2023/08/03

Universalism - Wikipedia

Universalism - Wikipedia

Universalism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Universalism (disambiguation).
Part of a series onUniversalism
hide
Philosophical
Moral universalism
Universal value
Universality
Universalizability
hide
Economic and societal
Cultural universal
Universal basic income
Universal basic services
Universal design
Universal health care
Universal suffrage
hide
Christian

Beliefs
Apocatastasis
Theosis
Trinitarian universalism
Universal reconciliation
Churches and groups
Unitarian Universalism
International Council of
Unitarians and Universalists
Primitive Baptist Universalists
Universalist Church of America
Other
History
Unlimited atonement

hide
Other religions
Baháʼí Faith
Brahmoism
Hinduism (Neo-Vedanta)
Sufism
Universalism and the Latter Day Saint movement
hide
Spiritual
Mysticism
Nondualism
Perennialism
TheosophyCategory

Universalism is the philosophical and theological concept that some ideas have universal application or applicability.

A belief in one fundamental truth is another important tenet in universalism. The living truth is seen as more far-reaching than the national, cultural, or religious boundaries or interpretations of that one truth. As the Rig Veda states, "Truth is one; sages call it by various names."[1] A community that calls itself universalist may emphasize the universal principles of most religions, and accept others in an inclusive manner.

In the modern context, Universalism can also mean the Western pursuit of unification of all human beings across geographic and other boundaries under Western values, or the application of really universal or universalist constructs, such as human rights or international law.[2][3]

Universalism has had an influence on modern-day Hinduism, in turn influencing modern Western spirituality.[4]

Christian universalism refers to the idea that every human will eventually receive salvation in a religious or spiritual sense, a concept also referred to as universal reconciliation.[5]

Philosophy[edit]

Universality[edit]

Main article: Universality (philosophy)

In philosophy, universality is the notion that universal facts can be discovered and is therefore understood as being in opposition to relativism and nominalism.[6]

Moral universalism[edit]

Main articles: Moral universalism and Moral particularism

Moral universalism (also called moral objectivism or universal morality) is the meta-ethical position that some system of ethics applies universally. That system is inclusive of all individuals,[7] regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, or any other distinguishing feature.[8] Moral universalism is opposed to moral nihilism and moral relativism. However, not all forms of moral universalism are absolutist, nor do they necessarily value monism. Many forms of universalism, such as utilitarianism, are non-absolutist. Other forms such as those theorized by Isaiah Berlin, may value pluralist ideals.

Religion[edit]

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

A white column with ornate designs carved into it, including a Star of David
Symbols of many religions on a pillar of the Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois
Main articles: Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity, Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion, and Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)

In the teachings of the Baháʼí Faith, a single God has sent all the historic founders of the world religions in a process of progressive revelation. As a result, the major world religions are seen as divine in origin and are continuous in their purpose. In this view, there is unity among the founders of world religions, but each revelation brings a more advanced set of teachings in human history and none are syncretic.[9] In addition, the Baháʼí teachings acknowledge that in every country and every people God has always revealed the divine purpose via messengers and prophets, masters and sages since time immemorial.[10][11]

Within this universal view, the unity of humanity is one of the central teachings of the Baháʼí Faith.[12] The Baháʼí teachings state that since all humans have been created in the image of God, God does not make any distinction between people with regard to race, colour or religion.[13]: 138  Thus, because all humans have been created equal, they all require equal opportunities and treatment.[12] Hence the Baháʼí view promotes the unity of humanity, and that people's vision should be world-embracing and that people should love the whole world rather than just their nation.[13]: 138 

The teaching, however, does not equate unity with uniformity; instead the Baháʼí writings advocate the principle of unity in diversity where the variety in the human race is valued.[13]: 139  Operating on a worldwide basis this cooperative view of the peoples and nations of the planet culminates in a vision of the practicality of the progression in world affairs towards, and the inevitability of, world peace.[14]

Buddhism[edit]

The term Universalism has been applied to different aspects of Buddhist thought by different modern authors.

The idea of universal salvation is key to the Mahayana school of Buddhism.[15][16] A common feature of Mahayana Buddhism is the idea that all living beings have Buddha nature and thus all beings can aspire to become bodhisattvas, beings who are on the path to Buddhahood.[16] This capacity is seen as something that all beings in the universe have.[17][18] This idea has been termed "bodhisattva universalism" by the Buddhist studies scholar Jan Nattier.[19]

The idea of universal Buddha nature has been interpreted in various ways in Buddhism, from the idea that all living beings have Buddha nature and thus can become Buddhas to the idea that because all beings have Buddha nature, all beings will definitely become Buddhas.[18] Some forms of East Asian Mahayana Buddhism even extended the Buddha nature theory to plants and insentient phenomena. Some thinkers (such as Kukai) even promote the idea that the entire universe is the Buddha's body.[18][20]

The Lotus Sutra, an influential Mahayana scripture, is often seen as promoting the universality of Buddhahood, the Buddha's teaching as well as the equality of all living beings.[21][22] Mahayana Buddhism also promotes a universal compassion towards all sentient beings and sees all beings as equally deserving of compassion.[23][24] The doctrine of the One Vehicle (which states that all Buddhist paths lead to Buddhahood) is also often seen as a universalist doctrine.[17]

Adherents to Pure Land Buddhism point to Amitabha Buddha as a Universal Savior. According to the Pure Land Sutras (scriptures), before becoming a Buddha Amitabha vowed that he would save all beings and according to some Pure Land authors, all beings will be eventually saved through the work of Amida Buddha. As such, Pure Land Buddhism is often seen as an expression of a Buddhist universalism that compares to Christian universalism.[16] This comparison has also been commented on by Christian theologians like Karl Barth.[16]

Chinese Buddhism developed a form of Buddhist universalism which saw Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism as different aspects of a single universal truth.[25]

In Western Buddhism, the term Universalism may also refer to an nonsectarian and eclectic form of Buddhism which emphasizes ecumenism among the different Buddhism schools.[26] American clergyman Julius A. Goldwater was one Buddhist figure who promoted a modern kind of Buddhist Universalism. For Goldwater, Buddhism transcends local contexts and culture, and his practice grew increasingly eclectic over time. Goldwater established the nonsectarian Buddhist Brotherhood of America which focused on ecumenical and nonsectarian Buddhism while also drawing on Protestant vocabulary and ideas.[27]

The desire to develop a more universalist and nonsectarian form of Buddhism was also shared by some modernist Japanese Buddhist authors, including the influential D.T. Suzuki.[28]

Christianity[edit]

Main article: Christian universalism

The fundamental idea of Christian universalism is universal reconciliation – that all humans will ultimately receive salvation and be reconciled to God. They will eventually enter God's kingdom in Heaven, through the grace and works of the Lord Jesus Christ.[29] Christian universalists hold that an everlasting hell does not exist (though most believe there is a temporary hell of some kind), and that unending torment was not what Jesus taught. They point to historical evidence showing that many early fathers of the church were universalists[30] and attribute the origin of the idea of hell as eternal punishment to mistranslation. They also appeal to many texts of Scripture to argue that the concept of eternal hell is not biblically or historically supported either in Judaism or early Christianity.[31]

Universalists cite numerous biblical passages which reference the salvation of all beings (such as Jesus' words in John 12:31-32, and Paul's words in Romans 5:18-19).[32] In addition, they argue that an eternal hell is both unjust and contrary to the nature and attributes of a loving God.[33][34][35]

The beliefs of Christian universalism are generally compatible with the essentials of Christianity, as they do not contradict any of the central affirmations summarized in the Nicene Creed.[36] More specifically, universalists often emphasize the following teachings:

  • God is the loving Parent of all people (see Love of God).
  • Jesus Christ reveals the nature and character of God, and is the spiritual leader of humankind.
  • Humankind is created with an immortal soul, which death can not end—or a mortal soul that shall be resurrected and preserved by God. A soul which God will not wholly destroy.[37]
  • Sin has negative consequences for the sinner either in this life or the afterlife. All of God's punishments for sin are corrective and remedial. None of such punishments will last forever, or result in the permanent destruction of a soul. Some Christian universalists believe in the idea of a Purgatorial Hell, or a temporary place of purification that some must undergo before their entrance into Heaven.[38]

In 1899 the Universalist General Convention, later called the Universalist Church of America, adopted the Five Principles: the belief in God, Jesus Christ, the immortality of the human soul, the reality of sin and universal reconciliation.[39]

History[edit]

Main article: History of Christian universalism

Universalist writers such as George T. Knight have claimed that Universalism was a widely held view among theologians in Early Christianity.[40] These included such important figures such as Alexandrian scholar Origen as well as Clement of Alexandria, a Christian theologian.[40] Origen and Clement both included the existence of a non-eternal Hell in their teachings. Hell was remedial, in that it was a place one went to purge one's sins before entering into Heaven.[41]

The first undisputed documentations of Christian universalist ideas occurred in 17th-century England and 18th-century Europe as well as in colonial America. Between 1648-1697 English activist Gerrard Winstanley, writer Richard Coppin, and dissenter Jane Leade, each taught that God would grant all human beings salvation. The same teachings were later spread throughout 18th-century France and America by George de Benneville. People who taught this doctrine in America would later become known as the Universalist Church of America.[42] The first Universalist Church in America was founded by John Murray (minister).[43]

The Greek term apocatastasis came to be related by some to the beliefs of Christian universalism, but central to the doctrine was the restitution, or restoration of all sinful beings to God, and to His state of blessedness. In early Patristics, usage of the term is distinct.

Part of a series on
Origenism
Origen of Alexandria
Thoughts
Biblical criticism
Influences and precursors
Origenist thinkers
icon Christianity portal

Universalist theology[edit]

Universalist theology is grounded in history, scripture, and assumptions about the nature of God. That All Shall Be Saved (2019) by Orthodox Christian theologian David Bentley Hart contains arguments from all three areas but with a focus on arguments from the nature of God. Thomas Whittemore wrote the book 100 Scriptural Proofs that Jesus Christ Will Save All Mankind[44] quoting both Old and New Testament verses which support the Universalist viewpoint.

Some Bible verses he cites and are cited by other Christian universalists are:

  1. Luke 3:6: "And all people will see God's salvation." (NIV)
  2. John 17:2: "since thou hast given him power over all flesh, to give eternal life to all whom thou hast given him." (RSV)
  3. 1 Corinthians 15:22:[45] "For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive." (ESV)
  4. 2 Peter 3:9: "The Lord is not slow to fulfill his promise as some count slowness, but is patient toward you, not wishing that any should perish, but that all should reach repentance." (ESV)
  5. 1 Timothy 2:3–6:[45] "This is good, and pleases God our Savior, who wants all men to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth. For there is one God and one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a ransom for ALL men—the testimony given in its proper time." (NIV)
  6. 1 John 2:2: "He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and not only for ours but also for the sins of the whole world." (NIV)
  7. 1 Timothy 4:10:[45] "For to this end we toil and strive, because we have our hope set on the living God, who is the Savior of all people, especially of those who believe." (ESV)
  8. Romans 5:18: "Then as one man's trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one man's act of righteousness leads to acquittal and life for all men." (RSV)
  9. Romans 11:32:[45] "For God has bound all men over to disobedience so that he may have mercy on them all." (NIV)

Questions of Biblical Translation[edit]

Christian universalists point towards the mistranslations of the Greek word αιών (literally "age," but often assumed to mean "eternity") and its adjectival form αἰώνιος (usually assumed to mean "eternal" or "everlasting"), as giving rise to the idea of an endless hell and the idea that some people will never be saved.[31][46][47] For example, Revelation 14:11 says "the smoke of their torment goes up εἰς αἰῶνας αἰώνων" which most literally means "until ages of ages" but is often paraphrased in translations as "forever and ever."[48]

This Greek word is the origin of the modern English word eon, which refers to a period of time or an epoch/age.

The 19th century theologian Marvin Vincent wrote about the word aion, and the supposed connotations of "eternal" or "temporal":

Aion, transliterated aeon, is a period of longer or shorter duration, having a beginning and an end, and complete in itself. [...] Neither the noun nor the adjective, in themselves, carry the sense of endless or everlasting."[49]

A number of scholars have argued that, in some cases, the adjective may not indicate duration at all, but may instead have a qualitative meaning.[50] For instance, Dr. David Bentley Hart translates Matthew 25:46 as "And these will go to the chastening of that Age, but the just to the life of that Age."[51] In this reading, Jesus is not necessarily indicating how long the life and punishment last, but instead what kind the life and punishment are—they are "of the age [to come]" rather than being earthly life or punishment. Dr. Thomas Talbott writes:

[The writers of the New Testament] therefore came to employ the term aiōnios as an eschatological term, one that functioned as a handy reference to the realities of the age to come. In that way they managed to combine the more literal sense of "that which pertains to an age" with the more religious sense of "that which manifests the presence of God in a special way."[52]

Dr. Ken Vincent writes that "When it (aion) was translated into Latin Vulgate, 'aion' became 'aeternam' which means 'eternal'.[31] Likewise, Dr. Ilaria Ramelli explains:

The mistranslation and misinterpretation of αἰώνιος as "eternal" (already in Latin, where both αἰώνιος and ἀΐδιος are rendered aeternus and their fundamental semantic difference is blurred) certainly contributed a great deal to the rise of the doctrine of "eternal damnation" and of the "eternity of hell."[53]

Among the English translations that do not render αἰώνιος as "eternal" or "everlasting" are Young’s Literal Translation (“age-during”), the Weymouth New Testament ("of the ages”), the Concordant Literal Version ("eonian"), Rotherham's Emphasized Bible ("age-abiding"), Hart's New Testament ("of that Age"), and more.[54]

Catholicism[edit]

The first use of the term "Catholic Church" (literally meaning "universal church") was by the church father Saint Ignatius of Antioch in his Letter to the Smyrnaeans (circa 100 AD).[55]

The Catholic church believes that God judges everyone based only on their moral acts,[56] that no one should be subject to human misery,[57] that everyone is equal in dignity yet distinct in individuality before God,[58] that no one should be discriminated against because of their sin or concupiscence,[59] and that apart from coercion[60] God exhausts every means to save mankind from evil: original holiness being intended for everyone,[61] the irrevocable Old Testament covenants,[62][63] each religion being a share in the truth,[64] elements of sanctification in non-Catholic Christian communities,[64] the good people of every religion and nation,[65] everyone being called to baptism and confession,[66][67] and Purgatory, suffrages, and indulgences for the dead.[68][67] The church believes that everyone is predestined to Heaven,[69] that no one is predestined to Hell,[68] that everyone is redeemed by Christ's Passion,[70] that no one is excluded from the church except by sin,[67] and that everyone can either love God by loving others unto going to Heaven or reject God by sin unto going to Hell.[71][72] The church believes that God's predestination takes everything into account,[70] and that his providence brings out of evil a greater good,[60] as evidenced, the church believes, by the Passion of Christ being all at once predestined by God,[70] foretold in Scripture,[70] necessitated by original sin,[73] authored by everyone who sins,[70] caused by Christ's executioners,[70] and freely planned and undergone by Christ.[70] The church believes that everyone who goes to Heaven joins the church,[68][74] and that from the beginning God intended Israel to be the beginning of the church,[65] wherein God would unite all persons to each other and to God.[75] The church believes that Heaven and Hell are eternal.[68]

Hinduism[edit]

Author David Frawley says that Hinduism has a "background universalism" and its teachings contain a "universal relevance."[76] Hinduism is also naturally religiously pluralistic.[77] A well-known Rig Vedic hymn says: "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously."[78] Similarly, in the Bhagavad Gītā (4:11), God, manifesting as an incarnation, states: "As people approach me, so I receive them. All paths lead to me."[79] The Hindu religion has no theological difficulties in accepting degrees of truth in other religions. Hinduism emphasizes that everyone actually worships the same God, whether one knows it or not.[80]

While Hinduism has an openness and tolerance towards other religions, it also has a wide range of diversity within it.[81] There are considered to be six orthodox Hindu schools of philosophy/theology,[82] as well as multiple unorthodox or "heterodox" traditions called darshanas.[83]

Hindu universalism[edit]

Main articles: Neo-Vedanta and Hindu reform movements

Hindu universalism, also called Neo-Vedanta[84] and neo-Hinduism,[85] is a modern interpretation of Hinduism which developed in response to western colonialism and orientalism. It denotes the ideology that all religions are true and therefore worthy of toleration and respect.[86]

It is a modern interpretation that aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of Hinduism"[87] with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine.[88] For example, it presents that:

... an imagined "integral unity" that was probably little more than an "imagined" view of the religious life that pertained only to a cultural elite and that empirically speaking had very little reality "on the ground," as it were, throughout the centuries of cultural development in the South Asian region.[89]

Hinduism embraces universalism by conceiving the whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions which would imply a division of identity.[90][91][92][self-published source]

This modernised re-interpretation has become a broad current in Indian culture,[88][93] extending far beyond the Dashanami Sampradaya, the Advaita Vedanta Sampradaya founded by Adi Shankara. An early exponent of Hindu Universalism was Ram Mohan Roy, who established the Brahmo Samaj.[94] Hindu Universalism was popularised in the 20th century in both India and the west by Vivekananda[95][88] and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.[88] Veneration for all other religions was articulated by Gandhi:

After long study and experience, I have come to the conclusion that [1] all religions are true; [2] all religions have some error in them; [3] all religions are almost as dear to me as my own Hinduism, in as much as all human beings should be as dear to one as one's own close relatives. My own veneration for other faiths is the same as that for my own faith; therefore no thought of conversion is possible.[96]

Western orientalists played an important role in this popularisation, regarding Vedanta to be the "central theology of Hinduism".[88] Oriental scholarship portrayed Hinduism as a "single world religion",[88] and denigrated the heterogeneousity of Hindu beliefs and practices as 'distortions' of the basic teachings of Vedanta.[97]

Islam[edit]

Further information: Ummah, Divisions of the world in Islam, People of the Book, Dhimmi, and Dawah

Islam recognizes to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Quran identifying Jews, Christians, and "Sabi'un" (usually taken as a reference to the Mandaeans) as "people of the Book" (ahl al-kitab). Later Islamic theologians expanded this definition to include Zoroastrians, and later even Hindus, as the early Islamic empire brought many people professing these religions under its dominion, but the Qur'an explicitly identifies only Jews, Christians, and Sabians as People of the Book.[98][need quotation to verify], [99][failed verification], [100][failed verification] The relation between Islam and universalism has assumed crucial importance in the context of political Islam or Islamism, particularly in reference to Sayyid Qutb, a leading member of the Muslim Brotherhood movement, and one of the key contemporary philosophers of Islam.[101]

There are several views within Islam with respect to Universalism. According to the most inclusive teachings all peoples of the book have a chance of salvation. For example, Surah 2:62 states:

Indeed, the believers, Jews, Christians, and Sabians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good will have their reward with their Lord. And there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.

— Surah Al-Baqara 2:62

However, the most exclusive teachings disagree. For example, Surah 9:5 states:

But once the Sacred Months have passed, kill the polytheists ˹who violated their treaties˺ wherever you find them, capture them, besiege them, and lie in wait for them on every way. But if they repent, perform prayers, and pay alms-tax, then set them free. Indeed, Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

— Surah At-Tawbah 9:5

The interpretation of all of these passages are hotly contested amongst various schools of thought and branches of Islam as is the doctrine of abrogation (naskh) which is used to determine which verses take precedence, based on reconstructed chronology, with later verses superseding earlier ones. The ahadith also play a major role in this, and different schools of thought assign different weightings and rulings of authenticity to different hadith, with the four schools of Sunni thought accepting the Six Authentic Collections, generally along with the Muwatta Imam Malik. Depending on the level of acceptance of rejection of certain traditions, the interpretation of the Koran can be changed immensely, from the Qur'anists who reject the ahadith, to the ahl al-hadith, who hold the entirety of the traditional collections in great reverence.

Some Islamic scholars[102][103] view the world as bipartite, consisting of the House of Islam, that is, where people live under the Sharia;[103] and the House of War, that is, where the people do not live under Sharia, which must be proselytized[103][104][105] using whatever resources available, including, in some traditionalist and conservative interpretations,[106] the use of violence, as holy struggle in the path of God,[100][106][107] to either convert its inhabitants to Islam, or to rule them under the Shariah (cf. dhimmi).[108]

Judaism[edit]

Main article: Jewish views on religious pluralism
See also: Noahidism
Sefer Torah at old Glockengasse Synagogue (reconstruction), Cologne

Judaism teaches that God chose the Jewish people to be in a unique covenant with God, and one of their beliefs is that Jewish people were charged by the Torah with a specific mission—to be a light unto the nations, and to exemplify the covenant with God as described in the Torah to other nations. This view does not preclude a belief that God also has a relationship with other peoples—rather, Judaism holds that God had entered into a covenant with all humanity as Noachides, and that Jews and non-Jews alike have a relationship with God, as well as being universal in the sense that it is open to all mankind.[109]

Modern Jews such as Emmanuel Levinas advocate a universalist mindset that is performed through particularist behavior.[110] An on-line organization, the Jewish Spiritual Leaders Institute founded and led by Steven Blane, who calls himself an "American Jewish Universalist Rabbi", believes in a more inclusive version of Jewish Universalism, stating that "God equally chose all nations to be lights unto the world, and we have much to learn and share with each other. We can only accomplish Tikkun Olam by our unconditional acceptance of each other's peaceful doctrines."[111]

Manichaeism[edit]

Main article: Manichaeism

Manichaeism, like Christian Gnosticism and Zurvanism, was arguably in some ways inherently universalist.[112][page needed] Yet in other respects, it was quite contrary to universalistic principles, holding instead to an eternal dualism.[113]

Sikhism[edit]

In Sikhism, all the religions of the world are compared to rivers flowing into a single ocean. Although the Sikh gurus did not agree with the practices of fasting, idolatry and pilgrimage during their times, they stressed that all religions should be tolerated. The Sikh scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, contains the writings of not just the Sikh guru themselves, but the writings of several Hindu and Muslim saints, known as the Bhagats.

The very first word of the Sikh scripture is "Ik", followed by "Omkar". This literally means that there is only one god, and that one is wholesome, inclusive of the whole universe. It further goes on to state that all of creation, and all energy is part of this primordial being. As such, it is described in scripture over and over again, that all that occurs is part of the divine will, and as such, has to be accepted. It occurs for a reason, even if it is beyond the grasp of one person to understand.

Although Sikhism does not teach that men are created as an image of God, it states that the essence of the One is to be found throughout all of its creation.[114] As was said by Yogi Bhajan, the man who is credited with having brought Sikhism to the West:

If you can't see God in all, you can't see God at all.

— Sri Singh Sahib, Yogi Bhajan[115]

The First Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak said himself:

There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim".[116][117]

By this, Guru Nanak meant that there is no real "religion" in God's eyes. Unlike many of the major world religions, Sikhism does not have missionaries, instead it believes men have the freedom to find their own path to salvation.

Unitarian Universalism[edit]

Main article: Unitarian Universalism
Sign on a UU church in Rochester, Minnesota, United States

Unitarian Universalism (UU) is a theologically liberal religion characterized by a "free and responsible search for truth and meaning".[118] Unitarian Universalists do not share a creed; rather, they are unified by their shared search for spiritual growth and by the understanding that an individual's theology is a result of that search and not a result of obedience to an authoritarian requirement. Unitarian Universalists draw from all major world religions[119] and many different theological sources and have a wide range of beliefs and practices.

While having its origins in Christianity, UU is no longer a Christian church. As of 2006, fewer than about 20% of Unitarian Universalists identified themselves as Christian.[120] Contemporary Unitarian Universalism espouses a pluralist approach to religious belief, whereby members may describe themselves as humanist, agnostic, deist, atheist, pagan, Christian, monotheist, pantheist, polytheist, or assume no label at all.

The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) was formed in 1961, a consolidation of the American Unitarian Association, established in 1825, and the Universalist Church of America,[121] established in 1866. It is headquartered in Boston, and mainly serves churches in the United States. The Canadian Unitarian Council became an independent body in 2002.[122]

Zoroastrianism[edit]

Faravahar (or Ferohar), one of the primary symbols of Zoroastrianism, believed to be the depiction of a Fravashi (guardian spirit)
Main article: Zoroastrianism

Some varieties of Zoroastrian (such as Zurvanism) are universalistic in application to all races, but not necessarily universalist in the sense of universal salvation.[123][failed verification]

Views of the Latter Day Saint Movement[edit]

See also: Universalism and the Latter Day Saint movement

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Harmony of Religions | Vedanta Society of Southern California".
  2. ^ Nations, United. "Are Human Rights Universal?". United Nations. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  3. ^ Benhabib, Seyla (2007). "Another Universalism: On the Unity and Diversity of Human Rights". Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association. 81 (2): 7–32. ISSN 0065-972X. JSTOR 27653991.
  4. ^ King 2002.
  5. ^ Otis Ainsworth Skinner (1807-1861), A Series of Sermons in Defense of the Doctrine of Universal Salvation, Page 209, It is not part of mainline Christian doctrine either Catholic or Protestant. "Repentance is a means by which all men are brought into the enjoyment of religion, and we do expect any man will be saved while he continues in sin. However, Unitarian Universalism holds a universal salvation, because is, "we expect all men will repent."
  6. ^ Bonnett, A. (2005). Anti-Racism. Routledge.
  7. ^ Kemerling, Garth (November 12, 2011). "A Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names". Philosophy Pages. According to Immanuel Kant and Richard Mervyn Hare...moral imperatives must be regarded as equally binding on everyone.
  8. ^ Gowans, Chris (Dec 9, 2008). "Moral Relativism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 ed.). Let us say that moral objectivism maintains that moral judgments are ordinarily true or false in an absolute or universal sense, that some of them are true, and that people sometimes are justified in accepting true moral judgments (and rejecting false ones) on the basis of evidence available to any reasonable and well-informed person.
  9. ^ Buck, Christopher (1999). Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baháʼí Faith. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 292.
  10. ^ "Manifestation of God". Bahaipedia. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  11. ^ Langness, David (30 May 2015). "How Many Prophets?". Bahaiteachings.org. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  12. ^ Jump up to:a b Stockman, Robert (2000). "The Baha'i Faith". In Beversluis, Joel (ed.). Sourcebook of the World's Religions. New World Library. p. 7. ISBN 1-57731-121-3.
  13. ^ Jump up to:a b c Smith, Peter (2008). An Introduction to the Baha'i (sic) Faith. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86251-6.
  14. ^ Smith, Peter (2000). "peace". A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith (illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 266–267. ISBN 1-85168-184-1 – via Internet Archive.
  15. ^ "The main branches of Buddhism (article)". Khan Academy. Archived from the original on 2021-02-22. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
  16. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Pan-chiu Lai, "Barth and Universal Salvation, A Mahayana Buddhist Perspective" in Martha L. Moore-Keish, Christian T. Collins Winn. Karl Barth and Comparative Theology. Fordham Univ Press, Aug 6, 2019.
  17. ^ Jump up to:a b Takahatake, Takamichi (2006). Young Man Shinran: A Reappraisal of Shinran’s Life, p. 36. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press.
  18. ^ Jump up to:a b c Chen, Shuman (2014). "Buddha-Nature of Insentient Beings". Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion. pp. 208–212. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9002. ISBN 978-1-4614-6085-5.
  19. ^ C. V. Jones (2020). The Buddhist Self: On Tathāgatagarbha and Ātman. p. 204. University of Hawaii Press.
  20. ^ Chung, Paul S (2008). Martin Luther and Buddhism: Aesthetics of Suffering, Second Edition, pp. 373-375. Wipf and Stock Publishers.
  21. ^ Reeves, Gene (2010). The Stories of the Lotus Sutra. Simon and Schuster.
  22. ^ Steven Heine (2015). Dōgen and Sōtō Zen. p. 65. Oxford University Press.
  23. ^ Travagnin, Stefania (2016). Religion and Media in China: Insights and Case Studies from the Mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong, p. 124. Taylor & Francis.
  24. ^ Kristin Beise Kiblinger (2017). Buddhist Inclusivism: Attitudes Towards Religious Others, Routledge.
  25. ^ F Harold Smith. The Buddhist Way of Life: Its Philosophy and History. Routledge, 2013.
  26. ^ Emily Sigalow (2022). American JewBu: Jews, Buddhists, and Religious Change, p. 45. Princeton University Press.
  27. ^ Emily Sigalow (2022). American JewBu: Jews, Buddhists, and Religious Change, p. 46. Princeton University Press.
  28. ^ Duncan Ryuken Williams, Tomoe Moriya. Issei Buddhism in the Americas, pp. 85, 123. University of Illinois Press, 2010.
  29. ^ "What Is Christian Universalism?". Auburn.edu. Archived from the original on 2017-11-22. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  30. ^ See Ramelli, The Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis, and A Larger Hope.
  31. ^ Jump up to:a b c "The Salvation Conspiracy: How Hell Became Eternal | Christian Universalist Association". 19 March 2013.
  32. ^ Gary Amirault. "The Fate of the Wicked". Tentmaker.org. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  33. ^ Guild, E.E. "Arguments in Favor of Universalism". www.tentmaker.org. Archived from the original on 2021-04-19. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
  34. ^ "Kingdom Bible Studies: J. Preston Eby, Kingdom of God; Saviour of The World". www.godfire.net. Archived from the original on 2021-04-19. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
  35. ^ "Hell Fire and Brimstone, The Lake of Fire, Second Death". www.godfire.net. Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
  36. ^ Gregory MacDonald, The Evangelical Universalist, 175-176.
  37. ^ "The Bible Hell". www.tentmaker.org. Archived from the original on 2021-05-28. Retrieved 2021-08-24.
  38. ^ Miriam Van Scott (10 February 2015). "Purgatorial Hell". The Encyclopedia of Hell: A Comprehensive Survey of the Underworld. St. Martin's Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-4668-9119-7.
  39. ^ "See section entitled "Five Principles of Faith"". Auburn.edu. Archived from the original on 2016-08-15. Retrieved 2011-11-09.
  40. ^ Jump up to:a b Knight, George T. (1950) [1912]. "Universalists". The New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Vol. 12. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House. p. 96. OCLC 1002955. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge at the Internet Archive (Vol. 12).
  41. ^ "Purgatorial Hell FAQ". StanRock.net. 20 May 2015. Retrieved 2016-01-19.
  42. ^ Wyatt, Neal; Dwyer, Tierney V; Dwyer, Tierney V (2008). "Unitarian Universalism: A Research Guide". Reference & User Services Quarterly. 47 (3): 210–214. doi:10.5860/rusq.47n3.210.
  43. ^ Unitarian Universalism. Zondervan Academic. 15 December 2009. ISBN 9780310864547.
  44. ^ "100 Scriptural Proofs That Jesus Christ Will Save All Mankind". Tentmaker.org. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  45. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Tentmaker. "The Fate of the Wicked". tentmaker.org. Tentmaker. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
  46. ^ ""Eternal" Punishment (Matthew 25:46) Is NOT Found In The Greek New Testament". www.tentmaker.org.
  47. ^ "A look at the Greed word "aionion" used by universalists | carm.org". December 15, 2008.
  48. ^ See The Greek-English Interlinear ESV New Testament, 1061; or the following online interlinear.
  49. ^ Vincent, Marvin. "Note on Olethron Aionion (eternal destruction)". Word Studies in the New Testament. Archived from the original on 21 May 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
  50. ^ See Barclay (New Testament Words, 35); and Ramelli & Konstan (Terms For Eternity), who prefer "otherworldly" as the best rendering of αἰώνιος.
  51. ^ Hart, The New Testament: A Translation, 53 (see also his explanation in the postscript, 537-543).
  52. ^ Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, 85.
  53. ^ Ramelli, A Larger Hope, 11.
  54. ^ See Beauchemin, Hope For All, 52, 160.
  55. ^ John Meyendorff, Catholicity and the Church, St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1997, ISBN 0-88141-006-3, p. 7
  56. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The ninth commandment". www.vatican.va.
  57. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 2448
  58. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - Social justice". www.vatican.va.
  59. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The sixth commandment". www.vatican.va.
  60. ^ Jump up to:a b "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Creator". www.vatican.va.
  61. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Fall". www.vatican.va.
  62. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - Sacred Scripture". www.vatican.va.
  63. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Revelation of God". www.vatican.va.
  64. ^ Jump up to:a b "CCC - PART 1 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 3 ARTICLE 9 PARAGRAPH 3". www.vatican.va.
  65. ^ Jump up to:a b "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Church in God's Plan". www.vatican.va.
  66. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The sacrament of Baptism". www.vatican.va.
  67. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The sacrament of penance and reconciliation". www.vatican.va.
  68. ^ Jump up to:a b c d "Catechism of the Catholic Church - I believe in life everlasting". www.vatican.va.
  69. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - Man". www.vatican.va.
  70. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g "Catechism of the Catholic Church - Jesus Died Crucified". www.vatican.va.
  71. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText". www.vatican.va.
  72. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - Sin". www.vatican.va.
  73. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Fall". www.vatican.va.
  74. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Communion of Saints". www.vatican.va.
  75. ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Church in God's Plan". www.vatican.va.
  76. ^ Pluralism and Universalism Within Hinduism "Hindu teachings were also denigrated accordingly and the deeper philosophies of Hinduism were often ignored, especially their universal relevance. For conversion purposes it was easier to define Hinduism in a limited way as a local phenomenon only. Yet the universality of Hindu teachings continued, though few outside of India understood this until recent years. This background universalism of Sanatana Dharma affords Hinduism a synthetic tendency, an ability to incorporate within itself a diversity of views and approaches, including at times those from groups outside of Hinduism or even opposed to Hinduism. Because of this syncretic view, sometimes Hinduism is equated with a blind universalism that accepts without discrimination anything that calls itself religious or spiritual, as if differences of spiritual teachings did not matter in any way. While this may be true of some Hindus, the Hindu tradition also contains a lively tradition of free debate on all aspects of theology, philosophy and metaphysics, showing differences as well as similarities, and not simply equating all teachings as they are. A good example of this is the debates between the dualistic and non-dualistic schools of Vedantic philosophy, but many other examples exist as well. The different sects within Hinduism have always been free to disagree, though each sect has its particular guidelines and there is an overall respect for Dharma."
  77. ^ "Hindu American Foundation "Hinduism Basics"". Archived from the original on 2018-04-17. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  78. ^ Rig Veda 1.164.46
  79. ^ Page 194 in Eknath Easwaran (2008). Timeless wisdom: Passages for meditation from the world's saints & sages (see article). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press. ISBN 1-58638-027-3. Similar to Eknath Easwaran (2007). The Bhagavad Gita, 2nd ed. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press, p. 117. ISBN 1586380192 (which substitutes "they" for "people"). Transliteration from Winthrop Sargeant (1984). The Bhagavad Gita. Albany: State University of New York Press, p. 211. ISBN 0-87395-831-4, which translates the same passage as "They who, in whatever way, take refuge in Me, them I reward."
  80. ^ See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 2002) ISBN 1-884852-04-1
  81. ^ "Hindu American Foundation Hinduism Basics "It is a richly diverse family of philosophies, traditions, and practices that have been followed primarily throughout Asia for thousands of years."". Archived from the original on 2018-04-17. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  82. ^ "Veden Akademie DE".
  83. ^ "Indian Philosophy: Orthodox and Heterodox Schools". October 5, 2014.
  84. ^ "Neo-Vedanta: The problem with Hindu universalism – Frank Morales". February 15, 2012.
  85. ^ King 2002, p. 93.
  86. ^ What Is Hinduism?: Modern Adventures Into a Profound Global Faith. Himalayan Academy Publications. 2007. p. 416. ISBN 978-1934145005.
  87. ^ Yelle 2012, p. 338.
  88. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f King 2002, p. 135.
  89. ^ Larson 2012, p. 313.
  90. ^ (Rigveda 1:164:46) "Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti" - Truth is one; sages call it many names
  91. ^ (Maha Upanishad: Chapter 6, Verse 72) "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" - The entire world is a one big family
  92. ^ Badlani, Hiro (2008). Hinduism: Path of the Ancient Wisdom. iUniverse. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-595-70183-4.[self-published source]
  93. ^ Sinari 2000.
  94. ^ Ghazi 2010.
  95. ^ Michaelson 2009, p. 79-81.
  96. ^ M. K. Gandhi, All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as told in his own words, Paris, UNESCO 1958, p 60.
  97. ^ King 1999, p. 135.
  98. ^ Crone, Patricia (2005). God's Rule: Government and Islam: Six Centuries of Medieval Islamic Political Thought. Columbia University Press. p. 472. ISBN 978-0-231-13291-6.
  99. ^ Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). Ira M. Lapidus. Cambridge University Press. p. 1000. ISBN 9780521514309.
  100. ^ Jump up to:a b Karsh, Efraim (2007). Islamic Imperialism: A History (PDF). Yale University Press. p. 304. ISBN 9780300122633. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 15, 2015.
  101. ^ Mura, Andrea (2014). "The Inclusive Dynamics of Islamic Universalism: From the Vantage Point of Sayyid Qutb's Critical Philosophy". Comparative Philosophy. 5 (1): 29–54. doi:10.31979/2151-6014(2014).050106. ISSN 2151-6014.
  102. ^ Ibn Kathir, Ismail (1301-1373) (2000). Sheikh Safiur-Rahman Al-Mubarakpuri (ed.). Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Aziz (Tafsir Ibn Kathir) (in English and Arabic) (English Abridged ed.). Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Maktaba Darussalam. p. 6608. ISBN 978-1-59144-020-8.
  103. ^ Jump up to:a b c Khalil, Ahmed (2002-05-27). "Dar Al-Islam And Dar Al-Harb: Its Definition and Significance". IslamWay (English). Retrieved 2015-05-12.
  104. ^ Ye'or, Bat (1985). The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam. Farleign Dickinson University Press. p. 444. ISBN 978-0838632628.
  105. ^ Ye'or, Bat (1996). The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude: 7th–20th Centuries. Farleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 522. ISBN 978-0-8386-3688-6.
  106. ^ Jump up to:a b Ibn Kathir's Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Aziz
  107. ^ Sayyid Qutb Milestones
  108. ^ Durie, Mark (2010). The Third Choice: Islam, Dhimmitude and Freedom. Deror Books. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-9807223-1-4.
  109. ^ Polish, David (1985). "Covenant-Jewish Universalism and Particularism". Judaism. 34 (3): 284.
  110. ^ Magid, Shaul. "Social Justice and the Future of ...." Tablet Magazine. 13 June 2018. 5 February 2019.
  111. ^ Staff. "Jewish Universalism". Jewish Spiritual Leaders Institute. Google Inc. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
  112. ^ Manfred Hutter (January 1993). "Manichaeism in the Early Sasanian Empire". Numen. BRILL. 40 (1): 2–15. doi:10.1163/156852793X00022. JSTOR 3270395.
  113. ^ White, Restoration, 107: "...unless, with the Manichees, we make two eternal principles, one of good, the other of evil, which is all one as to make two Gods."
  114. ^ "Sikh Philosophy", International Bibliography of Sikh Studies, Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, pp. 163–181, 2005, doi:10.1007/1-4020-3044-4_5, ISBN 1-4020-3043-6, retrieved 2022-05-01
  115. ^ "About the Siri Singh Sahib – Sikh Dharma International". www.sikhdharma.org. Retrieved 2017-11-02.
  116. ^ "Sikhism Religion of the Sikh People". www.sikhs.org. Retrieved 2016-11-19.
  117. ^ Munde, Amarpreet Singh. "Guru Nanak (for Children) - No Hindu, and no Muslim". www.gurmat.info. Retrieved 2016-11-19.
  118. ^ (The 4th principle of Unitarian Universalism)UUA.org Seven principles
  119. ^ "Major Religions Ranked by Size". Adherents.com. Archived from the original on August 16, 2000. Retrieved April 19, 2013.
  120. ^ Ford, James Ishmael (2006). Zen Master Who?. Wisdom Publications. p. 187. ISBN 0-86171-509-8.
  121. ^ Harvard Divinity School: Timeline of Significant Events in the Merger of the Unitarian and Universalist Churches During the 1900s
  122. ^ CUC-UUA Tradition. Canadian Unitarian Council Growing Vital Religious Communities In Canada Archived 2011-07-06 at the Wayback Machine
  123. ^ Jonathan Porter Berkey The formation of Islam: religion and society in the Near East 2003 p28 "This is not to say that there was no universalist dimension to Zoroastrian religious life; but what universalism there was derived directly, and to a greater degree than in the case of Rome and Christianity, from the explicit connection between religion and the state."

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Ankerl, Guy (2000). Global communication without universal civilization. Vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva, Switzerland: INU Press. ISBN 9782881550041.
  • Palmquist, Stephen (2000), "Chapter eight: Christianity as the Universal religion", in Palmquist, Stephen (ed.), Kant's critical religion, Aldershot, Hants, England Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate, ISBN 9780754613336. Online.
  • Scott, Joan W. (2005), "French Universalism in the nineties", in Friedman, Marilyn (ed.), Women and citizenship, Studies in Feminist Philosophy, Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 35–51, ISBN 9780195175356.

External links[edit]

Posted by at

Approaches to Interfaith Dialogue — Interfaith Photovoice

Approaches to Interfaith Dialogue — Interfaith Photovoice



Approaches to Interfaith Dialogue



By William L. Sachs, Ph.D.

Interreligious Dialogue in 20th Century America

Although the meaning of “interreligious dialogue” seems abundantly clear, its meaning has shifted significantly since the mid-twentieth century. In the past, this dialogue referred to formal occasions at which senior religious scholars and leaders discussed areas of difference and potential agreements between different traditions. Typically, such “dialogue” occurred in formal assemblies, including such gatherings as the World Council of Churches.

Historically, dialogue surrounding religious difference usually took place between those in the same religion . Formal gatherings and the elaborate statements that resulted helped to unite branches of the Christian tradition, for example. For much of the twentieth century, the ecumenical movement embodied interreligious dialogue. Important points of understanding between Lutherans and Episcopalians, for example, drew these churches together in forms of mutual recognition. Formal expressions of respect advanced cooperation between religious institutions.

So long as the religious spectrum of the United States was predominantly Christian, “dialogue” was narrowly defined, and the meetings were led by senior scholars and administrators who spoke on behalf of their institutions. However, in the latter part of the twentieth century, the size and influence of religious denominations began a steady decline. The so-called “mainstream” churches that once seemed to embody American religious life were severely affected. They had developed institutional structures that mimicked the form of twentieth-century corporate life. With support from their regional structures and local congregations, denominational headquarters sought to manage religious life by setting standards and providing resources. Representatives who gathered for dialogue could presume they spoke for clearly defined religious groups.

Two historic developments reshaped the meaning of dialogue and how it would occur. Unity and coherence among religious institutions began to falter. Conflicts over civil rights for African-American persons and over the roles of women in religious life generated forms of activism that secured historic advances and highlighted inequities in institutional power structures. A “culture war” embroiled religious life in divisions between liberals and conservatives, the latter including the growth of fundamentalism. At times, the issues at stake seemed subsumed by conflicting forms of activism, with religious institutional coherence suffering as a result.

Religious Pluralism

At the same time, North American religious life gained unprecedented variety and diversity. Once characterized as “Protestant, Catholic, Jew” (Herberg 1955), religious pluralism became prevalent with the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act (also known as the Hart-Celler Act) in 1965, which opened the United States to immigrants from non-western countries who brought their faith with them. Whereas only the largest metropolitan populations included a range of religions in the past, today religious diversity is evident across all regions of the United States. By the beginning of the twenty-first century, the variety of American religious life included significant numbers of Asian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. Their large numbers and spread across North America made their presence visible at the local level in many communities for the first time.

The notable case, certainly in public awareness, is the growth of Islam in the United States. The Pew Research Center reported in 2017 that the Muslim population of the United States had reached 3.45 million, approximately one percent of the national figure. Pew found that three-quarters of American Muslims are immigrants or the children of immigrants. The number is not large (1.1 percent of the U.S. population), but the rate of growth by immigration is notable: since 2011, “Muslim population has continued to grow at a rate of roughly 100,000 per year, driven both by higher fertility rates among Muslim Americans as well as the continued migration of Muslims to the U.S.” (Mohamed 2018:n.p.). Pew also notes the high educational level of American Muslims and the high proportion of youth among the Muslim population. It is also striking that diversity of race, ethnicity, and religious practice attends American Muslim communities. The global distinction between Sunni and Shia is extended, for example, by Black Muslims, a subgroup of African-American origin in the US. Islam in America is characterized by encounters between peoples of differing national identities and cultural backgrounds, making the organization of local Muslim life challenging. Though many Muslims gather along ethnic lines, some Islamic mosques bridge members’ cultural differences in pursuit of their shared religious practices and pursuits.

For Christians, the shrinkage of religious institutions and the rise of religious pluralism could be interpreted as decline. The conflicts that confounded denominational life, especially as fundamentalist and sectarian groups arose, seemed to decrease Christianity’s role in American life. By the early twenty-first century, the Christian percentage of the population had fallen to roughly 70 percent (Pew Research Center 2015). Further challenge to all religious groups was the fact that more than 20 percent of all Americans professed no religious affiliation. Still, in 2017 nearly 90 percent of the US population continued to profess belief in god or a higher power as they understood it (Pew Research Center 2018).

Interreligious Dialogue Today

“Interreligious dialogue” now relies on the initiative of local leaders who summon their congregation or religious group toward engagement with people of different faiths in their vicinity. In this setting, the meaning of “interreligious dialogue” has shifted to launching forms of practical initiative and patterns of cooperation. People of different faiths can recognize their common stake in the life of their neighborhood, city, and region. With this recognition, dialogue becomes experiential and intentional. It requires a mixture of reflection and action in ways that create fresh social bonds. And in some cases, like the programs of Grand Rapids based Kaufman Institute, interfaith small groups are organized to create opportunities for friendships around shared interests in movies, food, knitting, and contemplative practices.

There is a clear basis for interfaith initiative in both Christian and Muslim traditions. It may seem surprising to some that not merely acceptance but engagement with other faiths proves intrinsic to Islam, as Zeyneb Sayilgan maintains. She grants that a recent Pew survey finds “the overwhelming majority” of the world’s Muslims “believes that Islam is the only true religion leading to eternal salvation” (Sayilgan 2016:20). She also acknowledges that “a marginal but vocal minority” of the world’s Muslims rejects other faiths and even intends them harm. But the weight of Islamic tradition is on respectful “engagement” (Sayilgan 2016:23). Qur’an 5:48 celebrates religious difference as god’s creation. In Muslim eyes other traditions may be incomplete, yet those traditions and their followers are to be respected. As the prophet lived among people of other faiths, so Muslims are enjoined to build bonds, which Sayilgan interprets as dialogical and social. People of “the book” (i.e., the Abrahamic faiths) are referenced in the Qur’an and so are especially welcomed. Indeed, Jesus is identified as a prophet in the Qur’an.

The attacks of September 11, 2001 forced many American Muslims to consider their approach to civic life and interfaith relations. It also brought sharp controversy surrounding the proposed Islamic center near Ground Zero in New York City and resistance to building other mosques in some American communities. Additionally, conversations about shariah continue to provoke heated religious and political debates, particularly among the most politically conservative Americans. In the midst of these tensions however, we also see an increased commitment to dialogue and cooperation; these national controversies have sparked new expressions of local interfaith activism.

Sayilgan’s colleague, Robert Heaney (2016), notes that Christianity is a missionary religion, which manifests across a spectrum of humanitarian and conversionist projects. The centrality of Jesus Christ and the Trinitarian basis of faith both define Christianity’s uniqueness and present obstacles to finding common ground with Islam—Muslims perceive the Christian construction of a triune god as polytheism, for example. But as an Abrahamic faith rooted in a creator god, in love of neighbor, and in compassion, Christians also have a profound basis for respectful engagement. “Mission” readily becomes “proclamation,” or living the faith in dialogue and in action without the intention of proselytism (Heaney 2016:12). “Mission” also translates into forms of service which seek the common good amid pluralism without diminishing the commitments of one’s neighbors to differing faiths. For both Muslims and Christians, in practice, there are ways to strike a balance between affirmation of one’s own faith and constructive engagement with persons who profess another faith.

Photovoice opens such a door. Different sorts of challenges attend contextual rather than institutional dialogue. To gain shared vision of their community, and to address it constructively, people of different religious traditions require a means of coming together, that is, an easily grasped rationale for being introduced and seeking to work together. Common purpose requires common vision. Photovoice provides a readily understood means of exploring shared affirmation of the place where they live for people whose lives otherwise are defined by difference.

Works Cited

Heaney, Robert S. 2016. “A Christian Rationale for Interfaith Engagement.” Pp. 3–19 in Faithful Neighbors: Christian-Muslim Vision & Practice, edited by R.S. Heaney, Z. Sayilgan, and C. Haymes. New York: Morehouse.

Herberg, Will. 1955. Protestant – Catholic – Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Mohamed, Besheer. 2018. “New Estimates Show US Muslim Population Continues to Grow.” Pew Research Center. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/01/03/new -estimates-show-u-s-muslim-population-continues-to-grow/, retrieved 30 June 2018.

Pew Research Center. 2015. “America's Changing Religious Landscape.” http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/, retrieved 29 June 2018.

Pew Research Center. 2018. “When Americans Say They Believe in God, What Do They Mean?” http://www.pewforum.org/2018/04/25/when-americans-say-they-believe -in-God-what-do-they-mean/, retrieved 27 June 2018.

Sayilgan, Zeyneb. 2016. “A Muslim Rationale for Interfaith Engagement.” Pp. 20–36 in Faithful Neighbors: Christian-Muslim Vision & Practice, edited by R.S. Heaney, Z. Sayilgan, and C. Haymes. New York: Morehouse.

Acknowledgements

The material above is an edited version of a section of “Through One Another’s Lenses: Photovoice and Interfaith Dialogue” by Roman R. Williams, William L. Sachs, Catherine Holtmann, Elena G. van Stee, Kaitlyn Eekhoff, Michael Bos, and Ammar Amonette. It appears in the Annual Review of the Sociology of Religion, Volume 10: Interreligious Dialogue: From Religion to Geopolitics, edited by Giuseppe Giordan and Andrew P. Lynch, and published by Brill (Leiden, The Netherlands). We are grateful to the Louisville Institute for the Collaborative Inquiry Team grant that supports this project and to the Kaufman Interfaith Institute for its local partnership and funding.
Posted by at
Subscribe to: Posts (Atom)