2016/05/03

The Forgiveness Project - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Forgiveness Project - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Forgiveness Project

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Forgiveness Project
The Forgiveness Project logo.png
Founded2004
TypeInternational organization
Registration no.Charity No. 1103922
Focus
Location
Key people
Marina Cantacuzino (founder)
MissionTo open up a dialogue about forgiveness and promote understanding through awareness, education and transformation.
Websitetheforgivenessproject.com
The Forgiveness Project[1]is a UK-based charity that uses real stories of victims and perpetrators of crime and violence to help people explore ideas aroundforgiveness and alternatives to revenge. With no political or religious affiliations, The Forgiveness Project’s independent and inclusive approach ensures its core message – that everyone has the potential to change their perspective and break the cycle of vengeance – resonates across all cultures.[2]

Aims

The charity’s goals are centred on:
  • Awareness: Raise the debate about forgiveness by collecting and sharing personal stories.
  • Education: Encourage and empower people to explore the nature of forgiveness and alternatives to conflict and revenge.
  • Transformation: Engage civil society, as well as transform hearts and minds.

History

The charity was founded in 2004 by Marina Cantacuzino,[3] a journalist who in the build up to the Iraq War began to gather personal stories from people whose lives had been affected by violence and terrorism but who had learned to forgive and move on.[4]
Marina spent all of 2003 collecting stories of reconciliation and forgiveness for an exhibition of words and images which she created with the photographer Brian Moody. These stories subsequently formed the basis of The Forgiveness Project’s The F Wordexhibition.[5]

Concept of rehabilitative storytelling

Central to The Forgiveness Project’s work is the sharing of personal accounts about people’s transformative journeys. Having collected over 130 personal stories on their website,[6] this is also done through its exhibition, The F Word, and via the award-winning programmes it runs within prisons, schools, community groups and companies.
In providing tools that can facilitate conflict resolution and reconciliation, The Forgiveness Project encourages behavioural change and impacts positively on people’s lives, whatever their story.
These story-led initiatives operate at a local, national and international level and encourage individuals to reflect on their current perspective and their future life path. Rather than give advice or tell people what to think, The Forgiveness Project works by inviting those involved to see whether they can relate to the stories they hear and to take steps in trying to see a different perspective on their circumstances.

Projects and programmes

The F Word exhibition

This collection of thought-provoking narratives document personal tales of forgiveness and reconciliation around the world. The exhibition can be hired in a range of formats and regularly tours Germany, the UK and the USA. There are also permanent exhibitions in France, Kenya, South Africa and Sweden.
The F Word[7] exhibition has been displayed in more than 500 venues across 13 countries[8] to an audience of over 60,000 people since being launched in London’s Oxo Gallery in January 2004. The exhibition was described by the charity's founding patron, Anita Roddick Anita Roddick,[9] as “truly an education of the human spirit”.[10]

The Forgiveness Project: Stories for a Vengeful Age (book)

An updated collection of some of the charity's stories which examine the charity's core themes of forgiveness, reconciliation and conflict transformation have been brought together into an illustrated 240-page book. Released in hardback by Jessica Kingsley Publishers[11] on 26 March 2015, the book was written by founder Marina Cantacuzino and includes forewords from patron Desmond Tutu and Alexander McCall Smith. It has also been received endorsements from actress Emma Thompson, journalist and news presenter Jon Snow, historian and TV presenter Dan Snow, cultural thinker and founding faculty member of The School of Life in London, Roman Krznaric, Cambridge University professor Simon Baron-Cohen, humanitarian and former hostage Terry Waite and journalist Bel Mooney.[12]

Speaker’s Bureau

The charity believes that hearing someone speak first-hand and being able to ask questions is the most powerful form of story-telling so over 30 of those who share their stories with The Forgiveness Project are also part of the charity’s Speaker’s Bureau. This facility allows schools, prisons, conferences and organisations hiring the F Word exhibition to have one of the featured storytellers on hand to share their experience of forgiveness.

Annual lecture

In addition to regular talks, The Forgiveness Project has also hosted four annual lectures to date.
  • 2010: The first annual lecture was delivered by Desmond Tutu in May 2010 at St John's, Smith Square. Tutu was joined by Mary Blewitt who lost 50 members of her family in the Rwandan genocide; Jo Berry whose father was killed in the 1984Brighton hotel bombing; and Patrick Magee, the former IRA activist who planted the bomb. The event was chaired by BBC broadcaster Edward Stourton.
  • 2011: Clare Short delivered the second annual lecture on ‘No Forgiveness Without Justice’ on 6 October 2011 at Union Chapel, Islington. Chaired by Yasmin Alibhai-Brown of The Independent, Clare Short’s lecture was preceded by Colin Parry, who lost his son in the IRA Warrington bomb in 1993, Elizabeth Turner, whose husband was killed while at a business meeting in the World Trade Centre on 11 September 2001, and Bassam Aramin, a Palestinian whose 10-year-old daughter was killed by an Israeli soldier and who is a founding member ofCombatants for Peace.
  • 2012: Dr Gwen Adshead, forensic psychiatrist at Broadmoor High Security Hospital, who delivered the 2012 lecture at the Royal Geographical Society, supported on stage by Marian Partington whose sister was murdered by Fred and Rosemary West, Erwin James, the Guardian columnist and former prisoner who has served a life sentence for murder; and Kemal Pervanic, survivor of the notorious Ormaska concentration camp in Bosnia.
  • 2013: Professor Simon Baron-Cohen delivered the keynote speech on ‘Zero degrees of empathy: exploring explanations of human cruelty and kindness’ at the Royal Geographical Society. The lecture, chaired by Simon Fanshawe, was followed by a panel discussion with Marina Cantacuzino, Mary Foley, whose 15-year-old daughter Charlotte was murdered during a birthday party in East London in 2005, and Peter Woolf, a reformed career criminal.

RESTORE programme

RESTORE is the charity’s intensive, group-based victim empathy programme for offenders that encourages the sharing of experiences within a framework influenced byRestorative Justice principles. The Forgiveness Project has delivered over 160 programmes in custodial and non-custodial settings in England and Wales since 2007.
Co-facilitated by trained victims of crime and ex-offenders, the workshop leaders use their personal testimonies to encourage prisoners to take responsibility for their actions and change how they think and feel about their offending behaviour.

Link between RESTORE and restorative justice

Whilst Restorative Justice (RJ) traditionally focuses on bringing a victim and offender into communication, this process can be stalled if both parties aren’t at the same life stage. The Forgiveness Project’s approach is to help offenders unravel their own stories and develop empathy by understanding the impact their actions have on others. This enables them to start the restorative process without being entirely dependent on their victim’s willingness or availability to participate.
In many cases, having encouraged behavioural change, the programme may result in the offender having the confidence, motivation and support to meet their victims as part of future RJ conferencing. RESTORE assists in victims’ recovery by enabling them to play a role in the criminal justice system.

Recognition

Awards and commendations

Over the years The Forgiveness Project’s work within the prison and probation services and RESTORE’s use of real stories to help motivate offenders to change has won it widespread recognition, including:
  • Longford Prize: In 2007, the charity received a ‘Special Commendation’ from the Longford Prize judges, awarded for its ‘remarkable work’ in exploring and encouraging notions of forgiveness through grassroots projects, including in prisons.[13]
  • Robin Corbett Award: In February 2014, the charity was highly commended by the Robin Corbett Award for Prisoner Rehabilitation 2014 for its involvement of trained former offenders, victims of crime and prison staff in the delivery of its group-based RESTORE programme.[14][15] The runner-up prize of £1,000 was presented by Lady Corbett and Lord Ramsbotham at the House of Lords in Westminster.
The charity’s founder and director, Marina Cantacuzino, also received a 2013 Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Travelling Fellowship which enabled her to spend five weeks visiting and learning[16] from other restorative justice programmes in custodial and community settings in the USA and Canada.[17]

Research and evaluation

Independent evaluation was commissioned on the work of RESTORE within prisons and the impact that it has had on young offenders and adult prisoners who had participated in the programme.
  • 2009: In 2009, Lois Edmund, Ph.D., C.Psych., Associate Professor of Conflict Resolution Studies, University of Winnipeg, conducted a qualitative assessment based on the first 18 months of The Forgiveness Project’s operations in prison. The report concluded that RESTORE ‘results in dramatic insight for many participants’, but ‘further work is needed to evaluate the long-term learnings of the participants’.[18]
  • 2012: To back up The Forgiveness Project's assertion that its work consistently demonstrates a shift in offenders’ motivation to change the charity commissioned an independent evaluation of RESTORE from the Forensic Psychological Services at Middlesex University. The evaluation[19] concluded that the intervention has an impact on recidivism and that those who completed the programme had improved general attitudes to offending, were less likely to anticipate re-offending, and less likely to evaluate crime as worthwhile.[20]
  • 2013: The Forgiveness Project carried out extensive work at Ashfield Young Offenders Institute in Bristol where, with funding from the Home Office’s Communities Against Gangs, Guns and Knives Fund, it was able to embed its RESTORE work into the fabric of the prison. In a report of this programme by cultural scientist Christian Straub, a member of the prison staff described RESTORE as “very powerful” because it “delivered a strong message gently”.[21]

Patrons and supporters

Since Dame Anita Roddick first lent her support in advance of the inaugural The F Word exhibition in 2004, The Forgiveness Project has attracted endorsements and ongoing support from a number of high-profile organisations and individuals.
The charity’s patrons include Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Rt Hon the Lord Woolf, philanthropist Lady Edwina Grosvenor, actress Emma Thompson and comedian Shappi Khorsandi whilst supporters include Tony Benn, clothes designer Katharine Hamnett, actors Dame Helen Mirren and Linus Roache plus Terry Waite.
The Forgiveness Project is also a peace partner of the Charter for Compassion.[22]

External links

References

  1. http://www.theforgivenessproject.com/
  2. "Could you forgive the unforgivable; The Guardian". theguardian.com. 25 June 2006.
  3. "Marina Cantacuzino; The Huffington Post". www.huffingtonpost.com.
  4. "The Forgiveness Project; Prisoners’ Education Trust". prisonerseducation.org.uk.
  5. "Marina Cantacuzino – The Forgiveness Project; Universal Peace Federation".http://www.uk.upf.org. External link in |publisher= (help)
  6. "The Forgiveness Project - Stories".
  7. "The f Word; Faith Initiative". Faith Initiative. Autumn 2005.
  8. "Marina Cantacuzino and ‘the F word’: images of forgiveness; The Brave Discussion". thebravediscussion.com.
  9. "DISPATCH: The F Word Exhibition Hits America". anitaroddick.com.
  10. "TFP: The Forgiveness Project; Soul Circle". http://soulcircle.typepad.com. External link in|publisher= (help)
  11. "JKP - The Forgiveness Project: Stories for a Vengeful Age". jkp.com.
  12. "Amazon - The Forgiveness Project: Stories for a Vengeful Age". amazon.co.uk.
  13. "Longford Prize Winners". 23 November 2007.
  14. "Manx and Welsh restorative schemes win prisoner rehabilitation award; Prison Reform Trust". 4 February 2014.
  15. "Manx prisoner rehabilitation scheme wins national award; BBC". bbc.co.uk. 4 February 2014.
  16. "Can restorative justice reduce reoffending; Winston Churchill Trust" (PDF). 13 January 2014.
  17. "Winston Churchill Memorial Trust - apply now for a prison and penal reform fellowship; Prison Reform Trust".
  18. "The Forgiveness Project - Activity Report; University of Winnipeg" (PDF). July 2009.
  19. "Evaluation of The Forgiveness Project RESTORE Prison Programme; Middlesex University"(PDF). 2012.
  20. "Evaluation of The Forgiveness Project within prisons; Middlesex University Research Repository". 2012.
  21. "Embedding RESTORE into the fabric of YOI Ashfield; Christina Straub MA" (PDF). 2013.
  22. "Peace Partner - peace starts here; Charter for Compassion". January 2014.
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Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia



Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
Established1996
CountrySouth Africa
LocationSouth Africa
Authorized bySouth Africa
Websitehttp://www.justice.gov.za/trc/
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was a court-likerestorative justice[1] body assembled inSouth Africa after the abolition of apartheidin the 1990s.[2] Witnesses who were identified as victims of gross human rights violations were invited to give statements about their experiences, and some were selected for public hearings. Perpetrators of violence could also give testimony and request amnesty from both civil and criminal prosecution.
The TRC, the first of the 1003 held internationally to stage public hearings, was seen by many as a crucial component of the transition to full and free democracy in South Africa. Despite some flaws, it is generally (although not universally) thought to have been successful.[3]
The Institute for Justice and Reconciliation was established in 2000 as the successor organisation of the TRC.

Creation and mandate

Inspired by the Chilean Rettig Report,[4] the TRC was set up in terms of the Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, No. 34 of 1995, and was based in Cape Town. The hearings started in 1996. The mandate of the commission was to bear witness to, record, and in some cases grant amnesty to the perpetrators of crimes relating to human rights violations, as well as reparation and rehabilitation.
The TRC had a number of high-profile members, including Archbishop Desmond Tutu(chairman), Alex Boraine (deputy chairman), Sisi Khampepe, Wynand Malan, andEmma Mashinini.

Committees

The work of the TRC was accomplished through three committees:
  • The Human Rights Violations Committee investigated human rights abuses that occurred between 1960 and 1994.
  • The Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee was charged with restoring victims' dignity and formulating proposals to assist with rehabilitation.
  • The Amnesty Committee considered applications from individuals who applied for amnesty in accordance with the provisions of the Act.
It was founded by president Nelson Mandela and Desmond Tutu

Process

Public hearings of the Human Rights Violations Committee and the Amnesty Committee were held at many venues around South Africa, including Cape Town (at the University of the Western Cape), Johannesburg (at the Central Methodist Mission), and Randburg (at the Rhema Bible Church).
The commission was empowered to grant amnesty to those who committed abuses during the apartheid era, as long as the crimes were politically motivated, proportionate, and there was full disclosure by the person seeking amnesty. To avoidvictor's justice, no side was exempt from appearing before the commission. The commission heard reports of human rights violations and considered amnesty applications from all sides, from the apartheid state to the liberation forces, including the African National Congress.

Numbers

A total of 5,392 amnesty applications were refused, granting only 849 out of the 7,112 (which includes the number of additional categories, such as "withdrawn").[5]

Significance and impact

The TRC's emphasis on reconciliation is in sharp contrast to the approach taken by theNuremberg Trials and other de-Nazification measures. The reconciliatory approach was seen as a successful way of dealing with human-rights violations after political change, either from internal or external factors. Consequently, other countries have instituted similar commissions, though not always with the same scope or the allowance for charging those currently in power.
There are varying opinions as to whether the restorative justice method (as employed by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission) is more or less effective than theretributive justice method (which was used during the Nuremberg Trials). In one survey study,[6] the effectiveness of the TRC Commission was measured on a variety of levels:
  • Its usefulness in terms of confirming what had happened during the apartheid regime ("bringing out the truth")
  • The feelings of reconciliation that could be linked to the Commission
  • The positive effects (both domestically and internationally) that the Commission brought about (i.e. in the political and the economic environment of South Africa).
In the study, the opinions of three ethnic groups were measured in this study: theBritish Africans, the Afrikaners, and the Xhosa.[6] According to the researchers, all of the participants perceived the TRC to be effective in bringing out the truth, but to varying degrees, depending on the group in question.
The differences in opinions about the effectiveness can be attributed to how each group viewed the proceedings. Some viewed them as not entirely accurate, as many people would lie in order to keep themselves out of trouble while receiving amnesty for their crimes. (The Commission would grant amnesty to some with consideration given to the weight of the crimes committed.) Some said that the proceedings only helped to remind them of the horrors that had taken place in the past when they had been working to forget such things. Thus, the TRC's effectiveness in terms of achieving those very things within its title is still debatable.[6]

Media coverage

The hearings were initially set to be heard in camera, but the intervention of 23 non-governmental organisations eventually succeeded in gaining media access to the hearings. On 15 April 1996, the South African National Broadcaster televised the first two hours of the first human rights violation committee hearing live. With funding from the Norwegian government, radio continued to broadcast live throughout. Additional high-profile hearings, such as Winnie Mandela's testimony, were also televised live.
The rest of the hearings were presented on television each Sunday, from April 1996 to June 1998, in hour-long episodes of the "Truth Commission Special Report". The program was presented by progressive Afrikaner journalist Max du Preez, former editor of the Vrye Weekblad.[7] The producers of the program included Anneliese Burgess, Jann Turner, Benedict Motau, Gael Reagon, Rene Schiebe and Bronwyn Nicholson, a production assistant.[8]

In the arts and popular culture

Film

Various films have been made about the commission:

Documentary film

Feature film

Theatre

Several plays have been produced about the TRC:

Fiction

Poetry

  • Some of Ingrid de Kok's poetry in Terrestrial Things (2002) deals with the TRC (e.g. "The Archbishop Chairs the First Session", "The Transcriber Speaks", "The Sound Engineer").

Criticisms

A 1998 study by South Africa's Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation & the Khulumani Support Group,[11][12] which surveyed several hundred victims of human-rights abuse during the Apartheid era, found that most felt that the TRC had failed to achieve reconciliation between the black and white communities. Most believed that justice was a prerequisite for reconciliation rather than an alternative to it, and that the TRC had been weighted in favour of the perpetrators of abuse.[13][14]
Another dilemma facing the TRC was how to do justice to the testimonials of those witnesses for whom translation was necessary. It was believed that, with the great discrepancy between the emotions of the witnesses and those translating them, much of the impact was lost in interlingual rendition. A briefly tried solution was to have the translators mimic the witnesses' emotions, but this proved disastrous and was quickly scrapped.[15]
While former president F.W. de Klerk appeared before the commission and reiterated his apology for the suffering caused by apartheid, many black South Africans were angered at amnesty being granted for human rights abuses committed by the apartheid government. The BBC described such criticisms as stemming from a "basic misunderstanding" about the TRC's mandate,[16] which was to uncover the truth about past abuse, using amnesty as a mechanism, rather than to punish past crimes.
Among the highest-profile of these objections were the criticisms levelled by the family of prominent anti-apartheid activist Steve Biko, who was killed by the security police, and whose story was featured in the film Cry Freedom.[17] Biko's family described the TRC as a "vehicle for political expediency", which "robbed" them of their right to justice.[18] The family opposed amnesty for his killers on these grounds and brought a legal action in South Africa's highest court, arguing that the TRC was unconstitutional.
On the other side of the spectrum, former apartheid State President P.W. Botha defied a subpoena to appear before the commission, calling it a "circus". His defiance resulted in a fine and suspended sentence, but these were overturned on appeal.[19]
Playwright Jane Taylor, responsible for the acclaimed Ubu and the Truth Commission, found fault with the Commission's lopsided influence:
The TRC is unquestionably a monumental process, the consequences of which will take years to unravel. For all its pervasive weight, however, it infiltrates our culture asymmetrically, unevenly across multiple sectors. Its place in small rural communities, for example, when it establishes itself in a local church hall, and absorbs substantial numbers of the population, is very different from its situation in large urban centres, where its presence is marginalised by other social and economic activities.[20]

See also

References

  1. Suffolk University, College of Arts & Sciences, Center for Restorative Justice,http://www.suffolk.edu/college/centers/15970.php What is Restorative Justice?]]
  2. Though it is a common claim that the TRC was a restorative justice body, it has been argued that the connection between the TRC and restorative justice is not as straightforward and unproblematic as often assumed. See b C.B.N. Restorative Justice and the South African Truth and Reconciliation Process, South African Journal of Philosophy32(1), 10-35 (click to read)
  3. "Truth Telling, Identities, and Power in South Africa and Guatemala",International Center for Transitional Justice
  4. The TRC and the Rettig Report
  5. Department of Justice and Constitutional Development of the Republic of South Africa, The Truth and Reconciliation Official Website, Justice.gov.za Accessed 2 October 2001
  6. Vora, Jay A. and Erika Vora. 2004. "The Effectiveness of South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Perceptions of Xhosa, Afrikaner, and English South Africans."Journal of Black Studies 34.3: 301-322.
  7. [1] Archived 27 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
  8. [2] Archived26 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
  9. "Facing the Truth". Pbs.org. 30 March 1999. Retrieved 2009-09-19.
  10. Long Night's Journey into Day
  11. "Survivors' Perceptions of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and Suggestions for the Final Report". Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation. Archived from the original on 25 September 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
  12. "Home | South, Pdf, Litigation, Apartheid, Khulum". Khulumani. Archived from the originalon 21 May 2008. Retrieved 2009-09-19.
  13. Storey, Peter (10–17 September 1997). "A Different Kind of Justice: Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa". The Christian Century. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
  14. As William Kentridge, director of Ubu and the Truth Commission, put it, "A full confession can bring amnesty and immunity from prosecution or civil procedures for the crimes committed. Therein lies the central irony of the Commission. As people give more and more evidence of the things they have done they get closer and closer to amnesty and it gets more and more intolerable that these people should be given amnesty." (Kentridge 2007, p. viii)
  15. Kentridge 2007, p. xiv.
  16. Barrow, Greg (30 October 1998). "South Africans reconciled? Special Report". BBC. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
  17. "Stephen Bantu Biko". South African History Online. Archived from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
  18. "Apartheid enforcer sticks to 'farcical' story on Biko killing". Findarticles.com. Archived from the original on 10 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
  19. Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "PW Botha - A Biography". About.com. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
  20. Taylor 2007, p. v.
  21. "TRC Final Report - Version 6". Doj.gov.za. Retrieved 2009-09-19.

Bibliography

Non-fiction

  • Terry Bell, Dumisa Buhle Ntsebeza, and Dumisa Buhle Ntzebeza. 2003. "Unfinished Business: South Africa, Apartheid and Truth."
  • Boraine, Alex. 2001. "A Country Unmasked: Inside South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission."
  • Cole, Catherine. 2010. "Performing South Africa's Truth Commission: Stages of Transition."
  • Doxtader, Erik and Philippe-Joseph Salazar, Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa. The Fundamental Documents, Cape Town, New Africa Books/David Philip, 2008.
  • Edelstein, Jillian. 2002. "Truth and Lies: Stories from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa."
  • Gobodo-Madikizela, Pumla. 2006. "A Human Being Died That Night: A South African Story of Forgiveness."
  • Grunebaum, Heidi Peta. Memorializing the Past: Everyday Life in South Africa After the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2011.
  • Hayner, Priscilla. 2010. "Unspeakable Truths: Transitional Justice and the Challenge of Truth Commissions"
  • Hendricks, Fred. 2003. "Fault-Lines in South African Democracy: Continuing Crisis of Inequality and Injustice."
  • Kentridge, William. "Director's Note". In Ubu and the Truth Commission, by Jane Taylor, viii-xv. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, 2007.
  • Krog, Antjie. 2000. "Country of My Skull: Guilt, Sorrow, and the Limits of Forgiveness in the New South Africa."
  • Martin, Arnaud. 2009. La mémoire et le pardon. Les commissions de la vérité et de la réconciliation en Amérique latine. Paris: L'Harmattan.
  • Moon, Claire. 2008. "Narrating Political Reconciliation: South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission."
  • Ross, Fiona. 2002. "Bearing Witness: Women and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa."
  • Tutu, Desmond. 2000. "No Future Without Forgiveness."
  • Villa-Vicencio, Charles and Wilhelm Verwoerd. 2005. "Looking Back, Reaching Forward: Reflections on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa."
  • Wilson, Richard A. 2001. "The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa."

External links

See also

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