영성, 몸-마음, 젠더, 생태, 평화 Scapbook: Komjathy. Daoist Tradition:10. Meditation

2023/08/12

Komjathy. Daoist Tradition:10. Meditation

Komjathy, Daoist Tradition:

An Introduction 2013
by Louis Komjathy

Table of Contents

Part 1: Historical Overview

1. Approaching Daoism

2. The Daoist Tradition

Part 2: The Daoist Worldview

3. Ways to Affiliation

4. Community and Social Organization

5. Informing Views and Foundational Concerns

6. Cosmogony, Cosmology, and Theology

7. Virtue, Ethics and Conduct Guidelines

Part 3: Daoist Practice

8. Dietetics

9. Health and Longevity Practice

10. Meditation

11. Scriptures and Scripture Study

12. Ritual

Part 4: Place, Sacred Space and Material Culture

13. Temples and Sacred Sites

14. Material Culture

Part 5: Daoism in the Modern World

15. Daoism in the Modern World

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10 Meditation

Generally speaking, “meditation” involves seated postures aimed at developing some capacity, clarifying meaning and purpose, and/or deepening one’s connection to the sacred (see Chapter 6). Although meditation is often associated with seated postures and assumed to be synonymous with Buddhist meditation, there are types of meditation practice that utilize standing, walking, and supine postures. Considered from a comparative perspective, “meditation” is an umbrella category that includes various types of associated practices, including alchemy, concentration, devotion, intentional respiration (breath-centered), mindfulness, relaxation, visualization, and so forth. The goals of meditation are also diverse, and they are usually tradition-specific. These may include the attainment of higher levels of consciousness or numinous abilities; the development of attentiveness, wisdom, compassion, or some other capacity or quality; divinization (making oneself into a god) or rarification (making oneself more refined); and so forth.

Daoist meditation, most generally referred to in Chinese as dazuo (lit., “to engage in sitting”), is among the most diverse in terms of technique and orientation. Five major types of Daoist meditation may be identified: apophatic or quietistic meditation, which relates to a variety of Daoist technical terms; visualization (cunxiang); ingestion (fuqi ); inner observation (neiguan); and internal alchemy (neidan). Daoists also developed a specific type of practice for women, known as “female alchemy” (nüdan), which was first systematized during the late imperial period.

1] Apophatic meditation

Daoist apophatic or quietistic meditation is first attested to in classical Daoist texts, where it receives various technical names. These include “embracing the One” (baoyi ), “guarding the One” (shouyi ), “fasting of the heart-mind” (xinzhai ), “sitting-in-forgetfulness” (zuowang), and so forth. In contemporary Daoism, where the practice usually incorporates internal alchemy dimensions, it is usually called “quiet sitting” (jingzuo), also translated as “tranquil sitting,” “stillness meditation,” or “sitting-instillness.” Apophatic meditation emphasizes emptiness and stillness; it is contentless, non-conceptual, and non-dualistic. One simply empties the heart-mind of all emotional and intellectual content.

Classical descriptions of Daoist apophatic meditation appear in many Daoist texts (see, e.g. Roth 1997, 1999a, 1999b; also LaFargue 1992). These works provide instructions and guidelines for the practice. According to the fourth-century BCE Daode jing (Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power), “Empty the heart-mind and fill the belly. Weaken the will and strengthen the bones” (Chapter 3; also Chapter 12). We also find more detailed instructions.1

INSTRUCTIONS ON CLASSICAL DAOIST

APOPHATIC MEDITATION

Carrying the ethereal and corporeal souls, embracing the One, Can you be without separation?

Concentrating the qi and attaining softness, Can you be like a newborn child?

Cleansing and purifying mysterious perception,

Can you be without flaws?

Loving the people and governing the country, Can you abide in non-knowing?

Opening and closing the Celestial Gates, Can you become like a female?

Illuminating and purifying the four directions, Can you abide in non-action?

(Daode jing, Chapter 10)

***

Attain emptiness completely; Guard stillness sincerely.

The ten thousand beings arise together; I simply observe their return.

All beings flourish and multiply; Each again returns to the Source.

Returning to the Source is called stillness; Stillness is called returning to life-destiny. Returning to life-destiny is called constancy; Knowing constancy is called illumination.

(ibid., Chapter 16)

***

Most people are busy as though attending the Tailao feast, As though ascending a tower in spring; I alone am unmoving, showing no sign.

I resemble an infant who has not yet become a child; Lazy and idle, as though there is no place to return.

Everyone has more than enough; I alone appear as though abandoned. I have the heart-mind of a fool— Chaotic and unpredictable.

Ordinary people are bright and clear; I alone appear dim and indistinct.

Ordinary people are inquiring and discerning;

I alone appear hidden and obscure.

Like an ocean in its tranquility;

Like a high wind in its endless movement.

Each person has his reasons;

I alone am insolent as though unconcerned. I alone am different from other people; I revere being fed by the mother.

(ibid., Chapter 20)

Similarly, the fourth-century BCE “Neiye” (Inward Training) chapter of the Guanzi (Book of Master Guan) explains: “The Dao is without a set place, but the calmness of an adept heart-mind makes a place. When the heart-mind is still and qi is patterned, the Dao may then come to rest … Cultivate the heart-mind and still your thinking; the Dao may then be realized” (Chapter 5; also Chapters 14, 17, 19, and 25). This text also provides more specific guidelines.

FURTHER INSTRUCTIONS

If you can be aligned and still, Only then can you become stable.

With a stabilized heart-mind at the Center,

With the ears and eyes acute and bright,

And with the four limbs firm and fixed,

You can make a lodging-place for vital essence. (“Neiye,” ch. 8)

***

Expand your heart-mind and release it.

Relax your qi and allow it to extend.

When your body is calm and unmoving, Guard the One and discard myriad disturbances.

You will see profit and not be enticed by it.

You will see harm and not be frightened by it. Relaxed and unwound, and yet free from selfishness, In solitude you will find joy in your own being.

This is what we call “circulating qi.”

Your awareness and practice appear celestial.

(ibid., Chapter 24; see also Roth 1999a)

Both of these classical Daoist texts discuss apophatic meditation in terms of “oneness” or “unity”; chapter eleven of the Zhuangzi and the “Neiye” refer to this practice as “guarding the One” (shouyi ), which interestingly becomes a more general designation for Daoist meditation in the organized tradition (see Kohn 1989b). Paralleling the “Neiye,” the Daode jing uses the technical designation of “embracing the One” (baoyi ). In the fourth-century BCE Inner Chapters of the Zhuangzi (Book of Master Zhuang), it is presented as

“fasting of the heart-mind” (xinzhai ) and “sittingin-forgetfulness”

(zuowang).2

XINZHAI AND ZUOWANG

“You must fast! I will tell you what that means. Do you think that it is easy to do anything while you have a heart-mind? If you do, the luminous heavens will not support you. . .Make your aspirations one! Don’t listen with your ears; listen with your heart-mind. No, don’t listen with your heart-mind; listen with qi. Listening stops with the ears, the heart-mind stops with joining, but qi is empty and waits on all things. The Dao gathers in emptiness alone. Emptiness is the fasting of the heart-mind.”

(Zhuangzi, Chapter 4)

***

“I’m improving. . .I can sit in forgetfulness. . .I smash up my limbs and body, drive out perception and intellect, cast off form, do away with understanding, and make myself identical with Great Pervasion. This is what I mean by sitting-inforgetfulness.” (ibid., Chapter 6)

Based on these passages, we may reconstruct the practice. Although detailed information on pre-Buddhist meditation postures is rare in Daoism, the “Neiye” provides some hints. The text emphasizes aligning the body (zhengshen) and aligning the four limbs (zheng siti ). Based on reasonable conjecture, especially drawing upon roughly contemporaneous texts and archaeological finds (see Harper 1995, 1998; also Chapter 10 herein), it appears that the corresponding posture involved sitting on the heels in a fashion that parallels the later Japanese seiza position. The spine would have been elongated and erect, and the shoulders aligned with the hips. The hands probably rested on the lap. In addition, the practice seems to have been solitary, rather than communal. With respect to actual method, adepts sought to empty the heart-mind of emotional and intellectual activity; they endeavored to enter a state of stillness, wherein perceptual and cognitive activity decreased. This was a hypoaroused and hyperquiescent state (see Fischer 1980; Forman 1990), that is, a condition characterized by deep relaxation and decreased physiological activity. According to the texts of classical Daoism, apophatic meditation eventually leads to the dissolution of self, to the end of subject-object dichotomies and separate identity. Through dedicated and prolonged practice, one may attain a state of mystical union with the Dao and become an embodiment of the Dao in the world.

Harold Roth, who has done the most extensive research on classical Daoist apophatic meditation, has mapped the practice comparatively in terms of a variety of stages.

CHART 11 Stages of Classical Daoist Apophatic Meditation Source: Harold Roth (with slight modifications)

While the texts are diverse, here we may use the “Neiye” as the most technical discussion of classical Daoist meditation. According to Harold Roth (1999a: 109), “The practices outlined in Inward Training aim to generate and retain vital essence [here meaning concentrated qi] through developing an inner tranquility and an inner power associated with attaining the numinous ‘mind within the mind,’ the nondual awareness of the Way.” The text emphasizes a “fourfold aligning”: (1) Aligning the body; (2) aligning the four limbs; (3) aligning qi; and (4) aligning the heart-mind (ibid.: 109–12). The first two stages involve establishing oneself in a comfortable posture. Here we see the classical and foundational Daoist psychosomatic view: meditation practice and the associated psychological benefits (see below) are directly connected to postural alignment. Aligning qi refers to settling and circulating qi. Roth—problematically in my view— occasionally interprets the third stage as referring to breath regulation. While “aligning qi” could refer to breath regulation, it seems, instead, to indicate settling, storing, and circulating qi in the body. As mentioned in Chapters 6 and 7 herein, qi may designate both physical respiration and a more subtle energetic presence. The final stage involves stilling and emptying the heartmind, and eventually “attaining” mystical union with the Dao.

Classical Daoist texts established the foundation for later Daoist meditation practice. This is so much the case that an entire Daoist meditation manual was inspired by the second passage from the Zhuangzi. The eighthcentury CE Zuowang lun (Discourse on Sitting-in-Forgetfulness; DZ 1036), a central text of the later Shangqing movement written by Sima Chengzhen (647–735), provides the following instructions: “As a method, we refer to it as ‘blunting the sharpness and untying the knots’ [Daode jing, Chapters 4 and 56]. If you maintain constancy of cultivation, you will complete innate nature through practice. Smash up limbs and body, drive out perception and intellect, and experience detachment and forgetfulness. Unmoving in silence, you imperceptibly and subtly enter illumination” (section 6).

Many classical Daoist texts furthermore claim that there are specific benefits to meditation. For example, the “Neiye” suggests that Daoist practice will result in physical, psychological and spiritual benefits (see Roth 1999a: 118–23, 140–2, 164–9). Assuming that one has been committed to consistent and prolonged apophatic meditation, specific qualities and states will emerge.

SOME BENEFITS OF CLASSICAL DAOIST APOPHATIC MEDITATION

A complete heart-mind at the Center Cannot be concealed or hidden.

It will be known through your appearance; It will be seen in the color of your skin.

If you encounter others with this exceptional qi, They will be kinder to you than your brothers. If you encounter others with harmful qi, They will injure you with their weapons.

(“Neiye,” Chapter 18; see also Chapter 16)

This parallels other passages in the Daode jing and Zhuangzi where aspiring Daoist adepts are informed that Daoist practice will result in freedom from injury. One either does not encounter or becomes impervious to harmful influences.

2] Visualization

Daoist visualization practices were developed and systematized by two early medieval communities in particular, the Taiqing and Shangqing movements (see Chapter 2). The Taiqing alchemist Ge Hong’s (283–343) Baopuzi neipian (Inner Chapters of Master Embracing Simplicity; DZ 1185) is especially relevant. In Chapter 18, titled “Dizhen” (Terrestrial Perfection),

Ge Hong discusses “guarding the One.”

GUARDING THE ONE IN EARLY MEDIEVAL DAOISM

My teacher used to say, “By knowing the One, the myriad affairs are complete.” Knowing the One means that not a single thing remains unknown. . ..Visualize (cun; or “maintain”) it, and it is there; startle it, and it is lost. Welcome it, and there is good fortune; turn your back on it, and there is bad luck. Protect it, and there is prosperity without end; lose it and life declines with qi becoming exhausted. . ..A scripture on immortality says, “If you want perpetual life, guard the One and cultivate illumination. Meditate on the One”. . .. The One has names and colored clothing. In men it is nine tenths of an inch tall; in women it is six tenths of an inch tall. Sometimes it is located in the lower elixir field, 2.4 inches below the navel. Sometimes it is located in the middle elixir field, the Gold Portal of the Scarlet Palace below the heart. Still others find it in the Hall of Light, one inch behind the space between the eyebrows, or the Grotto Chamber, two inches in, or the upper elixir field, three inches in. (Baopuzi neipian, DZ 1185, 18.1ab)

Here “the One” does not seem to be the mystical unification mentioned in classical Daoist texts, but rather the sacred presence of the Dao manifested in distinct forms in different parts of the body. As the text says, “The One has names and colored clothing” and can be visualized in the body’s “three elixir fields” (san dantian), located in the navel, heart, and head regions. Through the practice mentioned in the Baopuzi, aspiring adepts will be able to “connect with gods” or “pervade spirit” (tongshen). By “guarding the One,” the Daoist practitioner will gain numinous abilities, including the ability “to see all the celestial numens and terrestrial spirits, and to summon all the mountain and river gods” (DZ 1185, 18.4a; see also Campany 2002: 75–85). This parallels the above-mentioned benefits associated with classical Daoist apophatic meditation.

The subsequent Shangqing movement, which had some connection to Taiqing adherents and which emerged among southern aristocracy in Jurong (near Nanjing, Jiangsu) in the fourth century (see Chapters 2 and 3), developed the most complex and systematic forms of Daoist visualization practice in Chinese history, many of which also became seminal in later Daoist internal alchemy. One of the most important and influential texts associated with the early Shangqing movement is the Huangting jing (Scripture on the Yellow Court; DZ 331; DZ 332) (see Robinet 1989a; 1993). The text exists in two editions: (1) A so-called “outer view” (waijing) text (DZ 332), which is generally considered older, predates Shangqing, and is roughly contemporaneous with some Later Han texts; and (2) A so-called “inner view” (neijing) version (DZ 331), which is probably based on the former and which might be of actual Shangqing provenance, not in content per se but in composition and application. This “inner view” is especially interesting for the way it visualizes each yin-organ of the body containing distinct body-gods, complete with esoteric names, colors, symbols, and clothing (see Chapter 7 herein).

NAMES AND APPEARANCES OF DAOIST

BODY-GODS

The spirit of the heart is [called] Elixir Origin, given name Guarding the Numen.

The spirit of the lungs is [called] Brilliant Splendor, given name Emptiness Complete.

The spirit of the liver is [called] Dragon Mist, given name Containing Illumination.

The spirit of the kidneys is [called] Mysterious Obscurity, given name Nourishing the Child.

The spirit of the spleen is [called] Continuously Existing, given name Ethereal Soul Pavilion.

The spirit of the gall bladder is [called] Dragon Glory, given name Majestic Illumination. (Huangting neijing jing, DZ 331, 3a)

***

[The youth (tongzi ) of the lungs wears] white brocade robes with sashes of yellow clouds. . .[The youth of the heart wears] flowing cinnabar brocade robes with a jade shawl, gold bells and vermilion sashes. . .[The youth of the liver wears] azure brocade robes with a skirt of jade bells. . .[The youth of the kidneys wears] black brocade, cloud robes with dancing dragon banners. . .[The youth of the spleen wears] yellow brocade, jade robes with a tiger-emblem sash. . .[The youth of the gall bladder wears] nine-colored brocade robes with a green flower skirt and a gold belt. (ibid., 3b–6a)

The original Huangting jing became a central text of Shangqing Daoism, in which visualization occupied a major position. The late Isabelle Robinet (1932–2000) attempted to map the Shangqing system (see Robinet 1989a, 1993; see also Miller 2008). Here I will simply provide some glimpses into key Shangqing visualization practices, which also became a standardized and shared repertoire in later Daoist internal alchemy. Paralleling the Huangting jing, the Dadong zhenjing (Perfect Scripture of the Great Cavern; DZ 6) provides detailed instructions on visualization. It concludes by describing how the Daoist adept creates a transcendent spirit by ingesting and coalescing cosmic ethers that descend from his or her upper elixir field.

INSTRUCTIONS ON DAOIST VISUALIZATION

Next contemplate a five-colored purple cloud entering into your body from the Niwan (Mud-ball or Nirvana) point [crownpoint]. Then swallow this divine cloud with your saliva. It will coalesce into a spirit-body wrapped in a five-colored, purple, white and roseate round luminous wheel. There is a god [or simply “spirit”] inside this wheel. Below he spreads himself within your entire body, distributing his presence (qi ) to your Nine Apertures. It coalesces on the tip of your tongue. (Dadong zhenjing, DZ 6, 6.13b–14a)

The text identifies this transcendent spirit as Diyi zunjun (Venerable Lord Sovereign One), thereby equating him with Shangshang Taiyi (Supreme Great One) of the earlier model expressed in texts such as the Huangting jing (Pregadio 2006).

Shangqing visualization practice also focused on the larger cosmos and included connecting with various constellations and hidden celestial realms. One of the most representative types of meditation focuses on the sun, moon, and stars. In the Jinque dijun sanyuan zhenyi jing (Scripture on the Perfect Ones of the Three Primes by Lord Golden Tower; DZ 253; abbr. Sanyuan zhenyi jing; cf. DZ 1314; see Andersen 1980), part of the original fourthcentury Shangqing revelations, aspiring adepts are instructed to visualize the Northern Dipper (Big Dipper) according to the method of “guarding the

One,” also referred to as “guarding the Three Ones.”

A NEW METHOD FOR GUARDING THE ONE

At midnight on the lichun (Spring Begins) node [approx. February 2nd], practice aligned meditation (zhengzuo) facing east. Exhale nine times and swallow saliva thirty-five times.

Then visualize the seven stars of the Northern Dipper as they slowly descend toward you until they rest above you. The Dipper should be directly above your head, with its handle pointing forward, due east. Visualize it in such a way that the stars Yin Essence and Perfect One are just above the top of your head. The two stars Yang Brightness and Mysterious Darkness should be higher up. In addition, Yin Essence and Yang Brightness should be toward your back, while Perfect One and Mysterious Darkness are in front. Though the image may be blurred at first, concentrate firmly and focus it in position.

Then concentrate on the venerable Lords, the Three Ones. They appear suddenly in the bowl of the Dipper above your head. Before long their three ministers arrive in the same way. After a little while, observe how the six gods ascend together

Mysterious Darkness, from where they move east. When they reach the Celestial Pass, they stop.

Together they turn and face your mouth. See how the Upper Prime supports the upper minister with his hand; how the Middle Prime supports the middle minister; and how the Lower Prime supports the lower minister.

Then take a deep breath and hold it for as long as you can. The Upper Prime and his minister follow this breath and enter your mouth. Once inside they ascend and go to the Palace of Niwan in the head.

Take another breath as deep as you can. The Middle Prime and his minister follow this breath and enter your mouth. Once inside they descend and go to the Scarlet Palace in the heart.

Take yet another breath as deep as you can. The Lower Prime and his minister follow this breath and enter your mouth. Once inside they descend and go to the lower Cinnabar Field in the abdomen.

Next visualize the star Celestial Pass and bring it down to about seven inches in front of your mouth. While this star stands guard before your mouth, the Three Ones firmly enter into their bodily palaces.

With this complete, concentrate again on the Perfected to make sure they are all at rest in their residences. From then on, whether sitting or lying down, always keep them firmly in your mind.

At any point during the practice, if concerns or desires arise in your mind, it will push to pursue them. Then, however much the mind strains to break free, make sure to keep it firmly concentrated on the Three Ones. See that you remain at peace and in solitude. Moreover, if your room is quiet enough, you may continue the practice well into the day. (Sanyuan zhenyi jing, DZ 253, 6a–7a)

Within this method, the Daoist adept visualizes the Northern Dipper, associated with “fate” (ming) in the Daoist tradition, above his or her head. The seven visible stars are identified as follows (from bowl to handle, ending with the Polestar): (1) Yangming (Yang Brightness), (2) Yinjing (Yin Essence), (3) Zhenren (Perfect One), (4) Xuanming (Mysterious Darkness),

(5) Danyuan (Cinnabar Prime), (6) Beiji (North Culmen), and (7) Tianguan (Celestial Pass). The two lower stars of the dipper bowl rest in close proximity to the top of the head, while the handle extends forward so that the seventh star, called Celestial Pass, rests in front of the mouth. At the beginning of spring, one faces east, that is, one enters a posture of cosmological alignment based on the Five Phases (Wood/spring/east) (see Chapter 6 herein). One in turn visualizes the Three Ones, also known as the Three Primes or Three Purities, in the dipper bowl. They ascend together to the fourth star, Mysterious Darkness, move to the seventh star, Celestial Pass, and wait there facing towards the adept’s mouth. The adept then visualizes each one in sequence (upper, middle, lower) entering their respective corporeal locations (Niwan [center of head], Scarlet Palace [heart], Cinnabar Field [navel region]). In this way the Three Heavens and their corresponding gods become located in the Daoist adherent’s very own body. The text, in turn, advises the Daoist aspirant to follow the same instructions for the commencements of the other seasons: Lixia (Summer Begins; approx. May 5th) facing south; liqiu (Autumn Begins; approx.

August 8th) facing west; and lidong (Winter Begins; approx. November 11th) facing north (see Chapter 6). The corresponding time seems to be the same, namely, 11 p.m. to 1 a.m. There are thus seasonal, cosmological, and theological dimensions of the practice.

FIGURE 15 Visualizing the Dipper

Source: Jinque dijun wudou sanyi tujue, DZ 765

3] Internal alchemy

Internal alchemy (neidan), which literally means something like “inner pill” or “inner cinnabar” and which is also translated as “inner elixir,” is a complex physiological practice aimed at complete psychosomatic transformation. Combining a variety of early traditions and dimensions of traditional Chinese culture, early internal alchemy was extremely complex. Considered as a whole, early internal alchemy includes elements from the following sources: classical Daoist texts, earlier meditational techniques, correlative cosmology, Yijing (Classic of Changes) symbology, Yangsheng views and practices, cosmological views and technical terms related to external alchemy (waidan), Chinese medical theory, and occasionally Buddhist soteriology (see Needham et al. 1983; Robinet 1989b, 1995; Pregadio and Skar 2000).

The earliest systems emerged during the late Tang and early Northern Song dynasties (see Chapter 2 herein). They are documented in the ZhongLü textual tradition, named after the famous Daoist immortals Zhongli Quan and Lü Dongbin, in the Quanzhen movement, and in texts of the so-called Nanzong. Generally speaking, early internal alchemy was a stage-based system that involved dedicated and prolonged practice of complex physiological techniques aimed at complete psychosomatic transformation. The goal was the creation of a transcendent spirit, usually referred to as the “immortal embryo” (xiantai ), “yang-spirit” (yangshen), or “body-beyondthe-body” (shenwai shen) (see Komjathy 2007a).

Here a word is in order about the informing worldview, specifically the associated view of self (see Chapter 7 herein). Like its antecedent tradition of external alchemy (waidan), early internal alchemy utilized a complex map of human personhood, wherein humans are understood as composed of diverse and disparate elements such as the ethereal soul (hun) and corporeal soul (po). The aim of internal alchemy is to unite these elements, through inner smelting and fusion, into a single, unified entity capable of transcending physical death. That is, ordinary human beings are composite selves destined to dissipate into the cosmos, to have the various elements separate and dissolve. From this perspective, there is no eternal soul or transcendent consciousness, and post-mortem existence is not an ontological given. However, in contrast to contemporary secular materialist perspectives of self as biological organism with a finite lifespan, early internal alchemists understood self as consisting of both biological and spiritual dimensions. These could be united into a transcendent spirit, one could become an “immortal” (xianren), but such an accomplishment was difficult and extraordinary. There was no guarantee of success. It required, first and foremost, the search for, encounter with, and acceptance by a reliable teacher. It then required spiritual direction and intensive training under one’s teacher, usually located within specific lineages. In fact, most of the early texts are highly symbolic and esoteric; they required corresponding oral instructions. That is, early internal alchemy was guarded by secrecy. The reasons for this were varied, but two recurring themes are the dangers of the practice and the potential distortion by unethical individuals who might misuse the teachings, especially as sources of egoism, authority, and personal profit.

Our understanding of internal alchemy is complicated by the highly symbolic and often obscure language of the early texts. A representative example is Zhang Boduan’s Wuzhen pian (Treatise on Awakening to Perfection; DZ 1017, j. 26–30), which is most often read in combination with later Daoist commentaries (see Chapter 12 herein). Most of the early neidan texts utilize poetic descriptions and technical alchemical terms to describe both the somatic landscape and related physiological practices. For example, the lower abdomen is the “elixir field” and “Ocean of Qi,” the heart is the “Scarlet Palace,” the kidneys are the “Dark Towers,” the tongue is the “Descending Bridge” or “Crimson Dragon,” and so forth (see Komjathy 2007a). Similarly, the texts frequently assign a technical lexicon to the various vital substances and subtle dimensions of self. Along these lines, alchemically refined saliva is called the Sweet Dew or Jade Nectar. We also find references to lead and mercury, Child and Maiden, dragon and tiger, as well as the trigrams and hexagrams of the Yijing (Classic of Changes). The technical meaning of these symbolic terms often varies depending on teacher, community, lineage, and context. As mentioned, they usually required clarification through direct spiritual direction and oral instructions by one’s teacher. The matter is complicated because straightforward technical descriptions of the various techniques are rare; there are few early technical manuals of internal alchemy.

However, as we move forward in Chinese history, we find illustrated manuals, some of the earliest of which date to the Yuan dynasty. In addition, certain authors begin to provide more explanation and guidance in writing, especially in the form of commentary on earlier texts. Little research has been done on this historical development, but we may reasonably conjecture that there were greater numbers of practitioners separated by vast geographical distances. For example, when Quanzhen was a small, local community in eastern Shandong province, it was relatively simple for Wang Zhe, the founder, to provide direct instruction to his senior disciples (see Chapter 2). However, when Quanzhen subsequently became a national monastic order, there were not enough elders to oversee the training of monks and nuns. In this context, we find the earliest illustrated Quanzhen manual of internal alchemy, namely, the Dadan zhizhi (Direct Pointers to the Great Elixir; DZ 244; see Komjathy forthcoming). As we move into the next periods of Chinese history, the Ming and Qing dynasties, there is a greater tendency towards popularization and simplification, that is, internal alchemy becomes more accessible, intelligible, and widely disseminated. It is in such texts that one finds the standardized and fairly common emphasis on a threestage alchemical process: (1) Transforming vital essence (jing) into qi; (2) Transforming qi into spirit (shen); and (3) Merging spirit with the Void.

Let us consider one influential late imperial text that exhibits the previously mentioned tendencies. The Huiming jing (Scripture on Wisdom and Life-destiny; ZW 131) is a representative and relatively accessible example of internal alchemy. It is a late eighteenth-century text on Daoist internal alchemy combined with Chan meditation and soteriology, completed by Liu Huayang (Chuanlu [Transmission Vessel]; 1735–99) in 1799. In terms of contemplative practice, the Huiming jing describes an eight-stage process of alchemical transformation according to the following diagrams and corresponding instructions:

1 Diagram of the Cessation of Outflow

2 Diagram of the Six Phases of the Dharma Wheel

3 Diagram of the Governing and Conception Channels

4 Diagram of the Embryo of the Dao

5 Diagram of Sending Out the Fetus

6 Diagram of the Transformation Body

7 Diagram of Facing the Wall

8 Diagram of Disappearance into the Void

The text begins with a now-standardized corporeal landscape emphasizing the abdominal region as the “lower elixir field,” as the place where qi is stored, and the body as a system of “meridians,” or intersecting energetic pathways. Aspiring adepts are first instructed to seal themselves off from every source of dissipation, including sensory engagement, excessive emotional and intellectual activity, and sexual stimulation. This allows one to conserve and fortify qi and spirit. Then one must activate the Waterwheel or Microcosmic Orbit, that is, connect the Governing Vessel along the centerline of the back with the Conception Vessel along the centerline of the torso. This is done by circulating qi up the back and down the front of the body so that the body becomes an integrated energetic whole, so that one activates the Daoist subtle body. Through this process, in concert with the cultivation of stillness, one becomes a spiritually integrated and transformed being.

Liu discusses the culmination of this training in both Daoist and Chan Buddhist terms. One completes the immortal fetus, attains the Buddha form, returns to the Source, and disappears into the Void. One becomes an immortal and Buddha simultaneously. From Liu Huayang’s perspective, this seems to mean the end of separate personhood and mystical union.

FIGURE 16 Diagram of the Embryo of the Dao

Source: Huiming jing, ZW 131

In a manner paralleling the benefits from apophatic meditation and the early medieval practice of “guarding the One” (see above), there are various numinous abilities that result from successful neidan training. An interesting modern example appears in the Yinshizi jingzuo fa (Quiet Sitting Methods of Master Yinshi; abbr. Jingzuo fa). First published in 1914 and still receiving wide circulation in contemporary Daoist and Qigong circles, the Jingzuo fa was written by the lay Buddhist adherent and Daoist sympathizer Jiang Weiqiao (1873–1958), who was a major player in the emerging Qigong movement (see Kohn 1993b; Palmer 2007). According to his own personal narrative, Jiang suffered from a weak constitution throughout his life. After practicing various Daoist methods, especially the Microcosmic Orbit, Jiang completely cured himself of all illness and attained a high level of vitality (see Lu 1964: 167–82). In addition to being a rare example of autodidacticism, having taught himself from a book, Jiang Weiqiao is interesting because he adopted a quasi-monastic life rooted in abstention from sex and alcohol and in adherence to a simple, nourishing diet (ibid.).

4] Nüdan: Female alchemy

Although women have occupied a central position in the Daoist tradition from the beginning, it appears that there were few, if any, methods specifically intended for or developed by female Daoists before the late imperial period. Unfortunately, little research has been done on female Daoist practice, referred to in late imperial and modern Daoism as Kundao (“women’s way”) and often associated with Daoist nuns. When women’s practice is discussed, it is most often framed as “cultivating yin” or “cultivating the feminine,” which are actually only loosely gendered ideas. In this case, “yin” or the “feminine” are best understood as dimensions of human personhood, rather than as associated with women in particular (see Chapters 6 and 7). In the modern world, one also finds much reference to “women’s Qigong” or “Daoist sexual practices,” which preliminary research indicates have little, if any, actual connection to Daoism. Specifically, semen-retention sexual intercourse, “multi-orgasmic sex,” and sexual vampirism seem to derive either from Chinese court circles or to be fairly recent Western fabrications (see Komjathy 2011b). As mentioned in other chapters, the place of sexuality and sexual activity is complex in terms of Daoism.

One of the major forms of Daoist women’s practice is female alchemy (nüdan), which is technically a form of internal alchemy specifically for women (see Despeux 1990; Wile 1992: 192–219; Despeux and Kohn 2003: 198–220; Valussi 2002; Neswald 2007). Although there are some glimpses of an emerging female alchemy in the Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties, independent and systematic manuals did not appear until the Qing dynasty, particularly during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Only some of these were actually written by women. Here we should note that Sun Buer, the only female member of the so-called Seven Perfected of early Quanzhen (see Chapters 2 and 4), is often identified as one of the matriarchs of female alchemy. This is largely because of her importance as an exemplar of women’s practice and because of a number of revealed and spuriously attributed late imperial works. These writings have been highly popular in the West through Thomas Cleary’s general audience book Immortal Sisters (Shambhala, 1989). As I have documented elsewhere, the only writings that may have been genuinely composed by Sun are contained in the fourteenthcentury Minghe yuyin (Lingering Overtones of a Calling Crane; DZ 1100; see Komjathy 2007a, 2011e, forthcoming).

The earliest works on female alchemy date from the late imperial period. In addition to Daoist practice as such, this development is interesting on a socio-historical and cultural level. At the same time that women were being disempowered through the Chinese practice of foot-binding, a cultural tradition that perhaps parallels eunuch culture in terms of men, women found a place of refuge and empowerment within Daoism. There are, of course, a number of complex feminist issues involved here, such as the relative freedom and power of women within the larger society and actual gender constructions at work in the practice itself. In terms of the emergence of female alchemy, specialized texts were primarily revealed by Sun Buer and to a lesser degree by He Xiangu (Immortal Maiden He), the latter of whom is one of the Eight Immortals (see Chapter 6; also Despeux and Kohn 2003: 135–7). The goddess Xiwangmu (Queen Mother of the West) also occupies a central position. Extant texts on female alchemy include about thirty works of uneven length, both in prose and poetry and which date from 1745 to 1892.

Preliminary research indicates that women’s practice of internal alchemy generally follows similar stages and processes of men, though there is greater emphasis on the lived experience of female embodiment, of being a woman. This includes the central importance of the breasts, heart, blood, and uterus, and on menstruation as the primary form of dissipation of women’s vital essence (jing).

FIGURE 17 Meditation Posture Recommended for Women

Source: Neiwai gong tushuo jiyao

Like internal alchemy, female alchemy primarily involves conservation (non-dissipation), qi circulation, and the activation of the subtle body, with the ultimate goal of immortality. In terms of specifically female practice, a variety of texts prescribe breast massage. The sequence of the nüdan practice closely resembles that of neidan practice, and nüdan theory is close in terminology, structure, and process to standard neidan theory. However, nüdan includes other dimensions which are made explicit not only in the gendering of the language, and in its distinction from what is termed nandan (male alchemy), but also in the inclusion of chapters on female morality (Valussi 2002). That is, like most traditional Daoist systems of internal alchemy, virtue and ethics are necessary foundations (see Chapter 8 herein).

In the case of female alchemy and Daoist monasticism, there are specific guidelines and principles related to female Daoist adherence (see Kohn 2004c).

According to Valussi’s detailed study of the primary texts (2002), we may create a comparative chart of the dimensions or stages of female alchemy: (1) Collecting the heart-mind; (2) Nourishing qi; (3) Practice and attainment; (4) Slaying the Crimson Dragon; (5) Nourishing the elixir; (6) Embryonic respiration; (7) Talismanic fire; (8) Receiving the medicine; (9) Refining spirit; (10) Ingestion; (11) Avoidance of grains; (12) Wall gazing; (13) Sending out the spirit; and (14) Flight and ascent (cf. Despeux and Kohn 2003: 215–20). With respect to female alchemy proper, the most distinctive method is known as “Slaying the Crimson Dragon” (zhan chilong), also translated as “Beheading the Red Dragon.” This is the female counterpart to the male ascetic and often monastic practice of “Subduing the White Tiger” (jiang baihu) and “reverting vital essence to repair the brain” (huanjing bunao), which usually involves temporary or permanent celibacy. For men, the point is to diminish or extinguish sexual desire. In the case of women, female Daoists, mainly celibate Quanzhen and Longmen nuns, aim to stop menstruation. Again, from a traditional Chinese medical perspective, and arguably from an actual experiential perspective, the primary source of depletion for women is menstruation, the inner lunar cycle from a Daoist perspective. In female alchemy, women utilize a method that ends this process. Specific methods are described in the early twentieth-century Nüdan hebian (Collected Works on Female Alchemy) by He Longxiang (fl.

1900–10):

INSTRUCTIONS ON FEMALE ALCHEMY

“Refining the form of the great yin” is very similar to the method of refinement for men. At the beginning of the practice, close your eyes and focus on the spirit, stop everything and rest for a while. Allow your heart-mind to be peaceful and your breathing to be regular. Then concentrate the spirit and direct it inside the Cavity of Qi within the breasts and above the heart’s abode. The two hands cross and hold the breasts; very lightly rub and massage them twenty times, making the qi descend of itself to the elixir field. Very slightly inhale thirty-six times, then, with your hands, hold the breasts. Revert the gaze and regulate the breathing, and after a long time, the perfect qi naturally comes and goes. Opening and closing, it nurtures and forms the outline of the body. When the spirit and qi are sufficient, the perfect yang becomes prosperous of itself, the period will cease of itself, and the breasts will be like that of a man [i.e., flat-chested]. This is called “Slaying the Crimson Dragon.” After you have practiced in this way for a long time, it will not be necessary to hold the breasts or to breath

[rhythmically]. Just concentrate the spirit within the Cavity of Qi and invert the light and reverse the gazing; this is called the door to the “mysterious female.” The authentic breathing is unhurried, vacuity reaches the utmost, peace attains at its peak. The yang qi steams up, the River Cart [Microcosmic Orbit] moves in circles, the thousand buds and the purple clouds crowd the Palace of the Jade Emperor. The thousand channels pierce through the Palace of Niwan [lit., “mud-ball”; nirvana; center of head], and you feel a spark of numinous light. Neither inside nor outside, from the lower elixir field it rises up through the Vermilion Palace [heart] and to the Palace of Nirvana. (Nüdan hebian; adapted from Valussi 2002, Chapter 4)

That is, by concentrating on the heart region, in combination with breath regulation and breast massage, menstruation will cease. According to various nüdan texts, successful practice will become apparent through the return of the female body to a prepubescent state, with the breasts diminished in size. Here we may note that menopause is not looked upon favorably in nüdan texts, because it represents nearly complete exhaustion of vital essence. Aspiring female adepts who have gone through menopause without Slaying the Crimson Dragon must practice techniques that reactivate menstruation and then practice the menstruation-cessation methods.