2020/04/26

Humour 해학 - 위키백과,

해학 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전

해학

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
둘러보기로 가기검색하러 가기
 유머는 여기로 연결됩니다. 다른 뜻에 대해서는 유머 (동음이의) 문서를 참조하십시오.
해학(諧謔, 영어: Humor) 은 익살스럽고도 품위가 있는 말이나 행동이다. 해학을 이용하여 풍자를 표현하기도 한다. "유머"란 고대 생리학에서 의 체내를 흐르는 혈액, 점액, 담즙, 흑담즙 등 4종류의 체액을 의미했는데 이런 채액의 배합 정도에 따라 사람의 기분, 기질등이 변화한다고 믿던 것이 뜻이 점차 변형되어 현재의 "해학"으로서의 뜻을 갖게 되었다.[1]
해학이란 우리가 웃을 때면 우리에게 주어진 메시지에 반응하는 것을 말하며[2], 어울리거나 일치되지 않는 생각이나 사건, 상황 등의 메시지를 평가하고 정신적으로 경험하는 것이며[3], 재미있는 장면을 보고 재미있다고 지각하여 그 결과로는 행동을 나타낼 때 까지의 과정을 포함하는 포괄적인 인지적 경험이다.[4]
해학과 웃음의 유발 요인에 관해서는 과거부터 많은 관점들이 존재했는데, 

  1. 아리스토텔레스와 플라톤은 ‘기형적인 것, 결함(deformity) 즉 보통의 규범적인 모양을 벗어난 것이 웃음을 유발한다고 보았다[5]. 
  2. 홉스는 ‘웃음의 우월이론(superiorioty theory of humor)을 이야기한 바 있다. 이것은 다른 사람에게 있는 기형적 형태, 또는 다른 사람의 불완전함을 자신과 비교함으로써 자기찬양(self- glorification)의 열정을 느낀다고 보는 시각이다. 
  3. 또한 칸트는 긴장된 기대를 하다가 갑자기 ‘아무것도 아닌 것’으로 변해 버릴 때 일어나는 감정이 웃음을 유발한다고 본다. 문제가 있어 보이던 것이 사소한 것으로 판명될 때 웃음을 기대하게 된다는 것이다. 
  4. 이처럼 문제 있어 보이던 것이 웃을 만한 것으로 변하는 것을 영국의 철학자 스펜서는 불일치의 감소 (descending incongruity)라고 표현했다. 
  5. 이와 유사하게, 독일의 철학자 쇼펜하우어는 개념과 지각 간의 불일치가 웃음을 유발한다고 주장했다.

정의[편집]

해학은 말장난이나, 구조나 발음상 비슷한 다의의 말을 이용하여, 우스운 상황을 과장하는 것이다[6] 해학이란 우리가 웃을 때면 우리에게 주어진 메시지에 반응하는 것이며,[7] 사회 문화적 현실 속에서 내적 수정을 요하는 인지적이며 무의식적으로 경험하는 유쾌한 마음의 상태로 문화적 인지에 대한 부조화, 왜곡, 과장 , 또는 사건에 대한 문화적 요소의 비정상적인 결합을 초래한다[8] 해학은 언어적으로 의사를 전달하는 것으로서, 상황의 부조화를 순간적으로 지각하며 즐거움 또는 웃음을 자극하는 것이다. 사건, 사물, 생각, 사회적 기대감이 정상적이거나 기대된 양식과 일치하지 않을 때 발생하게 된다[9]. 즉 상황의 부조화를 순간적으로 지각하며 즐거움 또는 웃음을 자극하는 것이라 할 수 있다.
웃음은 유머의 과정에서 나타나는 심리적 현상으로 웃는 행위 자체를 나타낸다. 본 단어는 한국어 동사, '웃다'의 어간 '웃-'에 명사형 접미사 '-음'을 합성해 만든 단어다. 타인에 의해 웃음이 유발된 상태일 때 화자는 피동 접미사 '-기'의 표현으로 타인에게 웃긴다, 웃기다 라고 표현을 한다.

웃음이 유발되는 이유와 해학을 일으키는 요소[편집]

웃음을 띈 얼굴 자체, 일명 미소는 일정 조건이 만족될 때 15개의 안면 근육이 수축하면서 나타나는 움직임이고 진지한 일을 우스꽝스럽게 표현하거나 우스꽝스런 일을 사뭇 진지하게 나타내서 발생하는 것은 해학이다.
역설이나 동문서답, 그리고 속된 속어 등이 해학을 일으키는 해학의 요소가 된다. 또 무지, 허영, 우연의 일치, 이랬다 저랬다 하는 것, 부주의, 우직한 것, 극단 등의 만화적인 표현과 가치를 바꾸는 것이나 부조화의 표현은 모두 웃음을 자아낸다.[10]
생각하고 있던 말과 실제로 나온 말 사이에서의 불일치를 갑자기 파악했을 때 생기게 되는데, 이러한 불일치는 사람들이 일반적으로 예상하고 있는 대화의 전제를 부정하거나, 대화의 원리가 되는 기본적인 격을 위배하는 것으로부터 생겨남으로 해학의 웃음 유발의 원리를 비예측성 상황에서의 불일치로 볼 수 있다.[11] 이처럼 해학의 웃음 유발의 원리는 비예측성에 있다고 할 수 있는데 해학에서는 생산자가 만들어 낼 이야기의 결과를 예측하지 못한 수용자가 허를 찔리게 되는 과정에서 웃음이 발생한다.
손세모돌은 해학의 형성원리를 "의외성"으로 보고 "의외성"을 듣는 이의 예측이 어긋나거나 예측 불허인 상태라고 설명하였다. 그리고 해학이란 의도적으로 계산된 웃음 유발 장치로 대화자 상호간에 의외성을 이해할 능력이 없으면 제대로 작동하지 못한다고 말한다.[12] 사람들은 해학이 아닌 상황에서도 잘 웃는다. 따라서 단순히 웃음을 유발한다고 해서 그것들이 모두 해학이 되는 것은 아니다. 해학에 관한 학자들의 정의를 보면 손세모돌은 “의도적으로 계산된 웃음 유발 장치를 가진 이야기"라고 정의한다. 한성일은 유머를 “남을 웃기는 말이나 그 말과 함께 이루어지는 행동의 통칭”으로 정의하면서 ‘유머 텍스트’를 “남을 웃기기 위해 의도적으로 만든 일정한 구조를 갖춘 이야기”라고 하였다.[13] 이재원은 “남을 웃기게 하기 위해 의도적으로 만든 일정한 구조를 갖춘 이야기”로 정의하고 있다. 이 연구들에서 반복적으로 나타나는 요소들을 뽑아보면 ‘의도성’과 ‘웃음’이 해학의 조건임을 알 수 있다.
웃음이란 대단히 기이한 감정 표현으로, 그 발생이 한 감정에서부터 생기는 것이 아니라 여러 복합적인 감정으로부터 생긴다. 예를 들자면, 인간은 앞에 길을 가던 다른 사람이 갑자기 넘어지는 것을 보고 웃을 수 도 있으며, 대회에서 우승하기 위하여 노력을 했지만 탈락했을 때 허탈감 속에서 웃을 수 도 있다. 이 두 예에 대하여 답이 될 수 있는 것은 칸트의 "긴장스러운 예상이 갑작스레 무(無)로 돌아갈 때 웃음은 터진다"라는 말일 것이다. 앞에 지나가던 사람이 똑바로 걸어갈 것이란 예상이 갑작스레 없어질 때 웃음이 터지며, 자신이 대회에서 우승할 것이란 예상이 헛되게 돌아갈 때에도 웃음이 터질 수 있다는 것이다. 이 논리로 풀 수 있는 예는 몇가지 더 있으며, 그 예로 자신과 계속 경쟁하던 라이벌이 갑자기 사라지는 순간에 웃음이 터지는 것도 자신의 경쟁자가 계속 자신과 경쟁할 것이란 예상이 그 순간 깨졌으므로 웃음이 터지는 것이며, 소원도 하나의 예상이라 볼 수 있다면 자신의 소원이 해결 되는 순간 자신의 예상이 없어지는 것이므로 웃음이 나오는 것이다. 이것이 현대의 어느 정도 신빙성이 있는 사상으로, 이것을 허버트 스펜서는 생물학적인 말로 바꾸었기를 "의식이 굉장한 일에서 사소한 일로 불시에 전이할 때 감정과 감각은 신체운동을 발생한다."라 했다.

웃음과 그 표정의 선후관계[편집]

일반적으로 사람들은 사람이 기뻐서 웃는 것으로 생각하나, 신경생리학적 관점에서 웃어서 기쁘다고도 주장한다.[14]

해학에 대한 이론[편집]

-각성이론: 해학이 축적된 긴장 또는 에너지를 감소시킨다고 보는 견해
-부조화 이론: 해학자극에 대한 인지적 이해 과정에 초점을 둔것으로 해학의 본질이 예기치 않은 형식으로 본질적으로 서로 다른 두 사상, 개념 또는 상황이 함께 진행됨으로써 해학이 발생한다고 보는 견해.(분석심리학에서 파생)
-우월성 이론: 주로 타인의 약함과 흉함에 대한 반응으로 해학이 유발된다고 보는 견해[15]
한편, 인간의 열등감과 우월감을 연구한 심리학자, 알프레드 아들러는 타인의 불행이나 어리석음을 비웃는 것을 타인과의 비교로 인한 우월감 느끼기로 보지 않았다. 그는 그러한 비웃음을 그 사람처럼 되지 말아야겠다는 다짐이 담긴 뜻으로 보았다.[16]
-정신분석적 이론: 해학은 가장된 성적 공격이다.
-언어 이론: 해학은 앞뒤가 맞지 않는 일과 다른 논리적인 문제를 해결하는 것과 관련된다고 보는 견해[17]

해학의 종류[편집]

기능별 분류[편집]

 -정서 순화형
 -풍자형
 -언어유희형
 -이야기형
 -비교분석형[18]

언어적 비언어적 요소에 따른 분류[편집]

 -언어적 요소
   -발음, 동음이의어, 단어의 중의성, 사투리, 받침,음성영상,
    대구 활용하기
 -비언어적 요소
   -[동문서답]하기, 되받아치기, 고정관념 이용하기, 특징 찾아 핵심찌르기, 정곡 찌르기, 우스운 상황 연출하기, 함정만들기, 배경 지식 충돌시키기, 패러디하기[19]

해학 기술의 요소[편집]

-불합리 absurdity : 넌센스, 논리적 규칙에 반하는 상황
-의인화 anthropomorphism: 사물이나 동물이 인간의 모습을 함
-호언장담bombast : 호언장담하거나 과장된 말
-추격chase: 어떤 사람이나 사물을 쫒아다니거나 추격함
-익살스러운 행동clownish behavior: 활발한 팔다리 움직임이나 과장된 불규칙 신체 행동
-서투름clumsiness: 숙달되거나 우아하지 않음
-우연의 일치coincidence: 우연히 예기치 않은 일이 일어남
-개념적 놀라움conceptual surprise: 갑작스럽게 기대하지 않았던 개념의 변화로 청중을 오해시킴
-실망disappointment: (사소한)실망을 가져오는 상황
-기이함eccentricity: 규범에서 벗어나는 사람, 이상한 등장 인물
-당혹스러움embarrassment: 누군가 불편함이나 창피함을 느끼게 되는 어색한 상황
-과장exaggeration: 과장된 말, 과장된 반응, 어떤 사람이나 사물의 질을 과장함
-기괴한 외양grotesque appearance : 놀라운 특성을 지닌, 이상하거나 괴물 같은 외양을 가진 사람
-무지ignorance: 어리석고 순진하여 속기 쉬운, 유치하게 행동하는 사람
-모방imitation: 정체성을 유지하면서 어떤 사람의 모습이나 움직임을 따라 함
-분장impersonation: 의도적이든 비의도적이든, 다른 사람의 정체성을 지님
-어린애 같은 언동: 말소리를 어린애 같이 하며 노는 것
-비꼬기irony: 말하는 것과 다르거나 반대되는 것을 의미함
-무관한 행동irrelevant behavior: 귄위나 현존 기준을 적절히 존중하지 않음
-심술궂은 쾌락malicious pleasure: 다른 사람의 불행을 즐거워함, 희생자 유머
-오해misunderstanding: 상황을 잘못 해석함
-재치outwitting: 반박, 응답 또는 되받아칠 때 기지를 발휘하여 압도함
-패러디parody: 문체, 다른 문학 장르, 또는 다른 미디어를 모방함
-독특한 얼굴peculiar face: 우스꽝스러운 얼굴이나 찡그린 표정을 함
-독특한 소리peculiar sound: 만화에서 같이, 우스꽝스럽거나 예기치 않았던 소리
-독특한 목소리peculiar voice: 우스꽝스러운 이상한 소리
-동음이의의 익살pun: 이중의 뜻을 지닐 수 있는 단어의 의미를 활용하는 것
-재치 있는 즉답repartee: 대개 위트 있는 대화 안에 나타나는 언어 유희
-반복repetition: 같은 상황을 반복하거나 다시 보여 줌
-조롱ridicule: 누군가를 언어적 또는 비언어적으로 놀림
-완고함rigidity: 보수적이고 융통성이 없어 경직된 사고를 하는 사람
-빈정거림sarcasm: 적대적 톤으로 날카롭게 쏘는 말을 함. 항상 언어적 표현
-풍자satire: 잘 알려진 사물, 상황, 또는 공적 인물을 놀리거나 찌름
-규모scale: 사람의 논리적 기대치를 뛰어넘는, 아주 크거나 작은 크기
-성적 암시sexual allusion: 성적이거나 장난스러운 문제를 가리키거나 암시함
-법석 떨기slapstick: 신체적으로 얼굴에 파이 묻히기 등, 누군가의 지위를 격하시킴
-속도speed: 아주 빠르거나 느린 동작으로 걷거나 움직임
-고정관념stereotype: 국가, 성, 집단의 구성원을 고정 관념화, 일반화시켜 표현함
-변형transformation: 어떤 사람이나 사물이 변형되어 다른 형태를 띰
-시각적 놀라움visual surprise: 갑작스럽고 예기치 않은 시각적, 신체적 변화

같이 보기[편집]

각주[편집]

  1. ↑ 이상섭, 『문학비평용어사전』, 민음사, 2001년
  2. ↑ Berger,C(1987).Humor.American Behavioral Scientist,30(3),6~10
  3. ↑ McGhee,P (1979) Humor, its origin and development.
  4. ↑ 강문희(1983) "한국 아동의 유머 발달에 관한 심리학적 연구"
  5. ↑ zilmann&Bryant,1991,pp.268이후
  6. ↑ Diener, E, Sandvick, E, & Larsen, J (1985) Age and sex affects for emotional intensity, Developmental Psychology, 21(3), 542~546
  7. ↑ Berger,C(1987).Humor.American Behavioral Scientist,30(3),6~10
  8. ↑ Apete, M. L.(1985) Humor and Laughter: An anthropological approach Ithaca. N.Y.:Cornell University Press
  9. ↑ McGhee,P (1979) Humor, its origin and development.
  10. ↑ Berger,C(1987).Humor.American Behavioral Scientist,30(3),6~10
  11. ↑ 구현정(1999) "유머 담화의 구조와 생성 기제",159~184
  12. ↑ 손세모돌(1999) "유머로 보는 한국사회" 한민족문화연구
  13. ↑ 한성일(2003)"유머텍스트의 원리와 언어학적 분석",경원대학교 박사학위 논문
  14. ↑ 본 문서,《뒤센 웃음과 팬암 웃음》참조
  15. ↑ Lefcourt,H.M & Martin, R.A.(1986). Humor and life stress: Antidote to adversity. New York: Springer-Verlag.
  16. ↑ 《인간이해》, 알프레드 아들러
  17. ↑ Berger,C(1987).Humor.American Behavioral Scientist,30(3),6~10
  18. ↑ 한얼 유머 동호회, 2000
  19. ↑ 이도영(1999) "유머 텍스트의 웃음 유발 장치"
  20. ↑ Buijzen & Valkenvurg “Developing a typology of humor in audiovisual media”, Media Psychology, pp.147~167

외부 링크[편집]

위키미디어 공용에 관련된
미디어 분류가 있습니다.
  • (영어) Humor - Curlie

Humour

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For other uses, see Humour (disambiguation).
"Hilarity" and "Hilarious" redirect here. For the US Navy ship, see USS Hilarity (AM-241). For the stand-up special by Louis C.K., see Hilarious (film). For the Roman Catholic Pope Saint Hilarius, see Pope Hilarius.
"Funny" redirects here. For the 2015 Chase & Status song, see Funny (song).
For Wikipedia's article on humour, see Wikipedia:Silly things.
From top-left to bottom-right or from top to bottom (mobile): various people laughing from Afghanistan, Tibet, Brazil, and Malaysia
Humour (British English), also spelt as humor (American English; see spelling differences), is the tendency of experiences to provoke laughter and provide amusement. The term derives from the humoral medicine of the ancient Greeks, which taught that the balance of fluids in the human body, known as humours (Latin: humor, "body fluid"), controlled human health and emotion.
People of all ages and cultures respond to humour. Most people are able to experience humour—be amused, smile or laugh at something funny (such as a pun or joke)—and thus are considered to have a sense of humour. The hypothetical person lacking a sense of humour would likely find the behaviour inducing it to be inexplicable, strange, or even irrational. Though ultimately decided by personal taste, the extent to which a person finds something humorous depends on a host of variables, including geographical location, culture, maturity, level of education, intelligence and context. For example, young children may favour slapstick such as Punch and Judy puppet shows or the Tom and Jerry cartoons, whose physical nature makes it accessible to them. By contrast, more sophisticated forms of humour such as satire require an understanding of its social meaning and context, and thus tend to appeal to a more mature audience.

Theories

Main article: Theories of humour
Many theories exist about what humour is and what social function it serves. The prevailing types of theories attempting to account for the existence of humour include psychological theories, the vast majority of which consider humour-induced behaviour to be very healthy; spiritual theories, which may, for instance, consider humour to be a "gift from God"; and theories which consider humour to be an unexplainable mystery, very much like a mystical experience.[1]
The benign-violation theory, endorsed by Peter McGraw, attempts to explain humour's existence. The theory says 'humour only occurs when something seems wrong, unsettling, or threatening, but simultaneously seems okay, acceptable or safe'.[2] Humour can be used as a method to easily engage in social interaction by taking away that awkward, uncomfortable, or uneasy feeling of social interactions.
Others believe that 'the appropriate use of humour can facilitate social interactions'.[3]

Views

Some claim that humour should not be explained. Author E.B. White once said, "Humor can be dissected as a frog can, but the thing dies in the process and the innards are discouraging to any but the pure scientific mind."[4] Counter to this argument, protests against "offensive" cartoons invite the dissection of humour or its lack by aggrieved individuals and communities. This process of dissecting humour does not necessarily banish a sense of humour but directs attention towards its politics and assumed universality (Khanduri 2014).[5]
Arthur Schopenhauer lamented the misuse of humour (a German loanword from English) to mean any type of comedy. However, both humour and comic are often used when theorising about the subject. The connotations of humour as opposed to comic are said to be that of response versus stimulus. Additionally, humour was thought to include a combination of ridiculousness and wit in an individual; the paradigmatic case being Shakespeare's Sir John Falstaff. The French were slow to adopt the term humour; in French, humeur and humour are still two different words, the former referring to a person's mood or to the archaic concept of the four humours.[citation needed]
Non-satirical humour can be specifically termed droll humour or recreational drollery.[6][7]

Sociological factors

As with any art form, the acceptance of a particular style or incidence of humour depends on sociological factors and varies from person to person. Throughout history, comedy has been used as a form of entertainment all over the world, whether in the courts of the Western kings or the villages of the Far East. Both a social etiquette and a certain intelligence can be displayed through forms of wit and sarcasm. Eighteenth-century German author Georg Lichtenberg said that "the more you know humour, the more you become demanding in fineness."[8]

Ancient Greece

Western humour theory begins with Plato, who attributed to Socrates (as a semi-historical dialogue character) in the Philebus (p. 49b) the view that the essence of the ridiculous is an ignorance in the weak, who are thus unable to retaliate when ridiculed. Later, in Greek philosophy, Aristotle, in the Poetics (1449a, pp. 34–35), suggested that an ugliness that does not disgust is fundamental to humour.

India

In ancient Sanskrit drama, Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra defined humour (hāsyam) as one of the nine nava rasas, or principle rasas (emotional responses), which can be inspired in the audience by bhavas, the imitations of emotions that the actors perform. Each rasa was associated with a specific bhavas portrayed on stage.

In Arabic and Persian culture


Muhammad al-Baqir's Hadith about humour
The terms comedy and satire became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and Islamic philosophers such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Persian Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation, and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension" and made no reference to light and cheerful events or troublesome beginnings and happy endings associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term comedy thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature.[9]

Caribbean

Mento star Lord Flea, stated in a 1957 interview that he thought that: "West Indians have the best sense of humour in the world. Even in the most solemn song, like Las Kean Fine ["Lost and Can Not Be Found"], which tells of a boiler explosion on a sugar plantation that killed several of the workers, their natural wit and humour shine though."[10]

China

Confucianist Neo-Confucian orthodoxy, with its emphasis on ritual and propriety, has traditionally looked down upon humour as subversive or unseemly. Humor was perceived as irony and sarcasm.[11] The Confucian "Analects" itself, however, depicts the Master as fond of humorous self-deprecation, once comparing his wanderings to the existence of a homeless dog.[12] Early Daoist philosophical texts such as "Zhuangzi" pointedly make fun of Confucian seriousness and make Confucius himself a slow-witted figure of fun.[13] Joke books containing a mix of wordplay, puns, situational humour, and play with taboo subjects like sex and scatology, remained popular over the centuries. Local performing arts, storytelling, vernacular fiction, and poetry offer a wide variety of humorous styles and sensibilities.
Famous Chinese humorists include the ancient jesters Chunyu Kun and Dongfang Shuo; writers of the Ming and Qing dynasties such as Feng Menglong, Li Yu,[14] and Wu Jingzi; and modern comic writers such as Lu Xun, Lin Yutang, Lao She, Qian Zhongshu, Wang Xiaobo, and Wang Shuo, and performers such as Ge You, Guo Degang, and Zhou Libo.
Modern Chinese humor has been heavily influenced not only by indigenous traditions, but also by foreign humor, circulated via print culture, cinema, television, and the internet.[15] During the 1930s, the transliteration "youmo" (humour) caught on as a new term for humour, sparking a fad for humour literature, as well as impassioned debate about what type of humorous sensibility best suited China, a poor, weak country under partial foreign occupation.[16][17][18] While some types of comedy were officially sanctioned during the rule of Mao Zedong, the Party-state's approach towards humour was generally repressive.[19] Social liberalisation in the 1980s, commercialisation of the cultural market in the 1990s, and the advent of the internet have each—despite an invasive state-sponsored censorship apparatus—enabled new forms of humour to flourish in China in recent decades.[20]

Social transformation model

The social transformation model of humour predicts that specific characteristics, such as physical attractiveness, interact with humour.[21] This model involves linkages between the humorist, an audience, and the subject matter of the humour.[21] The two transformations associated with this particular model involves the subject matter of the humour, and the change in the audience's perception of the humorous person, therefore establishing a relationship between the humorous speaker and the audience.[21] The social transformation model views humour as adaptive because it communicates the present desire to be humorous as well as future intentions of being humorous.[21] This model is used with deliberate self-deprecating humour where one is communicating with desires to be accepted into someone else's specific social group.[21] Although self-deprecating humour communicates weakness and fallibility in the bid to gain another's affection, it can be concluded from the model that this type of humour can increase romantic attraction towards the humorist when other variables are also favourable.[21]

Physical attractiveness

90% of men and 81% of women, all college students, report having a sense of humour is a crucial characteristic looked for in a romantic partner.[22] Humour and honesty were ranked as the two most important attributes in a significant other.[23] It has since been recorded that humour becomes more evident and significantly more important as the level of commitment in a romantic relationship increases.[24] Recent research suggests expressions of humour in relation to physical attractiveness are two major factors in the desire for future interaction.[21] Women regard physical attractiveness less highly compared to men when it came to dating, a serious relationship, and sexual intercourse.[21] However, women rate humorous men more desirable than nonhumorous individuals for a serious relationship or marriage, but only when these men were physically attractive.[21]
Furthermore, humorous people are perceived by others to be more cheerful but less intellectual than nonhumorous people. Self-deprecating humour has been found to increase the desirability of physically attractive others for committed relationships.[21] The results of a study conducted by McMaster University suggest humour can positively affect one's desirability for a specific relationship partner, but this effect is only most likely to occur when men use humour and are evaluated by women.[25] No evidence was found to suggest men prefer women with a sense of humour as partners, nor women preferring other women with a sense of humour as potential partners.[25] When women were given the forced-choice design in the study, they chose funny men as potential relationship partners even though they rated them as being less honest and intelligent.[25] Post-Hoc analysis showed no relationship between humour quality and favourable judgments.[25]

Psychological well-being

It is generally known that humour contributes to higher subjective wellbeing (both physical and psychological).[26] Previous research on humour and psychological well-being show that humour is in fact a major factor in achieving, and sustaining, higher psychological wellbeing.[26][27] This hypothesis is known as general facilitative hypothesis for humour.[26] That is, positive humour leads to positive health. Not all contemporary research, however, supports the previous assertion that humour is in fact a cause for healthier psychological wellbeing.[28] Some of the previous researches’ limitations is that they tend to use a unidimensional approach to humour because it was always inferred that humour was deemed positive. They did not consider other types of humour, or humour styles. For example, self-defeating or aggressive humour.[29] Research has proposed 2 types of humour that each consist of 2 styles, making 4 styles in total. The two types are adaptive versus maladaptive humour.[29] Adaptive humour consist of facilitative and self-enhancing humour, and maladaptive is self-defeating and aggressive humour. Each of these styles can have a different impact on psychological and individuals’ overall subjective wellbeing.[29]
  1. Affiliative style humour. Individuals with this dimension of humour tend to use jokes as a means of affiliating relationships, amusing others, and reducing tensions.[29]
  2. Self-enhancing style humour. People that fall under this dimension of humour tend to take a humorous perspective of life. Individuals with self-enhancing humour tend to use it as a mechanism to cope with stress.[29]
  3. Aggressive humour. Racist jokes, sarcasm and disparagement of individuals for the purpose of amusement. This type of humour is used by people who do not consider the consequences of their jokes, and mainly focus on the entertainment of the listeners.[29]
  4. Self-defeating humour. People with this style of humour tend to amuse others by using self-disparaging jokes, and also tend to laugh along with others when being taunted. It is hypothesised that people use this style of humour as a mean of social acceptance. It is also mentioned that these people may have an implicit feeling of negativity. So they use this humour as a means of hiding that inner negative feeling.[29]
In the study on humour and psychological well-being, research has concluded that high levels of adaptive type humour (affiliative and self-enhancing) is associated with better self-esteem, positive affect, greater self-competency, as well as anxiety control and social interactions.[30] All of which are constituents of psychological wellbeing. Additionally, adaptive humour styles may enable people to preserve their sense of wellbeing despite psychological problems.[27] In contrast, maladaptive humour types (aggressive and self-defeating) are associated with poorer overall psychological wellbeing,[30] emphasis on higher levels of anxiety and depression. Therefore, humour may have detrimental effects on psychological wellbeing, only if that humour is of negative characteristics.[30]

Physiological effects


Boris Yeltsin and Bill Clinton enjoying a joke, in spite of their language differences
Humour is often used to make light of difficult or stressful situations and to brighten up a social atmosphere in general. It is regarded by many as an enjoyable and positive experience, so it would be reasonable to assume that it humour might have some positive physiological effects on the body.
A study designed to test the positive physiological effects of humour, the relationship between being exposed to humour and pain tolerance in particular, was conducted in 1994 by Karen Zwyer, Barbara Velker, and Willibald Ruch. To test the effects of humour on pain tolerance the test subjects were first exposed to a short humorous video clip and then exposed to the cold pressor test. To identify the aspects of humour which might contribute to an increase in pain tolerance the study separated its fifty-six female participants into three groups, cheerfulness, exhilaration and humour production. The subjects were further separated into two groups, high Trait-Cheerfulness and high Trait-Seriousness according to the State-Trait-Cheerfulness-Inventory. The instructions for the three groups were as follows: the cheerfulness group were told to get excited about the movie without laughing or smiling, the exhilaration group was told to laugh and smile excessively, exaggerating their natural reactions, the humour production group was told to make humorous comments about the video clip as they watched. To ensure that the participants actually found the movie humorous and that it produced the desired effects the participants took a survey on the topic which resulted in a mean score of 3.64 out of 5. The results of the Cold Press Test showed that the participants in all three groups experienced a higher pain threshold, a higher pain tolerance and a lower pain tolerance than previous to the film. The results did not show a significant difference between the three groups.[31]
There are also potential relationships between humour and having a healthy immune system. SIgA is a type of antibody that protects the body from infections. In a method similar to the previous experiment, the participants were shown a short humorous video clip and then tested for the effects. The participants showed a significant increase in SIgA levels.[32]
There have been claims that laughter can be a supplement for cardiovascular exercise and might increase muscle tone.[33] However an early study by Paskind J. showed that laughter can lead to a decrease in skeletal muscle tone because the short intense muscle contractions caused by laughter are followed by longer periods of muscle relaxation. The cardiovascular benefits of laughter also seem to be just a figment of imagination as a study that was designed to test oxygen saturation levels produced by laughter, showed that even though laughter creates sporadic episodes of deep breathing, oxygen saturation levels are not affected.[34]
As humour is often used to ease tension, it might make sense that the same would be true for anxiety. A study by Yovetich N, Dale A, Hudak M. was designed to test the effects humour might have on relieving anxiety. The study subject were told that they would be given to an electric shock after a certain period of time. One group was exposed to humorous content, while the other was not. The anxiety levels were measured through self-report measures as well as the heart rate. Subjects which rated high on sense of humour reported less anxiety in both groups, while subjects which rated lower on sense of humour reported less anxiety in the group which was exposed to the humorous material. However, there was not a significant difference in the heart rate between the subjects.[35]

In the workplace

Humour is a ubiquitous, highly ingrained, and largely meaningful aspect of human experience and is therefore decidedly relevant in organisational contexts, such as the workplace.[36]
The significant role that laughter and fun play in organisational life has been seen as a sociological phenomenon and has increasingly been recognised as also creating a sense of involvement among workers.[37] Sharing humour at work not only offers a relief from boredom, but can also build relationships, improve camaraderie between colleagues and create positive affect.[36] Humour in the workplace may also relieve tension and can be used as a coping strategy.[36] In fact, one of the most agreed upon key impacts that workplace humour has on people's well being, is the use of humour as a coping strategy to aid in dealing with daily stresses, adversity or other difficult situations.[36] Sharing a laugh with a few colleagues may improve moods, which is pleasurable, and people perceive this as positively affecting their ability to cope.[36] Fun and enjoyment are critical in people's lives and the ability for colleagues to be able to laugh during work, through banter or other, promotes harmony and a sense of cohesiveness.[36]
Humour may also be used to offset negative feelings about a workplace task or to mitigate the use of profanity, or other coping strategies, that may not be otherwise tolerated.[36] Not only can humour in the workplace assist with defusing negative emotions, but it may also be used as an outlet to discuss personal painful events, in a lighter context, thus ultimately reducing anxiety and allowing more happy, positive emotions to surface.[36] Additionally, humour may be used as a tool to mitigate the authoritative tone by managers when giving directives to subordinates. Managers may use self-deprecating humour as a way to be perceived as more human and "real" by their employees.[36] Furthermore, ethnography studies, carried out in a variety of workplace settings, confirmed the importance of a fun space in the workplace.[37] The attachment to the notion of fun by contemporary companies has resulted in workplace management coming to recognise the potentially positive effects of "workplay" and realise that it does not necessarily undermine workers’ performance.[37]
Laughter and play can unleash creativity, thus raising morale, so in the interest of encouraging employee consent to the rigours of the labour process, management often ignore, tolerate and even actively encourage playful practices, with the purpose of furthering organisational goals.[37] Essentially, fun in the workplace is no longer being seen as frivolous.[37] The most current approach of managed fun and laughter in the workplace originated in North America, where it has taken off to such a degree, that it has humour consultants flourishing, as some states have introduced an official "fun at work" day.[37] The results have carried claims of well-being benefits to workers, improved customer experiences and an increase in productivity that organisations can enjoy, as a result.[37] Others examined results of this movement while focusing around the science of happiness—concerned with mental health, motivation, community building and national well-being—and drew attention to the ability to achieve "flow" through playfulness and stimulate "outside the box" thinking.[37] Parallel to this movement is the "positive" scholarship that has emerged in psychology which seeks to empirically theorise the optimisation of human potential.[37] This happiness movement suggests that investing in fun at the workplace, by allowing for laughter and play, will not only create enjoyment and a greater sense of well-being, but it will also enhance energy, performance and commitment in workers.[37]

Studies

Main article: Humor research

Laughter

One of the main focuses of modern psychological humour theory and research is to establish and clarify the correlation between humour and laughter. The major empirical findings here are that laughter and humour do not always have a one-to-one association. While most previous theories assumed the connection between the two almost to the point of them being synonymous, psychology has been able to scientifically and empirically investigate the supposed connection, its implications, and significance.
In 2009, Diana Szameitat conducted a study to examine the differentiation of emotions in laughter. They hired actors and told them to laugh with one of four different emotional associations by using auto-induction, where they would focus exclusively on the internal emotion and not on the expression of laughter itself. They found an overall recognition rate of 44%, with joy correctly classified at 44%, tickle 45%, schadenfreude 37%, and taunt 50%.[38]:399 Their second experiment tested the behavioural recognition of laughter during an induced emotional state and they found that different laughter types did differ with respect to emotional dimensions.[38]:401–402 In addition, the four emotional states displayed a full range of high and low sender arousal and valence.[38]:403 This study showed that laughter can be correlated with both positive (joy and tickle) and negative (schadenfreude and taunt) emotions with varying degrees of arousal in the subject.
This brings into question the definition of humour, then. If it is to be defined by the cognitive processes which display laughter, then humour itself can encompass a variety of negative as well as positive emotions. However, if humour is limited to positive emotions and things which cause positive affect, it must be delimited from laughter and their relationship should be further defined.

Health

Humour has shown to be effective for increasing resilience in dealing with distress and also effective in undoing negative affects.
Madeljin Strick, Rob Holland, Rick van Baaren, and Ad van Knippenberg (2009) of Radboud University conducted a study that showed the distracting nature of a joke on bereaved individuals.[39]:574–578 Subjects were presented with a wide range of negative pictures and sentences. Their findings showed that humorous therapy attenuated the negative emotions elicited after negative pictures and sentences were presented. In addition, the humour therapy was more effective in reducing negative affect as the degree of affect increased in intensity.[39]:575–576 Humour was immediately effective in helping to deal with distress. The escapist nature of humour as a coping mechanism suggests that it is most useful in dealing with momentary stresses. Stronger negative stimuli requires a different therapeutic approach.[citation needed]
Humour is an underlying character trait associated with the positive emotions used in the broaden-and-build theory of cognitive development.
Studies, such as those testing the undoing hypothesis,[40]:313 have shown several positive outcomes of humour as an underlying positive trait in amusement and playfulness. Several studies have shown that positive emotions can restore autonomic quiescence after negative affect. For example, Frederickson and Levinson showed that individuals who expressed Duchenne smiles during the negative arousal of a sad and troubling event recovered from the negative affect approximately 20% faster than individuals who didn't smile.[40]:314
Using humour judiciously can have a positive influence on cancer treatment.[41]
Humour can serve as a strong distancing mechanism in coping with adversity. In 1997 Kelter and Bonanno found that Duchenne laughter correlated with reduced awareness of distress.[42] Positive emotion is able to loosen the grip of negative emotions on peoples’ thinking. A distancing of thought leads to a distancing of the unilateral responses people often have to negative arousal. In parallel with the distancing role plays in coping with distress, it supports the broaden and build theory that positive emotions lead to increased multilateral cognitive pathway and social resource building.

Ageing

Humour has been shown to improve and help the ageing process in three areas. The areas are improving physical health, improving social communications, and helping to achieve a sense of satisfaction in life.
Studies have shown that constant humour in the ageing process gives health benefits to individuals. Such benefits as higher self-esteem, lower levels of depression, anxiety, and perceived stress, and a more positive self-concept as well as other health benefits which have been recorded and acknowledged through various studies.[43][44] Even patients with specific diseases have shown improvement with ageing using humour.[45] Overall there is a strong correlation through constant humour in ageing and better health in the individuals.
Another way that research indicates that humour helps with the ageing process, is through helping the individual to create and maintain strong social relationship during transitory periods in their lives.[45] One such example is when people are moved into nursing homes or other facilities of care. With this transition certain social interactions with friend and family may be limited forcing the individual to look else where for these social interactions. Humour has been shown to make transitions easier, as humour is shown reduce stress and facilitate socialisation and serves as a social bonding function.[46] Humour may also help the transition in helping the individual to maintain positive feelings towards those who are enforcing the changes in their lives. These new social interactions can be critical for these transitions in their lives and humour will help these new social interactions to take place making these transitions easier.
Humour can also help ageing individuals maintain a sense of satisfaction in their lives. Through the ageing process many changes will occur, such as losing the right to drive a car. This can cause a decrease in satisfaction in the lives of the individual. Humour helps to alleviate this decrease of satisfaction by allowing the humour to release stress and anxiety caused by changes in the individuals life.[45] Laughing and humour can be a substitute for the decrease in satisfaction by allowing individuals to feel better about their situations by alleviating the stress.[43] This, in turn, can help them to maintain a sense of satisfaction towards their new and changing life style.

Physiology

In an article published in Nature Reviews Neuroscience, it is reported that a study's results indicate that humour is rooted in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex. The study states, in part:
"Humour seems to engage a core network of cortical and subcortical structures, including temporo-occipito-parietal areas involved in detecting and resolving incongruity (mismatch between expected and presented stimuli); and the mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic system and the amygdala, key structures for reward and salience processing."[47]

Formula


Surprise is a component of humour.
Humour can be verbal, visual, or physical. Non-verbal forms of communication–for example, music or visual art–can also be humorous.

Root components

Methods

Behaviour, place and size

Rowan Atkinson explains in his lecture in the documentary Funny Business[48] that an object or a person can become funny in three ways:
  • by behaving in an unusual way,
  • by being in an unusual place,
  • by being the wrong size.
Most sight gags fit into one or more of these categories.

Exaggeration

Main article: Exaggeration
Some theoreticians of the comic consider exaggeration to be a universal comic device.[49] It may take different forms in different genres, but all rely on the fact that the easiest way to make things laughable is to exaggerate to the point of absurdity their salient traits.[50]

Taxonomy

There are many taxonomies of humor; the following is used to classify humorous tweets in (Rayz 2012).[51]
  1. Anecdotes
  2. Fantasy
  3. Insult
  4. Irony
  5. Jokes
  6. Observational
  7. Quote
  8. Role play
  9. Self-deprecation
  10. Vulgarity
  11. Word play
  12. Other

Culture

Different cultures have different typical expectations of humour so comedy shows are not always successful when transplanted into another culture. For example, a 2004 BBC News article discusses a stereotype among British comedians that Americans and Germans do not understand irony, and therefore UK sitcoms are not appreciated by them.[52]

See also

References

  1. ^ Raymond Smullyan, "The Planet Without Laughter", This Book Needs No Title
  2. ^ Peter McGraw, "Too close for Comfort, or Too Far to care? Finding Humor in Distant Tragedies and Close Mishaps"
  3. ^ Nicholas Kuiper, "Prudence and Racial Humor: Troubling Epithets"[full citation needed]
  4. ^ "The Quotations Page: Quote from E.B. White". Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  5. ^ Ritu Gairola Khanduri. 2014. Caricaturing Culture in India: Cartoons and History of the Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  6. ^ Seth Benedict Graham A cultural analysis of the Russo-Soviet Anekdot 2003 p. 13
  7. ^ Bakhtin, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World [1941, 1965]. Trans. Hélène Iswolsky. Bloomington: Indiana University Press p. 12
  8. ^ Force, Nichole; read, M. A. Last updated: 8 Oct 2018~ 4 min (2016-05-17). "The Way of the Comedian". psychcentral.com. Retrieved 2019-10-25.
  9. ^ Webber, Edwin J. (January 1958), "Comedy as Satire in Hispano-Arabic Spain", Hispanic Review, 26 (1): 1–11, doi:10.2307/470561, JSTOR 470561
  10. ^ Michael Garnice (11 March 2012). "Mento Music Lord Flea". Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  11. ^ Xiao, Dong Yue (2010). "Exploration of Chinese humor: Historical review, empirical findings, and critical reflections". Humor. 23 (3). doi:10.1515/HUMR.2010.018.
  12. ^ C. Harbsmeier, "Confucius-Ridens, Humor in the Analects." Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 50. 1: 131–61.
  13. ^ Jocelyn Chey and Jessica Milner Davis, eds. "Humour in Chinese Life and Letters: Classical and Traditional Approaches" (HKUP, 2011)
  14. ^ "The Invention of Li Yu – Patrick Hanan – Harvard University Press". www.hup.harvard.edu. Retrieved 26 August 2018.
  15. ^ "Comic Visions of Modern China": http://u.osu.edu/mclc/files/2014/09/intro20.2-158jzq5.pdf
  16. ^ Christopher Rea, "The Age of Irreverence: A New History of Laughter in China" (University of California Press, 2015)
  17. ^ Suoqiao, Qian (2011). "Discovering Humour in Modern China: The Launching of the Analects Fortnightly Journal and the 'Year of Humour' (1933)". In Chey, J.; Milner Davis, J. (eds.). Humour in Chinese Life and Letters: Classical and Traditional Approaches. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 191–218, 251–254. ISBN 9789888083527.
  18. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-10-02. Retrieved 2016-09-30.
  19. ^ David Moser, "Stifled Laughter": http://www.danwei.org/tv/stifled_laughter_how_the_commu.php
  20. ^ Jessica Milner Davis and Jocelyn Chey, eds. "Humour in Chinese Life and Culture: Resistance and Control in Modern Times" (HKUP, 2013): http://www.hkupress.org/Common/Reader/Products/ShowProduct.jsp?Pid=1&Version=0&Cid=16&Charset=iso-8859-1&page=-1&key=9789888139248
  21. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j Lundy, Tan, Cunningham (1998). "Heterosexual romantic preferences: The importance of humor and physical attractiveness for different types of relationships". Personal Relationships. 5 (3): 311–325. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.1998.tb00174.x.
  22. ^ Hewitt, L (1958). "Student perceptions of traits desired in themselves as dating and marriage partners". Marriage and Family Living. 20 (4): 344–349. doi:10.2307/348256. JSTOR 348256.
  23. ^ Goodwin, R (1990). "Sex differences among partner preferences: Are the sexes really very similar?". Sex Roles. 23 (9–10): 501–513. doi:10.1007/bf00289765.
  24. ^ Kenrick, Sadalla, Groth, Trost (1990). "Evolution, traits, and the stages of the parental investment model". Journal of Personality. 58 (1): 97–116. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00909.x. PMID 23750377.
  25. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Bressler, Balshine (2006). "The influence of humour on desirability". Evolution and Human Behavior. 27: 29–39. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.06.002.
  26. ^ Jump up to:a b c Kuiper & Martin (1993). "Humor and self-concept". Humor: International Journal of Humor Research. 6 (3). doi:10.1515/humr.1993.6.3.251.
  27. ^ Jump up to:a b Bos, E.H.; Snippe, E.; de Jonge, P.; Jeronimus, B.F. (2016). "Preserving Subjective Wellbeing in the Face of Psychopathology: Buffering Effects of Personal Strengths and Resources". PLOS ONE. 11 (3): e0150867. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1150867B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150867. PMC 4786317. PMID 26963923.
  28. ^ Kuiper & Martin (1998). "Laughter and stress in daily life: Relation to positive and negative affect". Motivation and Emotion.
  29. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Martin, Puhlik-Doris, Larsen, Gray., & Weir (2003). "Individual differences in uses of humor and their relation to psychological well-being: Development of the humor styles questionnaire". Journal of Research in Personality. 37: 48–75. doi:10.1016/s0092-6566(02)00534-2.
  30. ^ Jump up to:a b c Kuiper, Grimshaw, Leite., & Kirsh (2004). "Humor is not always the best medicine: Specific components of sense of humor and psychological well-being". Humor: International Journal of Humor Research. 17 (1–2). doi:10.1515/humr.2004.002.
  31. ^ "Do cheerfulness, exhilaration, and humor production moderate pain tolerance? A FACS study". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  32. ^ Bennett, Mary Payne; Lengacher, Cecile (2009). "Humor and Laughter May Influence Health IV. Humor and Immune Function". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 6 (2): 159–164. doi:10.1093/ecam/nem149. PMC 2686627. PMID 18955287.
  33. ^ Bennett, Mary Payne; Lengacher, Cecile (2008). "Humor and Laughter May Influence Health: III. Laughter and Health Outcomes". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 5 (1): 37–40. doi:10.1093/ecam/nem041. PMC 2249748. PMID 18317546.
  34. ^ Fry, W.F.; Stoft, P.E. (1971). "Mirth and oxygen saturation levels of peripheral blood". Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 19 (1): 76–84. doi:10.1159/000286308. PMID 5146348.
  35. ^ Yovetich, N.A.; Dale, J.A.; Hudak, M.A. (1990). "Benefits of humor in reduction of threat-induced anxiety". Psychological Reports. 66 (1): 51–58. doi:10.2466/pr0.1990.66.1.51. PMID 2326429.
  36. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Plester, Barbara (2009-01-01). "Healthy humour: Using humour to cope at work". Kōtuitui: New Zealand Journal of Social Sciences Online. 4 (1): 89–102. doi:10.1080/1177083X.2009.9522446.
  37. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j Bolton, Sharon C.; Houlihan, Maeve (2009-10-02). "Are we having fun yet? A consideration of workplace fun and engagement". Employee Relations. 31 (6): 556–568. doi:10.1108/01425450910991721. ISSN 0142-5455.
  38. ^ Jump up to:a b c Szameitat, Diana P., et al. Differentiation of Emotions in Laughter at the Behavioural Level. 2009 Emotion 9 (3).
  39. ^ Jump up to:a b Strick, Madelijn; et al. (2009). "Finding Comfort in a Joke: Consolatory Effects of Humor Through Cognitive Distraction". Emotion. 9 (4): 574–578. doi:10.1037/a0015951. PMID 19653782.
  40. ^ Jump up to:a b Fredrickson, Barbara L. (1998). "What Good Are Positive Emotions?". Review of General Psychology. 2 (3): 300–319. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300. PMC 3156001. PMID 21850154.
  41. ^ "Humor in Cancer Treatment". Retrieved 22 January 2017.
  42. ^ Keltner, D.; Bonanno, G.A. (1997). "A study of laughter and dissociation: Distinct correlates of laughter and smiling during bereavement". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 73 (4): 687–702. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.687. PMID 9325589.
  43. ^ Jump up to:a b Abel, M (2002). "Humor, stress, and coping strategies". International Journal of Humor Research. 15 (4): 365–381. doi:10.1515/humr.15.4.365.
  44. ^ Kupier, N.A.; Martin, R.A. (1993). "Humor and self-concept". International Journal of Humor Research. 6 (3): 251–270.
  45. ^ Jump up to:a b c Crew Solomon, Jennifer (January 1996). "American Behavioral Scientist". Humor and Aging Well: A Laughing Matter or a Matter of Laughing?. 3. 39 (3): 249–271. doi:10.1177/0002764296039003004.
  46. ^ Shelley A. Crawford & Nerina J. Caltabiano (2011): Promoting emotional well-being through the use of humour, The Journal of Positive Psychology: Dedicated to furthering research and promoting good practice, 6: 3, 237–252
  47. ^ Vrticka, Pascal; Black, Jessica M.; Reiss, Allan L. (30 October 2013). "The neural basis of humour processing". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 14 (12): 860–868. doi:10.1038/nrn3566. PMID 24169937.
  48. ^ Rowan Atkinson/David Hinton, Funny Business (tv series), Episode 1 – aired 22 November 1992, UK, Tiger Television Productions
  49. ^ Emil Draitser, Techniques of Satire (1994) p. 135
  50. ^ M. Eastman/W. Fry, Enjoyment of Laughter (2008) p. 156
  51. ^ "Automatic Humor Classification on Twitter" (PDF). 2012.
  52. ^ "Do the Americans get irony?". BBC News. 27 January 2004. Retrieved 2 April 2012.

Further reading

  • Alexander, Richard (1984), Verbal humor and variation in English: Sociolinguistic notes on a variety of jokes
  • Alexander, Richard (1997), Aspects of verbal humour in English
  • Basu, S (December 1999), "Dialogic ethics and the virtue of humor", Journal of Political Philosophy, 7 (4): 378–403, doi:10.1111/1467-9760.00082, retrieved 2007-07-06 (Abstract)
  • Billig, M. (2005). Laughter and ridicule: Towards a social critique of humour. London: Sage. ISBN 1-4129-1143-5
  • Bricker, Victoria Reifler (Winter, 1980) The Function of Humor in Zinacantan Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 411–418
  • Buijzen, Moniek; Valkenburg, Patti M. (2004), "Developing a Typology of Humor in Audiovisual Media", Media Psychology, 6 (2): 147–167, doi:10.1207/s1532785xmep0602_2(Abstract)
  • Carrell, Amy (2000), Historical views of humour, University of Central Oklahoma. Retrieved on 2007-07-06.
  • García-Barriocanal, Elena; Sicilia, Miguel-Angel; Palomar, David (2005), A Graphical Humor Ontology for Contemporary Cultural Heritage Access (PDF), Ctra. Barcelona, km.33.6, 28871 Alcalá de Henares (Madrid), Spain: University of Alcalá, archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-05-23, retrieved 2007-07-06
  • Goldstein, Jeffrey H., et al. (1976) "Humour, Laughter, and Comedy: A Bibliography of Empirical and Nonempirical Analyses in the English Language." It's a Funny Thing, Humour. Ed. Antony J. Chapman and Hugh C. Foot. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press, 1976. 469–504.
  • Hurley, Matthew M., Dennet, Daniel C., and Adams, Reginald B. Jr. (2011), Inside Jokes: Using Humor to Reverse-Engineer the Mind. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01582-0
  • Holland, Norman. (1982) "Bibliography of Theories of Humor." Laughing; A Psychology of Humor. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 209–223.
  • Martin, Rod A. (2007). The Psychology Of Humour: An Integrative Approach. London, UK: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-372564-6
  • McGhee, Paul E. (1984) "Current American Psychological Research on Humor." Jahrbuche fur Internationale Germanistik 16.2: 37–57.
  • Mintz, Lawrence E., ed. (1988) Humor in America: A Research Guide to Genres and Topics. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1988. ISBN 0-313-24551-7; OCLC 16085479.
  • Mobbs, D.; Greicius, M.D.; Abdel-Azim, E.; Menon, V.; Reiss, A.L. (2003), "Humor modulates the mesolimbic reward centres", Neuron, 40 (5): 1041–1048, doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00751-7, PMID 14659102.
  • Nilsen, Don L.F. (1992) "Satire in American Literature." Humor in American Literature: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1992. 543–48.
  • Pogel, Nancy, and Paul P. Somers Jr. (1988) "Literary Humor." Humor in America: A Research Guide to Genres and Topics. Ed. Lawrence E. Mintz. London: Greenwood, 1988. 1–34.
  • Roth, G.; Yap, R; Short, D. (2006). "Examining humour in HRD from theoretical and practical perspectives". Human Resource Development International. 9 (1): 121–127. doi:10.1080/13678860600563424.
  • Smuts, Aaron. "Humor". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  • Wogan, Peter (Spring 2006), "Laughing At First Contact", Visual Anthropology Review (published 12 December 2006), 22 (1): 14–34, doi:10.1525/var.2006.22.1.14 (Abstract)

External links
Look up humor or humour in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to humor and humor photos.

Humor at Curlie
International Society for Humor Studies

hide

v
t
e
Aesthetics topics
Philosophers

Abhinavagupta
Theodor W. Adorno
Leon Battista Alberti
Thomas Aquinas
Hans Urs von Balthasar
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten
Clive Bell
Bernard Bosanquet
Edward Bullough
R. G. Collingwood
Ananda Coomaraswamy
Arthur Danto
John Dewey
Denis Diderot
Hubert Dreyfus
Curt John Ducasse
Thierry de Duve
Roger Fry
Nelson Goodman
Clement Greenberg
Georg Hegel
Martin Heidegger
David Hume
Immanuel Kant
Paul Klee
Susanne Langer
Theodor Lipps
György Lukács
Jean-François Lyotard
Joseph Margolis
Jacques Maritain
Thomas Munro
Friedrich Nietzsche
José Ortega y Gasset
Dewitt H. Parker
Stephen Pepper
David Prall
Jacques Rancière
Ayn Rand
Louis Lavelle
George Lansing Raymond
I. A. Richards
George Santayana
Friedrich Schiller
Arthur Schopenhauer
Roger Scruton
Irving Singer
Rabindranath Tagore
Giorgio Vasari
Morris Weitz
Johann Joachim Winckelmann
Richard Wollheim
more...
Theories

Classicism
Evolutionary aesthetics
Historicism
Modernism
New Classical
Postmodernism
Psychoanalytic theory
Romanticism
Symbolism
more...
Concepts

Aesthetic emotions
Aesthetic interpretation
Art manifesto
Avant-garde
Axiology
Beauty
Boredom
Camp
Comedy
Creativity
Cuteness
Disgust
Ecstasy
Elegance
Entertainment
Eroticism
Gaze
Harmony
Judgement
Kama
Kitsch
Life imitating art
Magnificence
Mimesis
Perception
Quality
Rasa
Reverence
Style
Sublime
Taste
Work of art
Related

Aesthetics of music
Applied aesthetics
Architecture
Art
Arts criticism
Feminist aesthetics
Gastronomy
History of painting
Humour
Japanese aesthetics
Literary merit
Mathematical beauty
Mathematics and architecture
Mathematics and art
Medieval aesthetics
Music theory
Neuroesthetics
Painting
Patterns in nature
Philosophy of design
Philosophy of film
Philosophy of music
Poetry
Sculpture
Theory of painting
Theory of art
Tragedy
Visual arts

Index
Outline
Category
Philosophy portal


Authority control

BNF: cb12144202n (data)
GND: 4026170-0
LCCN: sh85147124

Categories:
Humour
Defence mechanisms
Genres










Posted by at
Labels: , , , ,