the capability to prevent or alleviate any type of mental disorder or suffering.
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CHAPTER 9
