9] The Path of Yoga
T. Anne Richards
Yoga is a friend to those who embrace it sincerely and totally. It lifts its practitioners from the clutches of pain and sorrow, and enables them to live fully, taking a delight in life.
—B. K. S. Iyengar, Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
Yoga, meaning union, is a system of Indian thought that stems from the Vedas (1700–900 BCE), the oldest record of Indian culture.1 It was systemized by Patanjali (200 BCE) in the Yoga Sutras, 195 aphorisms that map the philosophy and practice of yoga as a system intended to cease the fluctuations of the mind, bring peace to the experiences of daily life, and ultimately bring the individual spirit (Atman) into union with the Universal Spirit (Brahman).2 Yoga as a contemplative practice is undertaken through the combination of asanas (physical postures), breathing (pranayama and yogic breath in asana practice), and study and application of the spiritual and philosophical principles set forth in the Yoga Sutras. Other ancient texts did follow Patanjali’s work but the Yoga Sutras are the foundation.
The philosophy of yoga embraces a view of health and well-being as a state that arises from the quality and balance of mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual conditions.3 The benefits of yoga have been researched for close to a century in Indian research institutes. As yoga grew in popularity in the West, scientific interest and research into yoga as therapy has grown as well.4 Studies have been conducted
documenting the effects of yogic practice on a number of psychologi- cal, emotional, and physical health challenges including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, cardiovascular problems, asthma, diabetes, cancer, and rheumatoid and osteoarthritis.4,5 Medical and psychologi- cal studies have yet to explore the transformative spiritual potential of yoga among longtime practitioners and how yoga may change their approach to and experience of living.
I became interested in the philosophy and cleansing techniques of yoga in the early 1970s and began an active asana practice in 1984, which has continued, with degrees of ebb and flow, to date. Yoga has been a resource for creating calm in my body, focus in my mind, and greater peace in my heart. It was my engagement in a three-year advanced-studies program at the Yoga Room in Berkeley, California, that not only certified me as a teacher, but brought me deeply into yoga as a contemplative practice, for which I am profoundly grateful. I have also used yogic practice as a means of managing and living with osteoarthritis.
CONTEXT
There are six fundamental systems of Indian thought collectively known as Darsana, meaning “to see,” to look inside ourselves, to better observe our self. Yoga is one of these six systems. Fundamental to Darsana is the idea that there is a Supreme Universal Spirit that perme- ates all that exists, and that the individual is one with the Universal Spirit. Yoga is a path for cultivating individual consciousness in order to experience greater harmony in life and ultimately experience oneness with the Universal Spirit.1,2,6
Within Indian philosophy, being consists of five sheaths (koshas), which surround the Higher Self or Soul. The five sheaths of being are the anatomical or physical sheath, the physiological or energetic sheath, the mental sheath, which includes the emotional, the intellectual or sheath of wisdom, and the blissful or the sheath of fulfillment and joy. The practice of yoga aims to create consciousness or awareness and bal- ance in these sheaths, to enable the practitioner to reach the center of being, the Universal Self or Soul. Yoga is a journey of intelligence from the external to the internal, from the internal to the external.6
In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali drew from the principles of the Vedas passed on through oral tradition and provided us with an ancient text that gives the blueprint for yogic practice. Written as a book of
aphorisms, the depth and complexity of this text is vast. Because they are aphorisms, the Sutras are open to interpretation by different schools of thought. Contemporary books written on the Yoga Sutras are diverse in the translation and phrasing of the sutras and use a vari- ety of conceptual language in interpreting them. However, the essen- tial principles hold firm through the various lenses.
The Sutras are divided into four chapters (padas). The first chapter addresses contemplation and consciousness (Samadhi pada). Yoga is defined in relationship to moving away from identification with the individual self, also called the ego or sense of “I,” and moving into rec- ognition or realization of being part of the Universal Self, also called the Soul. Through the disciplines of yogic practice, consciousness is reshaped and refined so that the mind moves toward identification with the Universal Spirit and suffering and confusion, which comes from identification with the ego (individual self), recedes, giving the practitioner better capacity to see and interact with life with greater clarity and joy.
Chapter 2 (Sadhana pada) outlines the discipline of practice (kriyayoga) as the path of action in pursuit of Self-Realization. Here the dimensions of the practice are laid out through the eightfold path or eight limbs of yoga, which is the path toward physical, mental, and emotional stability and well-being. This chapter describes how aware- ness shifts through practice and qualities are developed within the body and mind that cause the practitioner to thrive.
In Chapter 3 (Vibhuti pada) Patanjali described the capacities and powers of the focused mind free from distraction that can be achieved through ardent practice. Concentration opens the way of meditation and meditation opens the way to a sense of oneness, the experience of merging with the Universal Spirit or Soul. By focusing attention through concentration and meditation, the sense of the individual self or ego can be transcended and an expanded awareness of one’s place in the wholeness of life is available.
The final chapter (Kaivalya pada) is concerned with transformation and the ultimate freedom from the bondage of “incorrect comprehen- sion” or ignorance (Avidya). Preoccupation with the concerns and enjoyments of daily life are lifted, control over the mind is gained, and it becomes a servant rather than master. A state of tranquility and stead- fast wisdom is maintained when one is freed from the constraints of incorrect comprehension of self and how the world is constructed.1,2,6 Although in Indian mythology it is said that Lord Shiva’s consort,
Parvati, was the first to be taught yoga by Lord Shiva, in its early
history, yoga was an esoteric practice, undertaken by unmarried men (nonhouseholders) who lived the life of an ascetic. This gradually changed to include men who were householders, and women.
There are several schools of yoga including Raja (royal union or classical yoga), Mantra (chanting or “seed sound”), Jnana (path of wisdom, study of sacred scriptures), Karma (path of action, adherence to duty), Kundalini (prana, energy complexes within the body), and Bhakti (devotional, relationship with God). Because the Yoga Sutras are so complex, the different schools that have evolved can be viewed as different doorways onto the same path. While all of these disciplines are available in the West, Hatha yoga, which is an aspect of the Raja tradition, has become mainstream. Hatha yoga is focused on asana (physical postures) and pranayama (breathing) and is considered to be a beginning phase for disciplining the body in preparation for long periods of meditation.
Hatha yoga requires no particular belief system and can be practiced by anyone regardless of religious affiliation. Most commonly yoga is practiced by those who seek to improve their physical, psychological, and emotional health and reduce the impact of contemporary stresses. Yoga is also practiced in athletics for its strengthening, stretching, and balancing aspects. It is also beneficial to those coping with serious health challenges such as cancer and heart disease. Yoga is sometimes used as a management tool for those with muscular-skeletal problems such as arthritis, chronic fatigue syndrome, and fibromyalgia. It is now one of the most prescribed and investigated modalities in complementary and alternative medicine.7 As a contemplative practice, people who have maintain asana and pranayama practices for an extended period of time are those oriented toward deepen their meditation practice as they are drawn toward the state of Oneness. Some who seek a spiritual path undertake Bhakti, Jnana, or Kundalini yoga and pursue their practice under the tutelage of a spiritual master or his or her followers, often through an ashram. In Hatha yoga practices, it is often the case that teachers and their lineage of teachers become role models or spiritual models for students. Any school of Hatha-based practices provides the practical discipline that is the foundation of spiritual development.
DIMENSIONS OF THE PRACTICE
How does one begin yoga as a contemplative practice? Desikachar1 believes it doesn’t matter whether yoga is entered through asana,
pranayama, or study of the Yoga Sutras. He has stated that once the pro- cess is begun, the practitioner will find his or her way to the other aspects of practice. This is often the case for those who undertake a longer, more dedicated course of practice. The eight limbs of yoga from the Yoga Sutras lay out the dimensions of yogic practice and provide guidance for constructing a yogic practice.2,6,8 Practice is intended to lead the prac- titioner into self-observation, looking at attitudes and behaviors and their consequences. The first two limbs of yoga, yama and niyama, provide moral and ethical guidance. Yama is concerned with how we direct our- selves outwardly in the world, and niyama are principles for our personal spiritual development and our personal habits and self-discipline. The five yamas in the Yoga Sutras are nonviolence (ahsima), truthfulness (satya), nonstealing (asteya), control of sensual pleasure (brahmacharya), and nonavariciousness (aparigrha). The five niyamas are cleanliness (sau- cha), contentment (samtosa), austerity or burning desire (tapas), study of the sacred scriptures and of one’s self (svadhyaya), and surrender to God (isvara pranidhana).
Asana (postures) is the third limb and is the physical practice of the
yoga postures that disciplines the body. Asana opens the body and gives the practitioner an experience of more space and lightness physically. Asana maintains the strength and health of the body. Movement, stillness, focused attention, and breath awareness are all within asana whether it is the simplest or most advanced of postures. It is in asana practice that the individual can observe and explore yama and niyama as they exist within his or her self and how they carry out the poses. Then it is possible for the observance within the practice to lead to the vision of how the contradictions of yama and niyama exist in daily living, where it is more difficult to observe these shortcomings and how to overcome them.8
The fourth limb, pranayama, is the yogic art of breathing. Prana is vital energy that permeates all that exists. In pranayama, the breath is intentionally moved rhythmically through the body with attention to the inflow of air, how it moves and infuses the various organs and parts of the body, and how the breath leaves the body. Pranayama practice uses specific techniques for lengthening the intake, the retention, and the exhalation of the breath. It is practiced either in supported reclining positions (often better for beginning practitioners) or in seated positions. Learning and practicing these techniques calms the emotions, focuses the mind, and enhances breath awareness and rhythmic breathing within asana practice.9 “Pranayama is prayer and not a mere physical breathing exercise.”10
The fifth limb (pratyahara) is sensory withdrawal or control of the senses. In yoga this means moving awareness from the physical to the silent, spacious interior core of being. Asana and pranayama prac- tices lead practitioners to this state moving through the sheaths of the body inward toward the Self. This inward movement is the process of freeing one’s self from the control of the desires of the senses so that their gratification ceases to be a constant distraction. The more a per- son practices asana and pranayama, the more he or she cultivates an experience of this internal place of reference that can then influence self-understanding and how he or she responds to the circumstances of living.
The fourth and fifth limbs (pranayama and sensory withdrawal) are the inner quests, distinguished from the first three limbs, which are the outer quests. Pranayama or the practice of rhythmic breathing draws the practitioner inward furthering the capacity for withdrawing the senses, moving from outward directed consciousness to inner awareness and a deeper sense of the spiritual within. The first five limbs create the fertile ground for cultivating the final three limbs.2,8 Concentration or complete attention (dharana) is the sixth limb and
is the idea of holding focused attention in one direction for a sustained period of time. This provides the necessary condition or vessel for the seventh limb, meditation on the Divine. Uninterrupted concentration allows the practitioner to sustain communion so that “his body, breath, senses, mind, reason and ego are all integrated in the object of his contemplation—the Universal Spirit.”2 The final limb is the end of the quest, union with the Divine (samadhi). In this state the illusion of separation is dispelled; oneness with the Universal Self is experienced with pure joy.
Yoga is a practical discipline. It often engages the practitioner who is initially drawn to it and then, as in my own experience, has an ebb and flow of engagement over the course of time due to other life circum- stances. But experienced practitioners tend to agree that yoga never leaves the body, mind, or spirit, and at the time of reengagement, after a hiatus, they reenter practice from the internal point where they left off. The following case study provides some insight as to the place of yoga in the life of a woman who practiced for 30 years.
“Linda” came to yoga in her late 20s while in graduate school. She was very flexible and was drawn to the stretching aspect and to “invoking through physical intelligence, through awareness, [the ability] to more fully inhabit the body.” She had a tendency to turn her very active emotionality and intense cognitive capacity into anxiety, so yoga
provided for her a “grounding” allowing her to “move energy in a dif- ferent way.” In her early 30’s she was exposed to fairly sophisticated, knowledgeable senior teachers in the Iyengar yoga tradition. Then life turned and she was working and raising children. Linda stopped attend- ing classes but maintain a personal home practice. As her children grew older she went back to classes and engaged in advanced studies.
“If you take a class without practice [on your own] you never ground it because you don’t have the opportunity to create your own dialogue with yourself about refinement (what if I did this, what about that)—the real spirit of experimentation and taking the teaching into your body. And if you only have a practice with- out a teacher it’s easy to reinforce the wrong patterns and it is a little more challenging to truly learn things.”
Her practice was asana focused through these years. Parallel to her asana practice, Linda was part of a spiritual group and “had a path” that required a commitment of daily sitting meditation practice, meet- ings one night a week, as well as periodic retreats involving classes, discussions, and meditation. The two practices worked well together for her.
“It was so helpful in terms of the mental, emotional, nervous wir- ing. I do think that like water on a rock these practices reshape your consciousness and how energy flows. They reshape, they transform. And for me [yoga] became another place; rather than focusing on ‘no thinking’ it was focusing on the physical field. That became the field of attention. To bring conscious awareness into different parts of my body—to be able to visualize anatomy and change energy was another way of clearing and quieting and focusing. My yoga practice has always been internally focused. It has not been athletic.”
After more than 15 years it became clear she could not commit to both paths and chose yoga because it involved a physical practice but still uses the form of meditation learned in her spiritual group. Linda transferred the humility and “dropping of ego” she had learned in her spiritual practice to her yoga practice.
“When I walk into a class I literally think about crossing a thresh- old, a sacred space and I’m not letting my personality into the room. As a student I’m more receptive. As I integrated [the two practices] I think I brought some of the understanding of what
it means to be a seeker into the class. However, there are times when what I need is the sitting. That’s a little different than the full body [awareness].”
Linda was introduced to Patanjali’s Sutras within the context of her meditation group. They were read in their entirety during a retreat. During the course of her advanced yoga studies, the principles put forth in the yamas and niyamas became relevant in the following way:
“[They] took hold when we would study a yama or niyama and then apply it to our practice and have to write about that. What did it mean to take an idea and apply it and how did it transform your practice of [the asana] triangle pose. So when it was applied and I was asked to write about it—that took hold.”
Linda currently maintains a home practice as well as attends classes. At this point yoga for Linda is asana, concentration, focus, and being present, consistent with the developmental path laid out by Patanjali. As to how her sustained yoga practice relates to her daily life,
Linda said:
“In a cumulative way, having a regular practice allows for a cycle of release and new beginning. If on a regular basis you are practic- ing you are not holding on to a certain level of stress. Not having a residual build up of body tension is, in terms of well being, is really important. I think there is a consolation and confidence that comes from knowing that when you get yourself to the mat and you spend 10 minutes or 15 minutes or 2 hours you will emerge fundamentally different from where you began. And to know that and have that confidence means you know you have a tool. Finally, I think I’m wired for anxiety. Busy mind. It’s just how I’m wired. I’m really smart, I think fast. So pervasively it has helped me expe- rience and more skillfully cultivate spaciousness and stillness and silence. And I don’t know that would be that available to me if I didn’t have a practice. And once you are aware of it, you know how to go back for it.”
Linda has used yoga to manage osteoarthritis and asthma. She feels that it has given her “a sense of agency” in managing these disorders. Of yoga in her personal development and learning Linda said:
“I feel so grateful to have it as a companion. I feel like I will have yoga as a companion until my last days. I imagine, like any
companion, the way we are together will change as my body changes but I imagine it is a companion that I will always have. It is so humbling and wonderful to have a practice that if you lived 4 life times you wouldn’t know everything or be able to do everything. It’s limitless.”
REVIEW OF THE THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL LITERATURE
Several explanations have been proposed to account for effects of yoga on various physical and psychological conditions. Briefly, yoga practice is considered to modulate the autonomic nervous tone with a decrease in sympathetic activity and an increase in parasympathetic activity. There is a reduction of cognitive and somatic arousal. The limbic system is quieted and the relaxation response in the neuromus- cular system increases.11
The first studies of yoga began in India in the early twentieth century.12 Within biomedical and psychological research and practice, yoga is investigated and applied as therapy directed toward specific disorders. Compared to the ancient intent of the practice, the develop- ment of higher consciousness, this is a limited approach and has been criticized by some.13 As research on yoga grew and the number of clinical trials increased, the parameters for investigation became increasingly limited, forcing a narrowing of investigations to the impact of specific poses or breathing practices on isolated diseases or disorders. Khalsa4 states, “In fact, since the primary goal of yoga prac- tice is spiritual development, beneficial medical consequences of yoga practice can more precisely be described as positive ‘side effects.’ ” However, he also points out that yoga is a healing tradition and, in that broader sense, shares common ground with medical science.
Khalsa’s bibliometric review4 is an excellent resource for under- standing the state of medical research into yoga and its psychophysio- logical effects as documented through early 2004. One hundred and eighty-one clinical trials (controlled and uncontrolled) appearing in 81 journals from 15 countries were gathered into a bibliography. Only studies specific to yoga, not involving a second type of practice (i.e., yoga in combination with vipassana meditation), were reviewed. Studies were taken from both yoga specialty journals and nonyoga research journals. Forty-eight percent of the studies were uncon- trolled and 39.8 percent were randomized control trials. The majority
of randomized control trials (58% in nonyoga journals) were con- ducted in India followed by the United States (slightly less than 29%).
Analyses of all studies showed that studies reported in yoga specialty journals were valuable but not as rigorous scientifically as those reported in the nonyoga journals. Twenty-one studies in nonyoga journals examined yoga in relationship to two or more disorders. Stud- ies of the impact of yoga on discreet disorders in nonyoga journals were on asthma (23 studies), hypertension (21 studies), heart disease (18 studies), diabetes (16 studies), depression or dysthymia (14 studies), and anxiety (6 studies). Yoga is considered effective for stress reduction and reducing autonomic arousal, and there is scientific evidence in support of this with the majority of studies focusing on the effects of yogic practice on psychopathologies, cardiovascular disorders, and respiratory disorders. Khalsa asserts that it is unlikely that these dis- crete disorder investigations will provide consistent or reliable data, and that what should be considered is a meta-analysis evaluating relative effect sizes for yoga interventions across disorders.
Complications in conducting research on yoga as well as interpret- ing findings across studies were pointed out. There are a variety of types of yoga ascribing to different methods of asana practice, pra- nayama, and yogic breathing, as well as dietary and “complete yoga lifestyle interventions.” There is not a standardized yoga practice format, which complicates scientific investigations. Yoga, as originally intended, is a multidisciplinary system for self-transformation, and therefore a fit between the limitations of the scientific method and this ancient art and science is difficult.
Another article, by da Silva, Ravindran, and Ravindran,5 provides a review of literature specific to the effects of yoga on mood and anxiety disorders. Khalsa made the arbitrary decision to examine controlled and uncontrolled studies solely focused on yoga but addressing a full spectrum of disorders. Da Silva et al. limited the studies to mood and anxiety disorders but included all publications up to July 2008 including controlled or uncontrolled trials, case reports, chart reviews, and retrospective analyses utilizing yoga and other forms of treatment including medications. Seventeen studies on the efficacy of yoga practice in relationship to mood disorders and 17 studies on anxiety disorders were reviewed. Studies were summarized in table format categorizing diagnosis, study format, duration of treatment, mono- therapy or augmentation to medication, size of intervention groups, and results. Results were evaluated using a standard methodology for strength of evidence for efficacy and tolerability.14
Across all studies 11 styles of yoga practice were utilized. In studies on major depression, yoga proved to be beneficial as both a monother- apy and in conjunction with medications in mild, moderate, and severe depression. A form of yoga, Sudarshan Kriya Yoga, which is a controlled breathing practice, had the most evidence for efficacy as a monotherapy with depressive disorders. Iyengar yoga, a form of Hatha yoga, had the next most evidence as a monotherapy for depression and the most evidence for efficacy as an augmentation to medication. Iyengar yoga concentrates on proper alignment in asanas, which are sustained, and attention is focused on alignment and breathing while sustaining the pose.
Studies of yoga and its effects on anxiety attended to generalized anxiety (psychoneurosis or anxiety neurosis), obsessive-compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and performance and test anxiety. Da Silva et al. stated that given the prevalence of generalized anxiety disorders, the number of studies examining yoga in relation- ship to these disorders was limited. Findings in the area of anxiety disorders were not as clear-cut as those on the effects of yoga on depressive disorders. There was evidence to suggest that yoga may benefit some types of anxiety disorders, but the effects are largely unknown. This further illustrates the comment Khalsa made in his paper regarding the difficulty in assessing the impact of the many var- iations of yogic practices in relationship to discrete disorders. Perhaps his suggestion of meta-analyses examining the relative effect sizes across discrete disorders is relevant across anxiety disorders.
Included in the da Silva review were 15 randomized control trials and 5 open trials on depressive and anxiety symptoms in the medically ill including breast and ovarian cancer, migraine, irritable bowel syn- drome, hypertension, fibromyalgia, diabetes, obesity, asthma, and chronic low back pain. Da Silva et al. state, “Overall, yoga was found to have positive effects on depression and anxiety associated with physical illness” (p. 6). Again, the study of discrete disorders in rela- tionship to yoga shows trends, but stable and consistent conclusions cannot be drawn.
Research on yoga is clearly on the rise. From 1973 to 1989 the number of published randomized control trials in India was 11 and in the United States, 2. From 1990 to 2004 the number of trials increased in India from 11 to 21 and in the United States from 2 to 16.10 While it is likely that research will continue in the direction of specific yoga interventions for discrete disorders, the need exists for longitudinal research on the effects of yogic practice on integrated body-mind-spiritual health, ethical and
compassionate behaviors, and shifts in worldview as to how life is construed. This would better match the model of human-centered strategies of whole-person health care,15 providing new evidence for how to think about health, development, and care.
APPLICATIONS/INTERVENTIONS
In the United States, yoga is one of the most widely practiced forms of complementary health care. A report on complementary and alternative medicine released in 2008 stated that according to their surveys, 6.1 percent of the U.S. population practice yoga.7 There already exist a number of venues for developing yoga practice. Classes are offered in yoga studios, spas, health clubs, and gyms. Weekend and weeklong yoga retreats at vacation destinations around the world are advertised regularly. Work sites that are engaging in work site wellness programs frequently have on-site yoga classes as part of their wellness menu of offerings. There is an increase in advanced-studies programs aimed at bringing experienced yogis and yoginis deeper into their practices. Yoga is frequently offered in meditation retreats. In a recently published book on meditation,16 meditative practices are categorized as sitting, sounding, and moving. Yoga is presented as one form of moving meditation. There is a gradual shift taking place among the general population’s perception and utilization of yoga toward a longer, more engaged course of practice. It may be that there is an increasing understanding of yoga as a path for realization of Self and wholeness that Patanjali laid out thousands of years ago.
One environment ripe for the application of yoga as a contemplative
practice is higher education, where there are currently few offerings. Colleges and universities are ideal for introducing yoga as a whole sys- tem including the physical, mental, philosophical, and spiritual aspects. Two of the few developed yoga courses within higher educa- tion are at DePaul University. One four-credit course taught quarterly titled “Body, Mind, Spirit: Yoga and Meditation” is taught in the School for New Learning to adults returning to school for their bach- elor’s degree. The other is a two-credit course, also using yoga and meditation, taught to regular undergraduates in the Peace, Justice and Conflict Studies program titled “Peace for Activists.” Both courses engage students in asana and pranayama practices, readings on yoga including the Yoga Sutras, and personal reflections.
There are a few principles related to teaching and studying that I believe are important to designing and carrying out university- based courses on yoga. A good structure would be a series of classes over the course of a school year with the each course being prerequi- site for the next course. This would provide adequate time for an introduction and beginning exploration of all aspects of the yogic system. If a student lost interest, he or she would simply not sign up for the subsequent course. Study over the course of a year would also give students adequate time to reflect on the changes they may expe- rience in body-mind awareness, personal habits, reactivity in difficult life events, spiritual experiences, and shifts in worldviews.
Alternatively, as in the DePaul model, a course could be situated within another context, such as the Peace, Justice and Conflict Studies program using practice to apply what Patanjali prescribes in the yamas: one’s actions in the world; or the niyamas: one’s self-attitudes and -disciplines. Classes lasting one and a half hours would well sup- port learning with time for practice as well as time for reflection and discussion.
However the course is constructed, it is vital that the teacher have an extensive personal practice and is well qualified to teach asana and breathing practices, since any course must be experiential as well as conceptual. Both asana and yogic breathing need to be approached slowly with great attention and care. Injuries can occur in asana prac- tice, and breathing practices can have powerful effects. So that students can be well attended to, class size should be limited to 15 students.
As our case study participant pointed out, it is important to both practice with a teacher and practice alone for adequate personal explo- ration time. A good course of study would include home practice (homework) involving asana, breathing, and applications of the yamas and niyamas. A short essay, a paragraph or two on how a particular yama or niyama came to bear within a given practice, heightens inner reflection, bringing into greater awareness the place that particular prin- ciple (contentment, nonviolence, etc) held within the time frame of a single practice.
There is a wealth of excellent books on yoga to draw from for convey- ing the philosophical and spiritual principles of yoga as well as books guiding asana and breathing practice. The Yoga Sutras should be part of any course.
Meditation is an important aspect of practice, even at the begin- ning. In an introductory course, meditation is built into the practice by ending each asana session with the pose savasana (corpse pose).
The practitioner lays on the floor, relaxing into the body and the breath. It is in savasana that the practice integrates and sinks into the body. Casting the eyes toward the heart brings thoughts into greater stillness during savasana, aiding in the withdrawal of aware- ness from the outer body and placing attention and focus on the still- ness within, the contemplative space. As practitioners advance, an awareness is developed within each pose. Practitioners can then be directed toward the discovery that there is the work of the pose and then there is stillness in the pose or repose. Finding these still points within an asana then becomes the next level of meditation. Sitting meditation can be introduced at any time as part of asana practice and will deepen as asana and pranayama practices deepen.
NEW RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Research on how individuals grow, developing awareness and wisdom through a longitudinal course of yogic practice, could provide insight at a number of levels beyond the currently known benefits of practice: self-management through stressful events, self-responsibility for actions in the world, caring and nurturing attitudes toward self and others, development of physical and emotional well-being, the experience of joy, and perceptions of and relationship with the Divinity of life. As the literature review indicates, biomedical research focuses on interventions for discrete illnesses. I am suggesting research focusing on the development of the whole person. Mixed research methodolo- gies of qualitative inquiry and quantitative measures would fit well in this type of research. Keeping in mind the proposition of developing yoga studies in colleges and universities, students within those classes would be ideal for the investigation of the effectiveness of yoga as a contemplative practice.
A three-phase model of effectiveness could be used for this type of examination as suggested to me by S. B. Khalsa in a personal commu- nication. Phase 1 would involve measurement of immediate improve- ments in the reduction of arousal and stress. Phase 2 would examine the development of body and self-awareness with changes in mind- body activities such as reactivity in stressful situations, flexibility in attitudes or mind-set, and a general feeling of being more comfortable in one’s body. The third phase would look for changes in psychologi- cal and philosophical perspectives and shifts in worldviews.
CONCLUSION
Yoga is a path for developing consciousness and spiritual awareness through practices that unite body, breath, mind, intelligence, and Spirit. The ultimate aims are the experience of inner peace, outward integrity, and knowing God. Through yoga’s eightfold path, living can become more ethical, kind, and enjoyable. Vitality of the body and the mind are supported, and health difficulties, physical and psychological, are better managed. It is a practical discipline that can carry the practitioner through all stages of life. It can be practiced by seniors, adults, teens, and children, and by anyone irrespective of religious, social, and geographical backgrounds.
Yoga is becoming well integrated into the health practices of mil- lions of people within the United States and throughout the world. It has been part of Eastern cultures for centuries and has now taken root in Western cultures. As a therapeutic intervention, yoga is now applied in complementary medicine, and biomedical investigations of yoga are on the increase.
For many, yoga will remain solely a means of decompressing from a stressful day. And this is good, for that alone will change the quality of their lives and the lives of those around them. However, there is a grow- ing recognition that beyond the reduction of stress, this ancient art and science brings practitioners to a fuller understanding of themselves and their connection to life as a whole, provides an expanded capacity for the experience of joy, and is a path for knowing God within.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
With gratitude I acknowledge my teachers and their teachers: The Yoga Room in Berkeley, CA; Mary Lou Weprin and Donald Moyer; 4th Street Yoga in Berkeley, CA; the San Francisco Iyengar Institute;
B. K. S. Iyengar.
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