4] Translating Spiritual Ideals into Daily Life: The Eight-Point Program of Passage Meditation
Tim Flinders, Doug Oman, Carol Flinders, and Diane Dreher
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An inspirational passage turns our thoughts to what is permanent, to those things that put a final end to insecurity. In meditation, the inspirational passage becomes imprinted on our consciousness. As we drive it deeper and deeper, the words come to life within us, transforming all our thoughts, feelings, words, and deeds. (p. 48)1
Passage Meditation (PM) is an eight-point contemplative program whose foundational meditation practice is designed to help practitioners deepen their spirituality and manage the pressures of contemporary life by drawing directly upon the words and wisdom of the world’s spiritual traditions. A growing number of adherents across all the major faith tra- ditions use the PM program, as do many seekers who characterize themselves as “spiritual but not religious.” Together, the program’s eight tools constitute what Oman (this volume) calls a “fully integrated contemplative practice.”
In this chapter we will describe the historical development of PM, also known as the Eight-Point Program, outline its special features, and then describe the basic instructions for the practice of each of its eight points. The chapter will emphasize two particular strengths of PM. The first is PM’s appeal to seekers who draw inspiration from the saints and sages of their own religious traditions as well as perhaps
Table 4.1. Distinctive Features of the Eight-Point Program
Feature Explanation
Universal PM can be used by members of any religious faith, or by those who identify as “spiritual, but not religious.”
Comprehensive PM provides a comprehensive program for spiritual
living, offering a classical meditative practice with supporting tools for practitioners with families and careers.
Wisdom Based PM offers direct daily contact with the world’s wisdom
traditions.
from other traditions. Preliminary evidence suggests that PM fosters learning from spiritual wisdom figures such as the Psalmist, St. Francis, and the Buddha. We outline the psychological theory of spiritual modeling,2 which identifies ways that PM may support assimilating attitudes and wisdom embedded in the words of these revered figures.
The second strength we will emphasize is PM’s potential usefulness to educators, physicians, psychologists, caregivers, and other human ser- vice professionals who are increasingly called upon to respond to the diverse spiritual needs of their clientele. We will suggest that PM pro- vides significant added value to psychological or educational interven- tions, especially when set alongside more familiar professional resources such as mindfulness methods. In this way, PM may expand the ability of health and human service professionals to address more effectively the spiritual needs of diverse clientele. This added value is in part due to several of PM’s distinctive features highlighted in Table 4.1.
We then describe several controlled empirical studies of PM that suggest a wide range of benefits, including enhanced professional work skills, increases in empathy, forgiveness, and mindfulness, improved mental health, and substantial reductions in stress (see fuller reviews elsewhere).3,4 Finally, we describe several recent applications of the program among two highly stressed populations, workplace professionals and college students.
HISTORY AND CONTEXT
PM was first systematized and taught at the University of California– Berkeley, during the 1960s by Fulbright scholar Eknath Easwaran (1910–99), to support students entering professional life. Since that
Table 4.2. Eight-Point Program of Passage Meditation (PM) and Contemporary Challenges
PM Point Modern Challenges It Addresses
1. Passage Meditation Distraction, spiritual alienation
2. Mantram Repetition Negative thinking, chronic, obtrusive thoughts
3. Slowing Down Chronic hurry/“Hurry Sickness”a
4. One-Pointed Attention Compulsive multitasking/“Polyphasic thinking”a
5. Training the Senses Sensory overload, overconsumption
6. Putting Others First Self-absorption, egocentricity
7. Spiritual Association Social and spiritual isolation
8. Inspirational Reading Disillusion, pessimism
Total PM program Chronic stress, lack of meaning, lack of spiritual
growth
aQuotation marks show how this challenge was characterized in research on Type A Behavior Pattern.
time, thousands of practitioners of all religious faiths, as well as nonreli- gious seekers, have used PM throughout the United States and else- where to help them deepen their spirituality and manage the stresses of contemporary life with greater clarity and calm.5 The PM program has been used in college and seminary education,6 substance abuse recovery,7 and psychotherapy.8 Translations of PM instructional mate- rials by independent publishers appear in more than 20 languages in two dozen countries in North and South America, Europe, and Asia.9 But possibly because the appeal of PM cuts across and transcends the most common categories of religious and sectarian identity, it has only intermittently appeared on lists of popular meditation practices such as Transcendental Meditation, Vipassana, and Zen. Table 4.2 summarizes the eight points and places them alongside some major modern lifestyle challenges that each addresses.
PASSAGE MEDITATION PROGRAM
POINT 1—MEDITATION ON AN INSPIRATIONAL PASSAGE
Among contemporary forms of concentrative meditation, Passage Meditation may be unique in focusing attention on the words of inspirational passages, rather than on the breath (Vipassana), sounds (Transcendental Meditation), or brief spiritual phrases (Centering
Prayer). This feature of the program may help explain why PM has been used by members of all the major religious faiths traditions, including various branches of Protestant Christianity, Judaism, Roman and Eastern Catholicism, Buddhism, Islam, and Hinduism.5 As such, the practice might be characterized as “multisectarian” in that many observant religious practitioners readily embed PM fully within their religious practice without conflict. Figure 4.1 presents sample passages from the world’s major religious traditions.
Since practitioners of PM may select their meditation passages from theistic or nontheistic sources (or both), many nonreligious seekers
Figure 4.1. Theistic Inspirational Passages.
find PM especially appealing. Recent surveys show that as many as one-third of Americans place themselves in the category of “spiritual, but not religious,” rejecting traditional organized religion as the sole means of furthering their spiritual growth.10 While they profess belief in a spiritual reality, many prefer nontheistic representations. Figure 4.2 shows examples of inspirational passages from nontheistic traditions that have been used in PM.
Figure 4.2. Nontheistic Inspirational Passages.
While these brief instructions below are sufficient to begin the prac- tice of PM, those interested in a more detailed presentation should look at Easwaran’s Passage Meditation: Bringing the Deep Wisdom of the Heart into Daily Life, the definitive description of PM.1
1. Memorize an inspirational passage from a scripture or major spiritual figure that is positive, practical, inspiring, and universal.
2. Choose a time for meditation when you can sit for half an hour in uninterrupted quiet. (It is not recommended to meditate for more than 30 minutes without personal guidance from an experi- enced teacher.) Sit with your back and head erect, on the floor or in a straight-backed chair.
3. Close your eyes and go through the words of an inspirational pas- sage in your mind as slowly as you can and with as much concentra- tion as possible. For instance, the first line from Rumi’s “A Garden Beyond Paradise” would be repeated like this: “Everything ... you ... see ... has its ... roots .. . in ... the .. . unseen .. . world .. . ” Concentrate on each word, without following any association of ideas or allowing your mind to reflect on the meaning of the words. When distractions come, do not resist them, but give more attention to the words of the passage.
4. If your mind strays from the passage entirely, bring it back gently to the beginning of the verse and start again.
5. In time, develop a repertoire of inspirational passages to keep them from becoming automatic or stale. They may be selected from within a single religious tradition, or from several traditions.
TWO DIMENSIONS OF MEDITATING ON AN INSPIRATIONAL PASSAGE
Meditating on an inspirational passage has two dimensions, accord- ing to its developer: training attention and the absorption of spiritual content (pp. 12–13).1 When fused these dimensions make the practice transformational. Training attention is achieved by the discipline of returning the mind back to the words of the passage each time it becomes distracted. Over time, this develops a capacity for sustained concentration that can be used outside of meditation, to remain focused during interruptions, in times of emotional stress, and in making wise lifestyle choices.
The second dimension, content absorption, focuses on values- laden, inspirational passages. Popular practices like Vipassana or Transcendental Meditation have a concentrative dimension, but PM more systematically couples the power of focused attention to the spiritual content of wisdom-based inspirational passages. This does not occur by thinking about or reflection on the words of the passage, which, in PM, would constitute a distraction. Rather, as concentration on the words deepens, the values embedded within these passages from the world’s great sages, mystics, and seers become absorbed so that their values and qualities may become accessible in the lives of practitioners.
POINT 2—HOLY NAME (MANTRAM) REPETITION
To help practitioners refocus themselves during the day, repetition of a mantram is highly recommended. A mantram is a hallowed word or phrase that is silently repeated or chanted aloud; versions of this practice appear in all major spiritual traditions, both East and West.1,11 In PM, mantram repetition acts as a bridge for integrating the calm and clarity gained from sitting meditation into the remainder of the day. Unlike the sitting practice, the mantram can be invoked almost any- where, any time, at home or in the workplace, to help maintain clarity and wisdom. Such a portable practice is a core component of what Oman (this volume) calls an integral contemplative practice system, and is a key coping resource for those living in a fast-paced, highly com- petitive society. The following are instructions for using the mantram:
1. Choose a mantram that appeals to you (see Figure 4.3), from a traditional source that has been widely used over time (for a fuller discussion of mantram instructions, see Bormann, this volume.)
2. Repeat your mantram silently in the mind (“Rama, Rama, Rama” ... “Jesus, Jesus, Jesus”) as opportunities arise: while walking, waiting in line, stopped at a traffic light, while falling asleep, etc.
3. Remember to repeat your mantram in times of stress, to calm the mind when pressured by time urgency, or to interrupt negative thinking when angry or afraid.
Note that in PM, the mantram is not used during sitting meditation. Consequently, PM’s use of mantram repetition should be contrasted with other recent popularizations of mantram repetition, such as in
Figure 4.3. Selected Mantrams.
Tradition Mantram Meaning
Buddhist Om mani padme hum “The jewel in the lotus of the heart”
Christian Jesus
My God and my all (St. Francis of Assisi is reported to have used this.)
Hindu Rama
Om Bhavani “Joy” (Gandhi’s mantram) A mantram in honor of the Divine Mother
Jewish Barukh attah Adonai Ribono shel olam “Blessed are you, O Lord” “Lord of the universe”
Muslim Allah
Bismillah ir-Rahman ir-Rahim “In the name of Allah, the merciful, the compassionate”
Herbert Benson’s Relaxation Response, and in Transcendental Medita- tion. Contrary to PM, these methods use mantrams as the focus of sitting meditation practice. In PM, the mantram is used as a bridging tool between meditation on an inspirational passage (typically done in the early morning), and the remainder of the day.
Studies suggest that the use of a mantram at free times throughout the day is effective in decreasing stress, anger and anxiety (see Bormann, this volume).
POINT 3—SLOWING DOWN
In PM, Slowing Down denotes the practice of moving with care and deliberation through the day to minimize the stress caused by hurry and time pressures. It does not necessarily mean going slowly, but rather setting priorities and limiting activities so as not to live with the constant time urgency of contemporary life. Excessive time urgency not only undermines quality of life, but has been linked to coronary illness. For example, a recent 15-year longitudinal study of young adults (n = 3,142) found that the “time/urgency and impatience syndrome” was a “strong predictor” of developing hypertension. Another recent study (n = 340) found that a heightened sense of the time/urgency and impatience syndrome was associated with a dose- response increase in the risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction.12
The practice of Slowing Down includes looking at and adjusting daily patterns and habits that may contribute to increased time urgency, such as driving patterns, eating habits, responses to work- place pressures, and technology use. Recommendations for altering these patterns to a healthier lifestyle include setting a more relaxed pace by getting to work earlier, setting limits, and avoiding over scheduling. As such, Slowing Down may represent a buffer against the pressures of the time/urgency and impatience syndrome.
POINT 4—ONE-POINTED ATTENTION
In PM, the practice of One-Pointed Attention involves trying to do only one thing at a time, and giving it full attention. Suggestions for practicing One-Pointed Attention include not listening to the radio while driving or studying, and not checking e-mail while talking to someone on the phone. While this practice may appear counterintui- tive in a multitasking, workplace culture, it offers a way to remain cen- tered amid the continuous assault of interruptions that characterize contemporary life.
Multitasking has become a commonplace phenomenon of contem- porary life, especially in the modern workplace. Yet serious questions are increasingly being raised about its actual benefits (e.g., Gallagher, 2009).13 Recent research suggests, for example, that trying to do more than one thing at a time may, in fact, have adverse consequences on learning and efficiency. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine brain activity, researchers in one recent study found that while multitasking participants’ learning was less flexible and less easily retrieved.14 Another study reported that “heavy media multi- taskers” who attend simultaneously to two or more media (e.g., phone, e-mail, print, etc.) performed “worse on a test of task-switching ability” and are “more susceptible to interference from irrelevant environmen- tal stimuli and irrelevant .. . memory” (emphasis added; p. 15583).15
Traditional Indian yoga stresses one-pointed concentration (ekagratha) as do certain forms of Buddhist meditation. One-Pointed
Attention and Slowing Down can be understood as the two primary dimensions of mindfulness, which work together to assist PM practi- tioners in staying focused and calm while managing competing demands and interruptions. Indeed, PM appears at least as effective for increasing mindfulness as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), according to evidence described later.16 Furthermore,
a recent randomized, controlled study of American veterans (n = 29) with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) combined PM man- tram repetition, Slowing Down, and One-Pointed Attention in a five- week intervention and found significant reductions in PTSD symptom severity, psychological distress, and increasing quality of life.17
POINT 5—TRAINING THE SENSES
Training the Senses directs practitioners to discriminate in lifestyle choices. It is not presented as a moral injunction, but as a corrective to compulsive behaviors like smoking, excessive drinking, and overeat- ing, which are strongly implicated by research in chronic conditions such as cancer and coronary illness.
The goal of Training the Senses is to develop a balanced lifestyle, in which we make wise and healthy choices in the foods we eat and the exercise we get, while avoiding unhealthy habits like smoking and overeating. Training the Senses also includes being discriminating in our entertainment choices. Some form of sense discrimination can be found in all major religious and contemplative systems, both East and West, and is referred to as the “Middle Path” in the Buddhist tra- dition. Such moderation can help support a contemplative practice, even as it promotes better health.
POINT 6—PUTTING OTHERS FIRST
Putting Others First encourages practitioners to move their concern and attention to the needs of others—family, colleagues, community, world—and away from serving only private self-interest. Putting Others First recasts into a contemporary formulation the early Christian concept of agape, universal love, as well as Buddhist metta, compassion.
Several decades of research have demonstrated the therapeutic value of helping others, showing positive relations between volunteerism and health, including increased longevity. A recent review suggested that the benefits of volunteering may be greatest when it is comple- mented by other practices, such as PM, that offer resources for coping with important life tasks.18
POINT 7—SPIRITUAL ASSOCIATION
Like Christian fellowship or the Buddhist Sangha, Spiritual Associ- ation emphasizes the importance of coming together on a regular basis with other PM practitioners to offer and receive support. Social support has long been recognized as a factor in both physical and psychological health, and is associated with longevity.19
POINT 8—INSPIRATIONAL READING
Daily spiritual reading from the world’s wisdom traditions is rec- ommended as a source of inspiration and motivation for PM practi- tioners. Lectio divina, for instance, is an ancient Christian devotional practice centered on reading and reflecting on scripture.
AN INTEGRATIVE PROGRAM
Each of the eight points has analogues in other traditional contem- plative systems as well as among contemporary practices (see Table 4.3). However, the PM points are not isolated protocols, independent of each other. Rather, as codified and used in PM, they are structurally integra- tive. They jointly reinforce each other in a web of supportive strategies that draw on the calm and clarity of meditation to help practitioners deepen their wisdom, and more effectively face the challenges of daily life. For example, in meditation, practitioners are instructed to repeat the words of the inspirational passage as slowly as they can, and with as much concentration as possible. Slowing Down and One-Pointed Attention replicate these interior practices during the day, supporting efforts in meditation to slow down and focus attention. The repetition of the mantram at moments of stress helps the mind refocus and regain some of the calm and clarity of meditation.
Some of the processes by which PM points complement each other are suggested by Oman’s (this volume) concept of four synergistic ele- ments that together comprise an integrated contemplative practice system.20 However, the developer of the PM program has described a wide range of additional processes by which PM points appear to complement each other.21 Some PM points are flexible tools for self- regulation and problem-focused coping;22 others help participants
Table 4.3. Elements of Easwaran’s PM and Similar Practices in Traditional Religion and Health Interventions
Element of PM
Similar Practices in Religious Traditions
Similar Existing Health Interventions
1. Meditation Raja Yoga, Kavvanah, Prayer
of the Heart, higher Lectio Divina
2. Mantram Jesus Prayer; Dhikr, Japa Yoga
Benson’s Meditation, Transcendental Meditation
Affirmations
3. Slowing Down Right Mindfulness Treating Type A (alleviate
sense of time urgency); Mindfulness—informal practices
4. One-Pointed Attention
Right Mindfulness Treating Type A (avoid polyphasic thinking), Mindfulness—informal practices
5. Training the Senses
6. Putting Others First
7. Spiritual Association
8. Inspirational Reading
Pervasive (e.g., Middle Way in Buddhism; Temperance in Christianity)
Pervasive (e.g., “Love Thy Neighbor”; humility)
Pervasive (e.g., faith communities; scriptural study groups; Sangha)
Pervasive (e.g., scriptural study; preparatory Lectio Divina)
Pervasive (e.g., 12-Step programs)
Treating Type A (be compassionate)
Social support, 12-Step programs
Reading sacred writings in counseling
draw on spiritual wisdom traditions to cultivate adaptive goals.23 Users sometimes state that PM helps them frame almost any situation as an opportunity for growth—for example, one reported that PM “can take any experience and work with it. it no longer has a static
presence—it’s clay in your hands to shape into something more.”24 Participants in one research study described 15 distinct ways that PM points worked together to promote work effectiveness.25
INTERPRETATION: LEARNING FROM SPIRITUAL MODELS
One of PM’s distinctive features, noted earlier, is its systematic sup- port for assimilation of key elements of spiritual wisdom traditions.
Most distinctively, meditating on a passage supports assimilating the attitudes and perspectives of revered spiritual wisdom figures such as the Buddha, Jesus, and others. Inspirational Reading (Point 8) also supports learning from such spiritual models. An intuitive appreciation of these features may account for some of PM’s appeal across cultures and faith traditions. A recent review reported that among meditation- based health interventions, PM offered the highest level of support for learning from exemplars from spiritual wisdom traditions.26
Scientifically, the process of learning from exemplars is known as spiritual modeling, an extension of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT), the most highly cited and widely applied theory in contemporary psychology. Bandura’s SCT helps illuminate from a scientific perspective how PM may foster spiritual growth through spiri- tual modeling. Spiritual and religious traditions have long recognized that “spirituality is caught, not taught.” But decades of SCT-guided research have extensively documented four major psychological processes that underlie all types of learning from human models of behavior: attention to the model, retention of information about the mod- el’s behavior and attitudes, reproduction of what is learned in behavior, and motivation to persist. By extension, Bandura and other psychologists have theorized that these same four processes underlie the effective transmission of spiritual behaviors and attitudes. Not surprisingly, therefore, evidence suggests that religious traditions have sought to foster these four processes throughout history (e.g., fostering retention through frequent repetition at worship services of key verses from scripture).2,10,27
These four modeling processes are also clearly evident in PM, which appears to foster them systematically. For example, memoriz- ing and meditating on an inspirational passage gives focused attention to the modeling information contained in the passage. Repeatedly meditating on the words builds retention. This, in turn, enhances the reproduction of the ideals in the passages during the day. Many passages also recount positive experiences that come to those who persist in spiritual practice, thereby supporting motivation to practice (“It is in giving that we receive”). Anecdotal evidence shows that meditation passages are sometimes recalled later in the day, in the midst of daily stressors, when they can facilitate improved coping and self-control.28 Passage Meditation’s support for spiritual modeling is corroborated
by controlled empirical research in college populations. A recent study reported that practicing PM enhances the influence and number of revered spiritual models, as well as one’s self-efficacy for learning
from spiritual models.6 Self-efficacy is a technical term for a person’s self-confidence for carrying out tasks in a particular skill domain, and is a central construct in Bandura’s SCT. Self-efficacy is typically among the strongest predictors of objective performance for any type of activity, and is increasingly used to evaluate programs for educa- tion, training, and behavioral modification.22 These documented gains in self-efficacy represent a pioneering application of Bandura’s theory to spirituality, and support PM’s theorized capacity to foster learning from spiritual models.
For this reason, we have argued that PM holds interest not merely as a health intervention,10 but as a model of a more general educational approach. That is, PM demonstrates a nonsectarian approach, feasible in appropriate settings in a pluralistic society, for reintegrating spiritual modeling into education and other human service professions. In what follows, we describe three applications of PM to educational settings— one for the continuing education of health professionals, and two for college undergraduates. We also describe research that documents beneficial impacts for stress reduction and gains in professional skills, forgiveness, mindfulness, and spirituality, and other outcomes. Fuller reviews of research on PM are available elsewhere.3,4
PM APPLICATION #1: WORKPLACE PROFESSIONALS
Health care workers, like many modern professional groups, often experience chronically high stress levels. Unfortunately, sustained stress experiences are a risk factor for accelerated rates of biological aging,29 as well as major chronic health conditions such as hypertension and coro- nary heart disease. Among health care professionals, stress has also been directly linked to problems ranging from depression, decreased job satisfaction, and disrupted personal relationships, to reduced concen- tration, impaired decision making, and poorer relationships with patients.30
Could training in Passage Meditation help hospital-based profes- sional caregivers to better manage the formidable stresses and challenges of their workplace? To study this question, an eight-week, 16-hour course was taught to health professionals in a large midwestern urban hospital. Study participants included nurses, physicians, chaplains, and other health care professionals who were randomly assigned to a
treatment group receiving PM classes (n = 27), or to a wait-list control group (n = 31).
Treatment group participants met together weekly in one large group. Part of each week’s activities took place in facilitated subgroups of six to eight persons. The classes emphasized using all eight points of PM to manage the challenges common to health care professionals with patient contact. Each weekly meeting lasted two hours, and included time for presentation, discussion, a break, and a group meditation.
Several outcomes of interest were measured using validated self- report questionnaires. All participants completed questionnaires on four occasions: prior to the beginning of the course, immediately after it concluded, 8 weeks later, and again 19 weeks after the course ended.
FINDINGS
The study found large and statistically significant reductions in stress which remained significant nearly five months after the course ended (see Figure 4.4a). Stress reductions were actually slightly larger eight weeks after the course ended than they were at postintervention, despite the lack of social support from the weekly classes. And at the 19-week follow-up assessment, nearly five months after classes ended, PM group reductions in perceived stress relative to the control group remained statistically significant. These stress reductions are quite large when compared with the effects seen in most intervention stud- ies, and the effects on stress were mediated (explained) by adherence to PM practices.30
The PM group also showed statistically significant benefits on sev- eral other outcome measures, in comparison with the control group. Mental health, assessed with a widely used scale, showed significant improvement, although changes were less dramatic than for stress.30 Smaller benefits, not statistically significant, were observed for burnout. But larger and statistically significant benefits for PM group participants were found for compassion31 (Figure 4.4b), empathy, forgiveness, and confidence in their professional caregiving skills (tech- nically called relational caregiving self-efficacy) (Figure 4.4c).32,25 All of these benefits were nearly fully retained at the final 19-week follow-up assessment.
These quantitative results were corroborated by semistructured inter- views with 24 of the participants (5 physicians, 12 nurses, and 7 others),
Figure 4.4. Effect of Passage Meditation Practice by Health Profes- sionals on (a) Stress, (b) Compassion, (c) Caregiving Self-Efficacy, and by College Students on (d) Forgiveness, in Comparison with Controls: Group Means Over Time.
an average of three months after the intervention. The interviews revealed that most participants could recount specific ways in which pro- gram points had helped them to be more effective in their work. For example, one caregiver reported:
I’ll tell you a couple of things that have happened to me recently from the [PM] Program. I’m more focused and I also feel like I’m making a conscious effort to look in people’s eyes so that I feel like they are hearing me and I’m hearing them. Recently someone said to me that my eyes show my compassion. So that
made it very real to me that I am coming across, that I do care. (p. 1129)25
Another said this about the mantram:
The mantram calms me down, slows me down and I feel that I can deal with whatever the situation is that got me upset. (p. 1129)25
PM APPLICATION #2: AN EIGHT-WEEK “STAND-ALONE” COLLEGE COURSE
Today’s college students cope with a variety of academic, social, and personal challenges that leave many of them feeling overwhelmed.16 Recently, undergraduates at a private university in California were taught PM in an eight-week course in which PM was taught along with spiritual modeling theory. Participants (n = 44) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: one group received PM training, a second group received training in MBSR, and a third control group was wait-listed. PM and MBSR groups were conducted concurrently, and each met over eight weeks for 90 minutes each week. Questionnaire self-report mea- sures were administered to all study participants immediately before and after the intervention, and eight weeks following its completion. Each week in the PM group, students were taught to use one or more of PM’s points, were familiarized with a prominent spiritual model, and participated in a 10- to 30-minute session of meditating on a passage. A detailed description of the PM course pedagogy has been published elsewhere.33
FINDINGS
For several outcomes, changes in PM and MBSR groups did not significantly differ from each other, suggesting very similar effects, and were pooled together in analyses of how they differed from controls. Compared to controls, the intervention groups showed significant reductions in stress and significant increases in the ability to forgive others (Figure 4.4d).16
PM and MBSR differences were also noted with regard to spiritual
modeling. Compared to controls, PM participants showed significant increases in self-efficacy for learning from famous/traditional spiritual models, the availability of pre-1900 spiritual models, and the influence
of famous/traditional spiritual models (these findings were mentioned earlier). Furthermore, the PM group gained significantly more than the MBSR group on these measures, and the MBSR group did not gain more than the controls. These findings were expected because of the higher support offered by PM for learning from spiritual models, especially traditional models.6
Interestingly, on a measure of mindfulness, the PM group showed
slightly larger gains than the MBSR group, which itself gained substan- tially in comparison to controls (Figure 4.5). According to the research- ers, findings suggest that “mindfulness ... can be trained through a variety of different practices that differ in ... level of explicit emphasis on mindfulness” (p. 858).34 These findings hold important implications, since mindfulness methods have recently inspired a variety of effective psychological interventions. Apparently benefits associated with mind- fulness need not be obtained only from Buddhist-derived mindfulness practices; these findings suggest that such benefits might equally be derivable from methods, such as PM, that draw spiritual content from other sources, including Western faith traditions.
Figure 4.5. Changes in Mindfulness Over Time for College Students Trained in Passage Meditation (PM), in Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), and for Controls (Cx).
PM10APPLICATION #3: PM EMBEDDED WITHIN
Along with experiencing enhanced stress, U.S. college students have become increasingly anxious, depressed, and uncertain about what to do with their lives.35 In response, a private California univer- sity in 2006 developed a 10-week academic course, English 189: Voca- tion. Offering ongoing support from PM along with role models from Renaissance lives and guest speakers,6 the course fulfills both English major and core religious studies requirements, attracting a wide range of students annually. This successful course demonstrates how PM can make a valuable contribution at the heart of liberal arts education. Easwaran’s Passage Meditation is used as the primary course text,
along with Dreher’s Your Personal Renaissance, which presents a pro-
cess for vocational discernment blending passage meditation with research from Renaissance biography and positive psychology. Several other historical and literary texts are also used.1,36
On the first day of class, after introductions and a short lecture, students begin their meditative practice, as described in Chapter 1 of Passage Meditation. They spend 10 minutes silently meditating on the first four lines of the Prayer of St. Francis, followed by time for ques- tions and comments. They are then assigned to read the first chapter of Passage Meditation and memorize the St. Francis prayer or another passage from their own spiritual tradition. For the rest of the quarter, they practice daily passage meditation, starting with 10 minutes and working up to 30 minutes a day, recording their experience in para- graph assignments.
In the second class, students practice PM, discuss their practice and readings on vocation, and select one Renaissance biography for their research paper and oral report from a list that includes St. Teresa of Avila, Leonardo da Vinci, John Milton, and Sor Juana Ine´s de la Cruz. The paper is due at the end of the term, along with a personal vocation narrative.
Each class begins with 10 minutes of passage meditation. Classes include regular check-ins with a professor who follows PM, offering personal insights and time for students’ questions.37 Throughout the course, students learn and practice each of the eight points, discuss them in class, and write about their experience. They read chapters in Your Personal Renaissance about discovering their gifts, detaching from distractions, discerning their values, and charting their direction,
while learning about how Renaissance role models, such as John Donne, St. Teresa of Avila, and St. Ignatius Loyola, used meditation to discern their vocations.
During the second week, students read about vocation, learn about how Giotto, Cimabue, and Botticelli discovered their gifts, look for parallels in their own lives, and take a survey to discover their gifts.38 In the third week, students review Chapter 1 of Passage Meditation, and consult the description of PM at www.Easwaran.org, another sup- portive guide for their practice. They read about da Vinci and other Renaissance artists, and learn about a guest speaker’s spiritual journey. During the fourth week students read Chapter 2 of Passage Meditation,
learn about using the mantram to relieve stress (see Bormann, this volume), then select and begin using their own mantram. They also learn about detachment, reading meditations by Traherne and Marvell. In the fifth week, students take a midterm on course readings and concepts. Then they focus on Chapter 3 of Passage Meditation, “slowing down,” along with reading on discernment and the life of St. Ignatius Loyola. The sixth week focuses on Chapter 4 in Passage Meditation, “one- pointed attention,” the search for direction, John Donne’s struggle, and the spiritual journey of another guest speaker. The seventh week focuses on Chapters 5 and 6 in Passage Meditation, “training the senses,” and “putting others first,” and the life and sonnets of Michelangelo.
During weeks eight and nine, students read Chapters 7 and 8 in Passage Meditation, focusing on “spiritual association” and “inspirational reading,” learn about the lives of George and Magdalen Herbert, and give their oral reports. In the tenth week, they meet individually with their professor for conferences on course papers. Course portfolios (research paper, personal vocation narrative, and final paragraphs) are due at the end of the week.
The final grade is based on the midterm, paragraphs, oral report, class participation, research paper, and personal vocation narrative. The daily paragraphs (written for each class period) provide a conven- ient means to assess student progress in their PM practice. For the personal vocation narrative, a grading rubric with key concepts and expectations helps students relate course lessons to their own lives.
OUTCOMES
Numerical evaluations for English 189 are high, averaging 4.7 on a 5-point scale. Student comments in paragraphs and narrative
evaluations reveal their appreciation for PM, which provides valuable tools for dealing with stress as well as a common culture and vocabu- lary to support students’ quest for vocation.
Although initially some students found it difficult to meditate, after a few weeks most looked forward to their daily meditation, finding peace and comfort in their practice. They appreciated the 10-minute medita- tion before each class, even requesting it the day of the midterm. Some students sought further meditation opportunities, joining a student- faculty Wednesday evening meditation group. Students repeatedly referred to “hurry sickness,” realizing when they needed to slow down, and reported that the mantram helped them deal with exam stress and to get to sleep at night. Many also found spiritual models in the course through PM, the guest speakers, and Renaissance lives.
CONCLUSIONS
We have suggested that PM’s use of inspirational passages from the world’s wisdom traditions gives it a distinctive appeal to many reli- gious and nonreligious spiritual seekers. PM appears unique among nonsectarian contemplative practices in its systematic support for learning from spiritual models, especially revered saints, sages, and founders. The inspired deeds and words (Figures 4.1 and 4.2) of such revered spiritual models represent a global legacy that many modern seekers continue to find relevant. The PM program’s support for learning from such models provides potentially important “added value” not only to individual seekers, but also to health and human service professionals who are increasingly called upon to respond to the diverse spiritual needs of their clientele.
We have described several applications of the PM program, includ- ing two educational courses for college undergraduates, as well as a continuing education course for health professionals. We outlined empirical research findings that confirmed that these PM-based courses helped participants to draw upon their spiritual resources to manage the challenges of the workplace and of college life with more clarity, resolve, and compassion. Benefits were promising and some- times dramatic. Stress reductions could plausibly translate into better physical health and longer life.29 Yet much remains to be discovered about how the PM program may be applied in other educational, health, and human service settings. Can PM support diabetics and other chronic-disease victims in adhering to lifesaving health
behaviors, despite the stresses and distractions of modern life? Can PM assist business executives to recover a spiritually grounded sense of purpose in the midst of challenging and stressful careers (see Delbecq, this volume)? Do PM-based courses offered through colleges or other organizations foster increased cross-cultural and interfaith understanding?
Because of its nonsectarian character, its comprehensive set of tools, its support for direct engagement with spiritual wisdom traditions, and its appeal to diverse populations, PM warrants careful consideration from all human service professionals, including caregivers, campus health services, and educators.
REFERENCES
1. Easwaran, E. (2008). Passage meditation: Bringing the deep wisdom of the heart into daily life (3rd ed.). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press. Full text also online at http://www.easwaran.org.
2. Bandura, A. (2003). On the psychosocial impact and mechanisms of spiritual modeling. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 13, 167–174.
3. Flinders, T., Oman, D., & Flinders, C. L. (2007). The eight-point program of passage meditation: Health effects of a comprehensive program. In T. G. Plante & C. E. Thoresen (Eds.), Spirit, science and health: How the spiri- tual mind fuels physical wellness (pp. 72–93). Westport, CT: Praeger.
4. Flinders, T., Oman, D., & Flinders, C. L. (2009). Meditation as empow- erment for healing. In J. H. Ellens (Ed.), The healing power of spirituality (Vol. 1, pp. 213–240). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
5. Two of the authors (Tim Flinders and Carol Flinders) have presented PM workshops over several decades to thousands of individuals observant in every religious tradition. The website www.easwaran.org lists over 100 current PM fellowship groups around the world.
6. Oman, D., Shapiro, S. L., Thoresen, C. E., Flinders, T., Driskill, J. D., & Plante, T. G. (2007). Learning from spiritual models and meditation: A randomized evaluation of a college course. Pastoral Psychology, 55, 473–493.
7. AA Meditators (n.d.). Passage meditation & the eleventh step: The method of meditation developed by Eknath Easwaran [booklet, 24 pages]. http://www
.meditationandrecovery.org (accessed December 13, 2009).
8. Plante, T. G. (2009). Spiritual practices in psychotherapy: Thirteen tools for enhancing psychological health. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
9. Dutch, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Russian, Slovenian, Spanish. Asian languages: Bahasa Indonesian,
Chinese (PRC), Chinese (Taiwan), Hebrew, Japanese, Korean, Malayalam (India), Marathi (India), Telugu (India).
10. Oman, D., & Thoresen, C. E. (2007). How does one learn to be spiri- tual? The neglected role of spiritual modeling in health. In T. G. Plante &
C. E. Thoresen (Eds.), Spirit, science and health: How the spiritual mind fuels physical wellness (pp. 39–54). Westport, CT: Praeger.
11. For holy name repetition through the day in Christianity, see Oman, D., & Driskill, J. D. (2003). Holy name repetition as a spiritual exercise and therapeutic technique. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 22, 5–19.
12. Cole, S. R., Kawachi, I., Liu, S., Gaziano, J. M., Manson, J. E., Buring, J. E., & Hennekens, C. H. (2001). Time urgency and risk of non-fatal myocardial infarction. International Journal of Epidemiology, 30(2), 363–369.
13. Gallagher, W. (2009). Rapt: Attention and the focused life. New York:
Penguin Press.
14. Foerde, K., Knowlton, B. J., Poldrack, R. A., & Smith, E. E. (2006). Modulation of competing memory systems by distraction. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 11778– 11783.
15. Ophir, E., Nass, C., & Wagner, A. D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 15583–15587.
16. Oman, D., Shapiro, S. L., Thoresen, C. E., Plante, T. G., & Flinders,
T. (2008). Meditation lowers stress and supports forgiveness among college students: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of American College Health, 56, 569–578.
17. Bormann, J. E., Thorp, S., Wetherell, J. L., & Golshan, S. (2008). Spiritually based group intervention for combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility study. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 26, 109–116.
18. Oman, D. (2007). Does volunteering foster physical health and lon- gevity? In S. G. Post (Ed.), Altruism and health: Perspectives from empirical research (pp. 15–32). New York: Oxford University Press.
19. Taylor, S. E. (2007). Social support. In H. S. Friedman & R. C. Silver (Eds.), Foundations of health psychology (pp. 145–171). New York: Oxford University Press.
20. Oman (this volume) defines an “integrative contemplative practice system” as including (1) set-aside time for attention training practice (e.g., sitting meditation), (2) cultivation of character strengths or virtues (e.g., Putting Others First), (3) centering practices for use throughout the day (e.g., the mantram), and (4) learning from spiritual models.
21. Easwaran published an extensive set of practical commentaries on Western and Eastern spiritual figures and scriptures. Many describe ways that PM points are complementary tools for coping with challenges of daily living and spiritual growth. His most comprehensive discussion is the Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living (1977–1984, 3 vols., Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press).
22. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
23. Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Kasser, T. (2004). The independent effects of goal contents and motives on well-being: It’s both what you pursue and why you pursue it. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 475–486.
24. Anonymous (2008). Life persists. Blue Mountain, 19(4), 7. (This journal, at http://www.nilgiri.org/page/140, regularly publishes anecdotal accounts of PM coping and results.)
25. Oman, D., Richards, T. A., Hedberg, J., & Thoresen, C. E. (2008). Passage meditation improves caregiving self-efficacy among health profes- sionals: A randomized trial and qualitative assessment. Journal of Health Psychology, 13, 1119–1135.
26. Oman, D., & Beddoe, A. E. (2005). Health interventions combining meditation with learning from spiritual exemplars: Conceptualization and review. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 29, S126.
27. Oman, D., & Thoresen, C. E. (2003). Spiritual modeling: A key to spiritual and religious growth? International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 13, 149–165.
28. For example, see an account of improved automobile driving after remembering a passage: Anonymous. (2008). “Finding peace on the road.” Blue Mountain, 19(1), 12.
29. Epel, E., Daubenmier, J., Moskowitz, J. T., Folkman, S., & Blackburn,
E. (2009). Can meditation slow rate of cellular aging? Cognitive stress, mind- fulness, and telomeres. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1172, 34–53.
30. Oman, D., Hedberg, J., & Thoresen, C. E. (2006). Passage meditation reduces perceived stress in health professionals: A randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 714–719.
31. Changes were observed in a measure of “compassionate love,” a form of “other-focused” love or concern that is the subject of an emerging scien- tific research field—see Fehr, B. A., Sprecher, S., & Underwood, L. G. (2008). The science of compassionate love: Theory, research, and applications. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
32. Oman, D., Thoresen, C. E., & Hedberg, J. (2010). Does passage meditation foster compassionate love among health professionals? A ran- domized trial. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 13, 129–154. DOI: 10.1080/13674670903261954.
33. Oman, D., Flinders, T., & Thoresen, C. E. (2008). Integrating spiri- tual modeling into education: A college course for stress management and spiritual growth. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 18, 79–107.
34. Shapiro, S. L., Oman, D., Thoresen, C. E., Plante, T. G., & Flinders,
T. (2008). Cultivating mindfulness: Effects on well-being. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64, 840–862.
35. Twenge, J. M. (2000). The age of anxiety? Birth cohort change in anxi- ety and neuroticism, 1952–1993. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1007–1021.
36. Additional course texts include Dreher, D. E. (2008). Your personal renaissance: 12 steps to finding your life’s true calling. New York: Da Capo; Vasari, G. (1998). The lives of the artists. J. C. Bondanella & P. Bondanella (Trans.). New York: Oxford University Press (originally published 1550); Perkins, W. (1970). A treatise of the vocations or callings of men. In I. Breward (Ed.), The work of William Perkins (pp. 441–476). Abington, Berkshire, England: Sutton Courtenay Press (originally published 1603); Hardy, L. (1990). The fabric of this world. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
37. As Kabat-Zinn explains, the support of an experienced meditator is vital when learning a new contemplative practice: Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science & Practice, 10, 144–156.
38. The VIA-IS survey, based on Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. New York: Oxford University Press, is available online at http://www.authentichappiness
.org, and also in Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness. New York: Free Press.
CHAPTER 5
