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Yoga Sutras of Patanjali - Wikipedia

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

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Some pages from a historic Yogasutra manuscript (Sanskrit, Devanagari). The verses are highlighted and are embedded inside the bhasya (commentary).
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The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali is a collection of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga – 195 sutras (according to Vyāsa and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including BKS Iyengar). The Yoga Sutras was compiled in the early centuries CE, by the sage Patanjali in India who synthesized and organized knowledge about yoga from much older traditions.[1][2][3]

The Yoga Sutras is best known for its reference to ashtanga, eight elements of practice culminating in samadhi. 

The eight elements are 

  1. yama (abstinences), 
  2. niyama (observances), 
  3. asana (yoga posture), 
  4. pranayama (breath control), 
  5. pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses), 
  6. dharana (concentration of the mind), 
  7. dhyana (meditation) and 
  8. samadhi (absorption). 

The main aim of practice is kaivalya, discernment of purusha, the witness-consciousness, as distinct from prakriti, the cognitive apparatus, and disentanglement of purusha from prakriti's muddled defilements.

The Yoga Sutras built on Samkhya notions of purusha and prakriti, and is often seen as complementary to it. It is closely related to Buddhism, incorporating some of its terminology. Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as Jainism and Buddhism, can be seen as representing different manifestations of a broad stream of ascetic traditions in ancient India, in contrast to the Bhakti traditions and Vedic ritualism which were prevalent at the time.

The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali to be one of the foundational texts of classical Yoga philosophy.[4][5] However, the appropriation – and misappropriation – of the Yoga Sutras and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been questioned by David Gordon White,[6] who argues that the text fell into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century, and made a comeback in the late 19th century due to the efforts of Swami Vivekananda, the Theosophical Society and others. It gained prominence as a classic in the 20th century.[6]

Author and dating[edit]

Author[edit]

The colophons of manuscripts of the Yoga Sutras attribute the work to Patanjali.[7][8][9][10] The identity of Patañjali has been the subject of academic debate because an author of the same name is credited with the authorship of the classic text on Sanskrit grammar named Mahābhāṣya that is firmly datable to the second century BC. Although some scholars argue that this is the same Patanjali who authored the Yoga Sutras, the two works are completely different in subject matter, and Indologist Louis Renou has shown that there are significant differences in language, grammar and vocabulary.[11] Before the time of Bhoja (11th century), no known text conflates the identity of the two authors.[note 1]

Dating[edit]

Philipp A. Maas assessed Patañjali's Pātañjalayogaśāstra's date to be about 400 CE, based on synchronisms between its arguments and those of Vasubandhu, on tracing the history of the commentaries on it published in the first millennium CE, on the opinions of earlier Sanskrit commentators, on the testimony of manuscript colophons and on a review of extant literature.[14][15] This dating for the Pātañjalayogaśāstra was proposed as early as 1914 by Woods[16] and has been accepted widely by academic scholars of the history of Indian philosophical thought.[17][18]

Edwin Bryant, on the other hand, surveyed the major commentators in his translation of the Yoga Sūtras.[19] He observed that "Most scholars date the text shortly after the turn of the Common Era (circa first to second century), but that it has been placed as early as several centuries before that."[20] Bryant concluded that "A number of scholars have dated the Yoga Sūtras as late as the fourth or fifth century CE, but these arguments have all been challenged. ... All such arguments [for a late date] are problematic."[21]

Michele Desmarais summarized a wide variety of dates assigned to Yogasutra, ranging from 500 BCE to 3rd century CE, noting that there is a paucity of evidence for any certainty. She stated the text may have been composed at an earlier date given conflicting theories on how to date it, but latter dates are more commonly accepted by scholars.[22]

Compilation[edit]

The Yoga Sutras are a composite of various traditions.[2][3][1] The levels of samādhi taught in the text resemble the Buddhist jhanas.[23][24] According to Feuerstein, the Yoga Sutras are a condensation of two different traditions, namely "eight limb yoga" (aṣṭāṅga yoga) and action yoga (Kriya yoga).[25] The kriya yoga part is contained in chapter 1, chapter 2 sutras 1–27, chapter 3 except sutra 54, and chapter 4.[2] The "eight limb yoga" is described in chapter 2 sutras 28–55, and chapter 3 sutras 3 and 54.[2]

There are numerous parallels in the ancient Samkhya, Yoga and Abhidharma schools of thought, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson.[26] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, and its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge.[26] From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, 

  • Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness. 
  • However, unlike Buddhism, which avoids stating whether self and soul exist, Yoga is physicalist and realist, like Samkhya, believing that each individual has a self and soul.[26] 
  • The third concept that Yoga Sutras synthesizes into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection, as well as the yoga ideas from the 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as Katha Upanishad, Shvetashvatara Upanishad and Maitri Upanishad.[26]

According to Wujastyk, referencing Maas, Patanjali integrated yoga from older traditions in Pātañjalayogaśāstra, and added his own explanatory passages to create the unified work that, since 1100 CE, has been considered the work of two people.[1] Together the compilation of Patanjali's sutras and the Vyasabhasya, is called Pātañjalayogaśāstra.[27]

Yogabhashya[edit]

The Yogabhashya is a commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali, traditionally attributed to the legendary Vedic sage Vyasa who is said to have composed the Mahabharata. This commentary is indispensable for the understanding of the aphoristic and terse Yoga sutras, and the study of the sutras has always referred to the Yogabhashya.[28] Some scholars see Vyasa as a later 4th or 5th century AD commentator (as opposed to the ancient mythic figure).[28]

Vyasa is, however, not the only commentator on the text. Another well-known commentator on theYoga Sutras is Vachaspati Mishra, who had also written commentaries on other schools of Indian philosophy such as Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, and Mimamsa. After Vyasa, it is believed that Vachaspati Mishra’s commentary is the "next most authoritative."[29] 

Other commentators include Bhoja Rāja, Vijñānabhikṣu, and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī. Vijñānabhikṣu, according to Bryant, wrote the "most insightful and useful commentary after that of Vyasa's." Bhoja Rāja and Rāmānanda Sarasvatī's commentaries follow the previous commentaries, without expanding much on what their predecessors have said. Hariharānanda Āraṇya, in contrast to the above figures, is a modern commentator on the text. Bryant explains that, even though "his is a standpoint exposed to Western thought", it is still "thoroughly grounded in tradition".[30]

Scholars hold that both texts, the sutras and the commentary were written by one person. According to Philipp A. Maas, based on a study of the original manuscripts, Patañjali's composition was entitled Pātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga according to Patañjali") and consisted of both Sūtras and Bhāṣya. This means that the Bhāṣya was in fact Patañjali's own work.[31]

The practice of writing a set of aphorisms with the author's own explanation was well known at the time of Patañjali, as for example in Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (that, incidentally, Patañjali quotes). These research findings change the historical understanding of the yoga tradition, since they allow us to take the Bhāṣya as Patañjali's very own explanation of the meaning of his somewhat cryptic sūtras.[31][note 2]

The Yogabhashya states that 'yoga' in the Yoga Sutras has the meaning of 'samadhi'. Another commentary (the Vivarana) by a certain Shankara, confirms the interpretation of yogah samadhih (YBh. I.1): 'yoga' in Patañjali's sutra has the meaning of 'integration'.[32] This Shankara may or may not have been the famed Vedantic scholar Adi Shankara (8th or 9th century). Scholarly opinion is still open on this issue.[28]

Contents[edit]

Patañjali divided his Yoga Sutras into four chapters or books (Sanskrit Pada), containing in all 196 aphorisms, divided as follows:[33][34]

Samadhi Pada[edit]

  • Samadhi Pada[35][36] (51 sutras). Samadhi is a state of direct and reliable perception (pramāṇa) where "the seer" (Purusha, pure consciousness, the Self) abides in itself. Samadhi is the main technique the yogi learns by which to calm the workings of the mind, whereafter Kaivalya, the isolation of 'the seer' from the impurities of the mind, is attained. The author describes yoga and then the nature and the means of attaining samādhi.
  • This chapter contains the famous definitional verse (YS 1.2): "Yogaś citta-vritti-nirodhaḥ" ("Yoga is the restriction of the fluctuations of mindstuff").[35] When the mind is stilled, the seer or real Self is revealed:
1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature.
1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind).[37]
  • YS 1.33–39 mentions seven practices to still the mind, the seventh being meditative absorption (YS 1.39), which is further explained in YS 1.40–51 and YS 3.1–12.

Sadhana Pada[edit]

Kriya Yoga[edit]

  • Kriyā Yoga in the Yoga Sūtras is a preparation for Aṣṭāṅga Yoga (with three special elements of the Niyamas (2nd limb)):[38]
2.3 tapas – austerity[38]
2.4 svādhyāya – self-study of the scriptures[38]
2.5 īśvara praṇidhāna – devotion to god or pure consciousness[38]

Ashtanga Yoga[edit]

  • Aṣṭānga Yoga is the yoga of eight limbs. In chapter 2, five "indirect aids" for purification and aiding insight are outlined:
1. Yama – restraints or ethics of behaviour; Yama consists of:
1.1 Ahimsa (Non violence)
1.2 Satya (Truthfulness)
1.3 Asteya (Non stealing)
1.4 Brahmacharya (Chastity)
1.5 Aparigraha (Non possession)
2. Niyama – observances; Niyama consists of:
2.1 Saucha (Cleanliness)
2.2 Santosha (Contentment)
2.3 Tapas (Austerity)
2.4 Svadhyaya (Selfstudy)
2.5 Isvara Pranidhana (Devotion to the lord)
3. Āsana – A physical posture in which one can be steady and comfortable.[39]
4. Prāṇāyāma – control of the prana(breath)
5. Pratyahara – withdrawal of the senses
6. Dhāraṇā – concentration
7. Dhyāna – meditation
8. Samādhi – absorption

Vibhuti Pada[edit]

  • Vibhuti Pada[35][36] (56 sutras).[40] Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for "power" or "manifestation". In chapter 3, the last three limbs of Aṣṭānga Yoga, known as samyama, are outlined:
6. Dhāraṇā - concentration
7. Dhyāna – meditation
8. Samādhi – absorption
Besides insight into pure awareness (purusha), samyama gives 'supra-normal powers' (Sanskrit: siddhi), as the yogi gains access to and unites with the tattvas, the constituents of prakriti.[41] The text warns (III.38) that these powers can become an obstacle to the yogi who seeks liberation.

Kaivalya Pada[edit]

  • Kaivalya Pada[35][36] (34 sutras). Kaivalya, "isolation", of the Seer from the contents of the mind so it is no longer disturbed by the movements of the mind. It stands for emancipation or liberation, and is used where other texts often employ the term moksha (liberation). The Kaivalya Pada describes the process of liberation and the reality of the Seer.

Philosophy[edit]

Metaphysics[edit]

The metaphysics of Patanjali is built on the same dualist foundation as the Samkhya school.[web 1] The universe is conceptualized as of two realities in Samkhya-Yoga schools: Puruṣa (consciousness) and prakriti (mind, cognition, emotions, and matter). 

It considers consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities.[42][43] 

Jiva (a living being) is considered as a state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[44] 

During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. 

The end of this bondage is called Kaivalya, liberation, or moksha by both Yoga and Samkhya school.[45]

 The ethical theory of Yoga school is based on Yamas and Niyama, as well as elements of the Guṇa theory of Samkhya.[web 1]

Patanjali adopts the theory of Guṇa from Samkhya.[web 1] Guṇas theory states that three gunas (innate tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three are sattva guna (goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas guna (passion, active, confused), and tamas guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic).[46][47] These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of these three gunas.[web 1] When sattva guna predominates an individual, the qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmony, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifests. The guṇas theory underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga school of Hinduism.[web 1]

Soteriology[edit]

1.2. Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind.
1.3. Then the Seer is established in his own essential and fundamental nature.
1.4. In other states there is assimilation (of the Seer) with the modifications (of the mind).

Yoga Sutra of Patanjali[37]

According to Bryant, the purpose of yoga is liberation from suffering, by means of discriminative discernment. The eight limbs are "the means of achieving discriminative discernment," the "uncoupling of puruṣa from all connection with prakṛti and all involvement with the citta." 

Bryant states that, to Patanjali, Yoga-practice "essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object."[48][49]

While the Samkhya school suggests that jnana (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha, Patanjali suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha.[web 1] Patanjali holds that avidya, ignorance is the cause of all five kleshas, which are the cause of suffering and saṁsāra.[web 1] Liberation, like many other schools, is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminating discernment, knowledge and self-awareness. The Yoga Sūtras is the Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this.[web 1] Samādhi is the state where ecstatic awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the process of becoming aware of Purusa and true Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is moksha, the soteriological goal in Hinduism.[web 1]

  • Book 3 of Patanjali's Yogasutra is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by stating that all limbs of yoga are a necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and liberation. 
  • He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as samyama, in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of citta and self-knowledge.[50][51] 
  • In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfect sant (tranquility) and udita (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. 
  • This leads to one's ability to discern the difference between sabda (word), artha (meaning) and pratyaya (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.[52][53] 
  • Once a yogi reaches this state of samyama, it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and kaivalya, the redemptive goal of the yogi.[52]

Epistemology[edit]

The epistemology in Patanjali's system of Yoga, like the Sāmkhya school of Indian philosophy, relies on three of six Pramanas, as the means of gaining reliable knowledge.[54] These included Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference) and Sabda (Āgama or Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[55][56][57]

Patanjali's system, like the Samkhya school, considers Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense perception), Anumāna (inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or Pramana.[55] Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such as Advaita Vedanta, Yoga did not adopt the following three Pramanas: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).[56]

Of the three pramanas that it accepts as valid, pratyakṣa (perception) is the most important according to Yoga Sutras. It is superior to the other two sources because testimony (sabda) and inference (anumāna) are ultimately dependent on a prior perception. 

Bryant distinguishes Yoga school from the Vedānta, Nyaya and Mīmāṃsā in their prioritizing of different pramanas. 

The Mīmāṃsā school prioritizes testimony and the Nyaya school prioritizes inference. The Vedānta school has as its main source testimony from the Upaniṣads, whereas the Yoga school ascribes supreme authoritativeness to "direct, personal experience". Bryant argues that because of its favoring of direct experience the Yoga Sutras will "remain a perennial source of interest to the empirical dispositions of the modern world".[57]

God[edit]

Patanjali differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating what some scholars have called a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara).[58][59][60][61] Hindu scholars such as the 8th century Adi Sankara, as well as many modern academic scholars describe Yoga school as "Samkhya school with God."[59][62][63]

The Yogasutras of Patanjali use the term Isvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara? These commentaries range from defining Isvara from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[59][64] Whicher states that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[65] Whereas the purusa (spirit, or true self) of the yogin is bound to the prakriti – the material body subject to karmas and kleshas, the special purusa called Isvara is immaterial and ultimately free.

Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self/Spirit (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)."[66][note 3]} This sutra adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self/Spirit which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[68][69]

Philosophical roots and influences[edit]

The fusion of Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi is Samyama – the path to Kaivalya in Yoga school.
Main article: Yoga (philosophy)

The Yoga Sutras incorporated the teachings of many other Indian philosophical systems prevalent at the time. According to Zimmer, Samkhya and Yoga are two of several schools of philosophy that originated over the centuries that had common roots in the pre-Aryan cultures and traditions of India.[70][note 4][note 5] Yet, the orthodox Hindu philosophies of Samkhya, Yoga, Vedānta, as well as the non-orthodox Nastika systems of Jainism and Buddhism can all be seen as representing one stream of spiritual activity in ancient India, in contrast to the Bhakti traditions and Vedic ritualism which were also prevalent at the same time. The Vedanta-Sramana traditions, iconolatry and Vedic rituals can be identified with the Jnana marga, Bhakti marga and the Karma marga respectively that are outlined in the Bhagavad Gita.

Samkhya[edit]

The Yoga Sutras are built on a foundation of Samkhya philosophy, and are generally seen as the practice while Samkhya is the theory. The influence of Samkhya is so pervasive in the Sutras that the historian Surendranath Dasgupta went so far as to deny independent categorization to Patañjali's system, preferring to refer to it as Patanjala Samkhya, similar to the position taken by the Jain writer Haribhadra in his commentary on Yoga.[74] Patañjali's Yoga Sutras accept the Samkhya's division of the world and phenomena into twenty-five tattvas or principles, of which one is Purusha meaning Self or consciousness, the others being Prakriti (primal nature), Buddhi (intellect or will), Ahamkara (ego), Manas (mind), five buddhindriyas (sensory capabilities), five karmendriyas (action-capabilities) and ten elements.[75][76] The second part of the Sutras, the Sadhana, also summarizes the Samkhya perspectives about all seen activity lying within the realm of the three Gunas of Sattva (illumination), Rajas (passion) and Tamas (lethargy).[77]

The Yoga Sutras diverge from early Samkhya by the addition of the principle of Isvara or God, as exemplified by Sutra 1.23 – "Iśvara pranidhãnãt vã", which is interpreted to mean that surrender to God is one way to liberation.[75][78] Isvara is defined here as "a distinct Consciousness, untouched by afflictions, actions, fruitions or their residue".[79] In the sutras, it is suggested that devotion to Isvara, represented by the mystical syllable Om may be the most efficient method of achieving the goal of Yoga.[80] This syllable Om is a central element of Hinduism, appearing in all the Upanishads, including the earliest Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads, and expounded upon in the Mandukya Upanishad.[81]

Another divergence from Samkhya is that while the Samkhya holds that knowledge is the means to liberation, Patañjali's Yoga insists on the methods of concentration and active striving. The aim of Yoga is to free the individual from the clutches of the matter, and considers intellectual knowledge alone to be inadequate for the purpose – which is different from the position taken by Samkhya.[75]

However, the essential similarities between the Samkhya and Patañjali's system remained even after the addition of the Isvara principle,[82] with Max Müller noting that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."[83] The Bhagavad Gita, one of the chief scriptures of Hinduism, is considered to be based on this synthetic Samkhya-Yoga system.[84][85]

The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali is a foundational text of the Yoga philosophy school of Hinduism.[4][5]

Buddhism[edit]

See also: Buddhism and Hinduism § Yoga

Scholars have presented different viewpoints on the relationship between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and the teachings in Buddhist texts.[86][87][88]

Karel Werner writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and even more so from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."[89] He adds, "upon the whole it [Patanjali's Yoga sutras] is more elaborate and summarizes the actual technique of Yoga procedures more exactly than the Buddhist exposition".[90] However, states Werner, "The Buddha was the founder of his system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time. Patanjali is neither a founder nor a leader of a new movement. (...) The ingenuity of his [Patanjali's] achievement lies in the thoroughness and completeness with which all the important stages of Yoga practice and mental experiences are included in his scheme, and in their systematic presentation in a succinct treatise."[90] Werner adds that the ideas of existence and the focus on "Self, Soul" in Patajali's Yogasutra are different from the "no Self" precepts of Buddhism.[91]

According to David Gordon White, the language of the Yoga Sutras is often closer to "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, the Sanskrit of the early Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, than to the classical Sanskrit of other Hindu scriptures".[92] He adds, historical evidence suggests that yoga philosophical systems influenced, and were influenced by, other philosophical systems in India such as early Buddhism and Jainism.[93] White mentions controversies about the Yoga Sutras.[86] A significant minority of scholars, notes White for example, believes that Vyasa lived a few centuries after Patanjali and his "Hindu-izing" commentary subverted Yoga Sutras' original "Buddhist" teachings; while the majority scholarly view disagrees with this view.[94]

Other scholars state there are differences between the teachings in the Yoga Sutras and those in Buddhist texts.[87][88] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras for example, states Michele Desmarias, accept the concept of a Self or soul behind the operational mind, while Buddhists do not accept such a Self exists. The role of Self is central to the idea of Saṃyoga, Citta, Self-awareness and other concepts in Chapters 2 through 4 of the Yoga sutras, according to Desmarias.[88]

According to Barbara Miller,[87] the difference between Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and teachings in Buddhist texts is, "In Samkhya and Yoga, as in Buddhism and Jainism, the most salient characteristic of existence is duhkha or suffering. According to Buddhism, the origin of suffering is desire; according to Yoga, it is the connection between the observer (Purusha) with the observed (Prakrti). In both systems, the origin of duhkha is ignorance. There are also similarities in the means of deliverance recommended by the two systems. In Buddhism, the aspirant is asked to follow the eightfold path, which culminates in right meditation or samadhi. In Yoga, the aspirant is asked to follow a somewhat different eight fold path, which also culminates in samadhi. But the aim of yoga meditation is conceived in terms that a Buddhist would not accept: as the separation of an eternal conscious self from unconscious matter. The purpose of Patanjali's Yoga is to bring about this separation by means of understanding, devotion and practice."[87]

Robert Thurman writes that Patañjali was influenced by the success of the Buddhist monastic system to formulate his own matrix for the version of thought he considered orthodox.[95] The Yoga Sutra, especially the fourth segment of Kaivalya Pada, contains several polemical verses critical of Buddhism, particularly the Vijñānavāda school of Vasubandhu.[96]

Jainism[edit]

The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali bear an uncanny resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating influence of Jainism.[97][98][99] Three other teachings closely associated with Jainism also make an appearance in Yoga: the doctrine of "colours" in karma (lesya); the Telos of isolation (kevala in Jainism and Kaivalyam in Yoga); and the practice of nonviolence (ahimsa), though nonviolence (ahimsa) made its first appearance in Indian philosophy-cum-religion in the Hindu texts known as the Upanishads [the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (sarvabhuta) and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of metempsychosis/reincarnation (CU 8.15.1).[100] It also names Ahimsa as one of five essential virtues].[101]

Influence[edit]

The contemporary Yoga tradition holds the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali to be one of the foundational texts of classical Yoga philosophy.[4][5] However, the appropriation – and misappropriation – of the Yoga Sutras and its influence on later systematizations of yoga has been questioned by David Gordon White,[6] who has argued that the text fell into relative obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century, and made a comeback in late 19th century due to the efforts of Swami Vivekananda, the Theosophical Society and others. It gained prominence as a classic in the 20th century.[6] Its influence was reaffirmed by James Mallinson.[102]

Before the 20th century, history indicates that the medieval Indian yoga scene was dominated by the various other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vasistha, texts attributed to Yajnavalkya and Hiranyagarbha, as well as literature on hatha yoga, tantric yoga and Pashupata Shaivism yoga rather than the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali.[103] Much about yoga is written in the Mokṣadharma section of the epic Mahābhārata.[104] The members of the Jaina faith had their own, different literature on yoga,[105] and Buddhist yoga stems from pre-Patanjali sources.[106]

Some of the major commentaries on the Yoga Sutras were written between the ninth and sixteenth century.[107] After the twelfth century, the school started to decline, and commentaries on Patanjali's Yoga philosophy were few.[107] By the sixteenth century Patanjali's Yoga philosophy had virtually become extinct.[107] The manuscript of the Yoga Sutras was no longer copied, since few read the text, and it was seldom taught.[108]

According to David Gordon White, the popularity of the Yoga Sutras is recent, "miraculously rehabilitated" by Swami Vivekananda after having been ignored for seven centuries.[109] It was with the rediscovery by a British Orientalist in the early 1800s that wider interest in the Yoga Sutras arose in the West.[108] Popular interest arose in the 19th century, when the practice of yoga according to the Yoga Sutras became regarded as the science of yoga and the "supreme contemplative path to self-realization" by Swami Vivekananda, following Helena Blavatsky, president of the Theosophical Society.[110] It has become a celebrated text in the West, states White, because of "Big Yoga – the corporate yoga subculture".[109]

Translations and commentaries[edit]

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali was the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages and two non-Indian languages: Old Javanese and Arabic.[109]

  • In early 11th century, the Persian scholar Al Biruni (973–1050 CE) visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages. One of these was Patanjali's Yogasutras. His translation included the text and a thitherto unknown Sanskrit commentary.[28][111][112] Al Biruni's translation preserved many of the core themes of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism, but certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology.[111][113] Al Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD.
  • The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali was translated into Old Javanese by Indonesian Hindus, and the text was called Dharma Patanjala.[114] The surviving text has been dated to about 1450 CE; however, it is unclear if this text is a copy of an earlier translation and whether other translations existed in Indonesia. This translation shares ideas found in other Indian translations particularly those in the Śaiva traditions, and some in Al Biruni translation, but it is also significantly different in parts from the 11th century Arabic translation.[114] The most complete copy of the Dharma Patañjala manuscript is now held at the Staatsbibliothek in Berlin.[115]

By the early 21st century, scholars had located 37 editions of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras published between 1874 and 1992, and 82 different manuscripts, from various locations in India, Nepal, Pakistan, Europe and the United States, many in Sanskrit, some in different North and South Indian languages.[116][117] The numerous historical variants show that the text was a living document and it was changed as these manuscripts were transmitted or translated, with some ancient and medieval manuscripts marked with "corrections" in the margin of the pages and elsewhere by unknown authors and for unclear reasons. This has made the chronological study of Yoga school of philosophy a difficult task.[116]

Many commentaries have been written on the Yoga Sutras.[note 6]

Medieval commentaries[edit]

Medieval commentaries on the Yoga sutras include:

  • Vācaspati Miśra (AD 900–980) who composed the commentary Tattvavaiśāradī, described as the "most significant early subcommentary".[118]
  • Bhoja Raja's Raja-Martanda, 11th century.
  • Vijnanabhiksu's 16th century Yogabhashyavarttika or simply Yogavarttika ("Explanation of the Commentary on the Yoga Sutras" of Vyasa). The writer was a Vaishnava philosopher and exegete who tried to harmonize Samkhya and Vedanta and held the Bhedabheda view.[28]
  • Ramananda Sarasvati's Yogamani-Prabha (16th century).

Modern translations and commentary[edit]

Countless commentaries on the Yoga Sutras are available today. The Sutras, with commentaries, have been published by a number of successful teachers of Yoga, as well as by academicians seeking to clarify issues of textual variation. There are also other versions from a variety of sources available on the Internet.[note 7] The many versions display a wide variation, particularly in translation. The text has not been submitted in its entirety to any rigorous textual analysis, and the contextual meaning of many of the Sanskrit words and phrases remains a matter of some dispute.[119] Modern translations and interpretations include:

  • 1852, 1853: First translation of Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in English containing first two chapters by J.R Ballyntyne published by The Benaras College, in 1872 Govind Deva Shastri completed remaining two chapters.
  • 1882, 1885:The whole complete book was published in 1882 and final revised edition published in 1885. The Yoga Philosophy with comments of Bhojaraja, J.R Ballantyne, Govind Shastri Deva, edited by Tookaram Tatya, Bombay Theosophical publication fund.
  • 1883: Yoga Aporhism of Patanjali with the commentary of Bhoja Raja by Rajendra Lala Mitra, Asiatic Society of Bengal
  • 1890: The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, by Manilal Nabhubhai Dvivedi, Bombay Theosophical publication fund.
  • 1896: Swami Vivekananda, Raja Yoga provides translation and an in-depth explanation of Yoga Sutra.
  • 1907: Ganganath Jha's Yoga Sutras with the Yogabhashya attributed to Vyasa into English in its entirety.[120] With notes drawn from Vācaspati Miśra's Tattvavaiśāradī amongst other important texts in the Yoga commentarial tradition.
  • 1912: Charles Johnston Dublin University: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: The Book of the Spiritual Man.
  • 1914: The Yoga System of Patanjali with comment of Yoga Bhasya and explanation of Tatva Vicardi by James Haughton Woods, Harvard University Press
  • 1924: Patanjali Yoga Sutras with commentary of Vyasa and gloss of Vachaspati Mishra by Rama Prasad
  • 1953: Swami Prabhavananda, Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, India.
  • 1961: I. K. Taimni, The Science of Yoga commentary with Sutras in Sanskrit and translation and commentary in English.[121][122]
  • 1963: Swami Hariharananda Aranya's Bhasvati.
  • 1976: Swami Satyananda, Four Chapters of Freedom. Yoga Publications Trust, Munger, Bihar, India.[123]
  • 1978: Swami Satchidananda, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Integral Yoga, Yogaville.
  • 1978: P. Y. Deshpande, The Authentic Yoga, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A Heartfulness publication in January 2021
  • 1989: Georg Feuerstein, The Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali: A New Translation and Commentary, Inner Traditions International; Rochester, Vermont.
  • 1993: B. K. S. Iyengar, Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali. HarperCollins.
  • 1996: Barbara Stoler Miller, The Yoga Sutras Attributed to Patanjali; "Yoga – Discipline of Freedom. University of California Press, Berkeley.
  • 2003: Chip Hartranft, The Yoga-Sutra of Patanjali: A New Translation with Commentary, Shambhala Classics, Boulder, Colorado.
  • 2009: Edwin F. Bryant's The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary. North Point Press, New York.
  • 2013: Swami Kriyananda, Demystifying Patanjali: The Yoga Sutras – The Wisdom of Paramhansa Yogananda. Crystal Clarity Publishers, Nevada City.
  • 2022: Viswanatha Thalakola, The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Made Simple. Amazon KDP Select, Seattle.[124]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Radhakrishnan and Moore attribute the text to the grammarian Patañjali, dating it as 2nd century BC, during the Maurya Empire (322–185 BC).[12] Scholars such as S.N. Dasgupta, (Yoga-As Philosophy and Religion Port Washington: Kennikat Press, 1924) claim this is the same Patañjali who authored the Mahabhasya, a treatise on Sanskrit grammar. For an argument about the philosophical nature of Sanskrit grammarian thought see: Lata, Bidyut (editor); Panini to Patañjali: A Grammatical March. New Delhi, 2004. Against these older views, Axel Michaels disagrees that the work was written by Patañjali, characterizing it instead as a collection of fragments and traditions of texts stemming from the 2nd or 3rd century.[13]
  2. ^ See James Woods, The yoga-system of Patañjali; or, The ancient Hindu doctrine of concentration of mind, embracing the mnemonic rules, called Yoga-sutras, of Patañjali, and the comment, called Yoga-bhashya (1914), archive.org for a complete translation
  3. ^ क्लेशकर्मविपाकाशयैरपरामृष्टः[67] पुरुषविशेष ईश्वरः ॥२४॥
  4. ^ Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems."[71]
  5. ^ Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, in Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy, 1964, p.27-32 & p.76,[72] and S.K. Belvakar & R.D. Ranade in History of Indian philosophy, 1974 (1927), p.81 & p.303-409.[73]
  6. ^ For an overview of the scope of earlier commentaries: Complete Commentary by Sankara on the Yoga Sutras: Vivarana Sub-commentary to Vyasabhasya on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Tr.fr. Sanskrit, Trevor Leggett, Rev. Ed. Routledge (1990) ISBN 978-0-7103-0277-9.
  7. ^ A list of 22 Classical commentaries can be found among the listings of essential Yoga texts at mantra.org).Mantra.org.in, Fundamental Texts of Yoga

References[edit]

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c Wujastyk 2011, p. 33.
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Feuerstein 1978, p. 108.
  3. ^ Jump up to:a b Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. x.
  4. ^ Jump up to:a b c Whicher 1998, p. 49.
  5. ^ Jump up to:a b c Stuart Sarbacker (2011), Yoga Powers (Editor: Knut A. Jacobsen), Brill, ISBN 978-9004212145, p. 195.
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d White 2014, p. xvi–xvii.
  7. ^ Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. xi.
  8. ^ Surendranath Dasgupta (1992). A History of Indian Philosophy. Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass (Original: Cambridge University Press, 1922). pp. 230–238. ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8.
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  12. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1989, p. 453.
  13. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 267.
  14. ^ Maas, Philipp André; Patañjali; Hazel M. Hussong Fund (2006). Samādhipāda: das erste Kapitel des Pātan̄jalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert = The first chapter of the Pātan̄jalayogaśāstra for the first time critically edited. Aachen: Shaker. ISBN 978-3-8322-4987-8. OCLC 1049097407.
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  20. ^ Bryant 2009, p. xxxiv.
  21. ^ Bryant 2009, p. 510, notes 43–44.
  22. ^ Michele Desmarais (2008), Changing Minds: Mind, Consciousness and Identity in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120833364, pages 16–17
  23. ^ Pradhan 2015, p. 151-152.
  24. ^ Crangle 1984, p. [page needed].
  25. ^ Feuerstein 1978, p. 108, Quote: "As I have shown in my own detailed examination of the Yoga-Sûtra, this great scripture could well be a composite of only two distinct Yoga lineages. On the one hand there is the Yoga of eight limbs or ashta-anga-yoga (written ashtângayoga), and on the other, there is the Yoga of Action (kriyâ-yoga).".
  26. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Larson, pp. 43–45
  27. ^ Wujastyk 2011, p. 32-33.
  28. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Bryant, Edwin F. The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary; Introduction
  29. ^ Bryant 2009, p. xli.
  30. ^ Bryant 2009, p. xlii–xliii.
  31. ^ Jump up to:a b Maas 2006.
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  33. ^ Woods 2003, p. [page needed].
  34. ^ Iyengar 2002, p. [page needed].
  35. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Woods 2003.
  36. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Iyengar 2002.
  37. ^ Jump up to:a b Taimni 1961, p. 16-17.
  38. ^ Jump up to:a b c d "Intro Yoga Philosophy and Patanjali: What Is Kriya Yoga?". Yoga Journal. 28 August 2007. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
  39. ^ yoga sutras 2:46
  40. ^ Griffin, Mark (2 January 2012). Shaktipat: The Doorway to Enlightenment. Hard Light. p. 213. ISBN 9780981937502.
  41. ^ Jacobsen 2011, p. 6.
  42. ^ Haney 2002, p. 17.
  43. ^ Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p. 339.
  44. ^ Samkhya – Hinduism Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)
  45. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 36–47
  46. ^ Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, International Journal of Ethics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234–237
  47. ^ James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8, page 265
  48. ^ Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali IEP
  49. ^ Bryant 2009, p. 10.
  50. ^ The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa – Book 3 GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 94–95
  51. ^ Gregor Maehle (2007), Ashtanga Yoga: Practice & Philosophy, ISBN 978-1577316060, pages 237–238
  52. ^ Jump up to:a b The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa – Book 3 GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 108–126
  53. ^ The Yoga Philosophy TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, pages 108–109
  54. ^ John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
  55. ^ Jump up to:a b Larson 1998, p. 9.
  56. ^ Jump up to:a b
    • Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pages 245–248;
    • John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
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  67. ^ पातञ्जलयोगप्रदीप, गीताप्रेस गोरखपुर, page 198
  68. ^ aparAmRSTa, kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya; Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
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  71. ^ Zimmer 1951, p. 217.
  72. ^ Crangle 1994, p. 7.
  73. ^ Crangle 1994, p. 5-7.
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  81. ^ Meditation on Om in the Mandukya Upanishad
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  93. ^ White 2014, p. 19.
  94. ^ White 2014, pp. 40–41, Quote: "A significant minority opinion, however, maintains that Vyasa lived several centuries later, and that his "Hindu-izing" commentary, rather than elucidating Patanjali’s text, actually subverted its original "Buddhist" teachings.".
  95. ^ Robert Thurman, The Central Philosophy of Tibet. Princeton University Press, 1984, page 34.
  96. ^ An outline of the religious literature of India, By John Nicol Farquhar p.132
  97. ^ Christopher Chapple (2008) Yoga and the Luminous: Patanjali's Spiritual Path to Freedom New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7475-4 p. 110
  98. ^ Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag, (2006) p.66
  99. ^ A History of Yoga By Vivian Worthington (1982) Routledge ISBN 978-0-7100-9258-8 p. 29
  100. ^ Tähtinen pp. 2–5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631.
  101. ^ Christopher Chapple (2008) Yoga and the Luminous: Patañjali's Spiritual Path to Freedom New York: SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7475-4
  102. ^ Mallinson & Singleton 2017, p. xxxvi note 34.
  103. ^ White 2014, p. xvi–xvii, 20–23.
  104. ^ Mallinson & Singleton 2017, p. xvi.
  105. ^ Williams, R. (1998). Jaina Yoga. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-8120807754.
  106. ^ Tola, Dragonetti & Prithipaul 1987, p. xi note 3.
  107. ^ Jump up to:a b c White 2014, p. 6.
  108. ^ Jump up to:a b White 2014, p. 16.
  109. ^ Jump up to:a b c White 2014, p. xvi.
  110. ^ White 2011, p. 20-21.
  111. ^ Jump up to:a b S Pines and T Gelblum (Translators from Arabic to English, 1966), Al-Bīrūni (Translator from Sanskrit to Arabic, ~ 1035 AD), and Patañjali, Al-Bīrūnī's Arabic Version of Patañjali's Yogasūtra, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 29, No. 2 (1966), pages 302–325
  112. ^ Hellmut Ritter, al-Bīrūnī's übersetzung des Yoga-Sūtra des Patañjali, Oriens, Vol. 9, No. 2 (31 December 1956), pages 165–200 (in German)
  113. ^ Maas 2013, pp. 53–90.
  114. ^ Jump up to:a b Andrea Acri (2012), Yogasūtra 1.10, 1.21–23, and 2.9 in the Light of the Indo-Javanese Dharma Pātañjala, Journal of Indian Philosophy, Volume 40, Issue 3, pages 259–276
  115. ^ Andrea Acri (2011), Dharma Pātañjala: a Śaiva scripture from ancient Java: studied in the light of related old Javanese and Sanskrit texts, Doctoral dissertation, Leiden University Institute for AREA Studies (LIAS), Leiden University.
  116. ^ Jump up to:a b Philipp Maas (2010), On the Written Transmission of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra, in "From Vasubandhu to Caitanya, Studies in Indian Philosophy and its Textual History" (Editors: Johannes Bronkhorst und Karin Preisendanz), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120834729, pages 157–172
  117. ^ Philipp Maas (2008), "Descent with Modification": The Opening of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra, in Śāstrārambha: Inquiries Into the Preamble in Sanskrit (Editor: Walter Slaje), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447056458, pages 97–119
  118. ^ Jacobsen, Knut A. (2019). "Classical Yoga Philosophy and the Legacy of Sāṃkhya: With Sanskrit Text and English Translation of Pātañjala Yogasūtra-s, Vyāsa Bhāṣya and Tattvavaiśāradī of Vācaspatimiśra, by Gerald James Larson". Religions of South Asia. 12 (3): 410–412. doi:10.1558/rosa.39892. ISSN 1751-2689.
  119. ^ Christopher Key Chapple; Reading Patañjali without Vyasa: A Critique of Four Yoga Sutra Passages, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 62, No. 1 (Spring, 1994), pp. 85–105.
  120. ^ Ganganatha Jha (translator) (1907). The Yoga Darśana: The Sutras of Patañjali with the Bhāṣya of Vyāsa. With notes from Vācaspati Miśra's Tattvavaiśāradī, Vijnana Bhiksu's Yogavartika and Bhoja's Rajamartanda. Rajaram Tukaram Tatya: Bombay Theosophical Publication Fund. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  121. ^ "The Science of Yoga". Goodreads. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
  122. ^ "Ancient Yogic Wisdom and Modern Psychology". Uluyoga. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
  123. ^ "Four Chapters of Freedom". Biharyoga. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
  124. ^ https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/60161397-the-yoga-sutras-of-patanjali-made-simple

Sources[edit]

Printed sources
Web sources
  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali IEP
General references
  • Müeller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7661-4296-1. Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.
  • Ranganathan, Shyam (2008). Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra: Translation, Commentary and Introduction. Delhi: Penguin Black Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-310219-9.
  • Sen, Amiya P. (2006). "Raja Yoga: The Science of Self-Realization". The Indispensable Vivekananda. Orient Blackswan. pp. 219–227. ISBN 978-81-7824-130-2.
  • Sharma, Chandradhar (1987). An Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0365-7.
  • Vivekananda, Swami (1980). Raja Yoga. Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center. ISBN 0-911206-23-X.
  • Wood, Ernest (1951). Practical Yoga, Ancient and Modern, Being a New, Independent Translation of Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms. Rider and Company.

Further reading[edit]

History
Translations
Practice and commentaries

External links[edit]

Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Overview
Manuscripts
Translations
Commentaries
Audiobooks




===

요가수트라

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.

요가수트라(Yoga Sutras of Patanjali)는 고대 요가의 근원이되는 문헌으로서 기원전 2세기 파탄잘리가 저술했다. 인도 철학에서 요가는 6대 철학학파 중의 하나의 이름이었다. 비록 간단하지만 요가수트라는 요가 철학과 운동에 큰 영향을 준 작품이었다. 이 작품에서 산스크리트어 요가는 생각과 느낌이 확실히 유지되는 마음의 상태이며 수트라는 줄이라는 뜻이다.[출처 필요] 이것은 자파 밀라의 줄에 참고문헌이다. 작품을 구성하는 금언들이 구슬처럼 실로 연결되어있다. 제목은 때로 요가 금언록으로 해석될 수 있다.[출처 필요]

요가의 8단계[편집]

정통 요가인지의 여부는 다음의 8단계가 잘 가르쳐지고 있는가의 여부에 따라 판단할 수 있다고 요가 수트라에서 말한다.

1] 금계[편집]

요가 수행자가 반드시 지켜야만 하는 5가지 계율이다.

  • 살인하지 말라
  • 거짓말하지 말라
  • 도둑질하지 말라
  • 간음하지 말라
  • 탐욕하지 말라

2] 권계[편집]

요가 수행자들에게 권고를 하는 계율이다.

  • 정화 - 남과 교접하지 않아 몸과 마음을 순수하게 만든다.
  • 만족 - 탐욕을 경계하여 만족할 줄 안다.
  • 고행 - 열심히 요가한다.
  • 독경 - 요가 경전을 읽는다.
  • 염신 - 불교에서 염불한다고 하는 것과 같은 것으로서, 항상 신을 생각한다.

3] 아사나[편집]

아사나는 요가의 체위법을 말한다. 40여가지 동작 등 여러 가지 체위법이 존재한다.

4] 호흡법[편집]

요가의 호흡법은 길게 들이쉬고, 길게 숨을 참고, 길게 내쉬는 호흡을 한다. 도교의 조식법과 불교의 수식법과는 다른 지식법이다.

5] 프라치아하라[편집]

5단계 프라치아하라는 감각을 제어하는 것을 말한다.

6] 다라나[편집]

6단계 다라나는 정신집중을 말한다. 요가에서는 미간이나 코끝, 뒷머리, 심장, 배꼽등에 의식을 집중하는데 어디든지 일정한 곳이면 좋다. 

도교의 조식법이나 한국 불교의 일각에서는 단전에 의식을 집중하라고 가르친다.

7] 디야나[편집]

7단계 디야나는 불교에서 말하는 참선, 즉 명상을 말한다.

8] 삼매[편집]

8단계 삼매는 요가의 궁극의 경지로서, 깨달음의 상태를 말한다. 이 삼매에 들어가기 위해서 요가를 한다. 유상삼매와 무상삼매가 있다.

같이 보기[편집]



===

요가 수트라

출처 : 무료 백과 사전 "Wikipedia (Wikipedia)"
인도 철학 - 인도 발상 종교
힌두교
기본 교리
신
경전
법전·율법경
학파
종파
인물
수행·예배
관련 용어
목록

『요가 수트라』(瑜伽経[유가쿄]와도)는, 정통 바라몬교 ( 인도 철학 ) 일파로, 요가 의 수행에 의한 해탈을 설명하는 요가 학파 의 교전. 다양한 소재, 군소교전을 정리한 것으로 알려져 있다 [1] . 파탄자리 에 의해 편찬되었다고 하지만, 그에 대해 분명한 것은 모른다 [2] . 현재의 형태로 편찬된 것은, 4-5세기 무렵이라고 생각되고 있다 [3] .

아사나 중심의 동적 요가의 요소는 없지만, 현대의 체조적·동적인 요가의 세계에서도, 기본 경전으로서 소개되는 것이 적지 않다.

개요 [ 편집 ]

단지 요가 학파의 성전이라고 할 뿐만 아니라, 6세기 전후까지의 요가가 정리된 집대성이 되고 있다. " 요가 는 마음의 역사의 멸종 (니로다)이다"라는 정의에서 시작된다 (니로다는 불교 특유의 용어이기도 함) [4] . 요가 학파의 세계관·철학은 쌈키야 학파 (수론)에 많이 근거하고 있어, 합쳐서 「쌈키야・요가」학파라고도 불리지만, 쌈키야 학파는 철저한 2원론이며, 한편 요가 학파는 자재신( 최고신) 이슈발라 의 존재를 인정하고 독자적인 이론을 전개했다 [5] [4] .

삼매 에 이르기까지의 구체적인 방법으로서, 고행 (반드시 황행이나 난행만은 아니다), 스바디아야 ( 영어판 ) (독서와 연구), 이슈바라 플라니다나 ( 영어판 ) (자재신기념, 염신) 3가지 방향성을 나타내고, 이들을 정리하여 클리어 요가(행위의 요가라고 부른다 . [3] 삼매의 계단, 관련 사상이 언급된다. 삼매에 관한 부분 에 불교의 영향이 짙게 보인다 [7] .

고대 인도에서는 이 세상과 인간을 괴롭히는 견해는 주류가 아니었지만 요가 학파와 불교는 인간의 존재를 괴롭히고 요가에 의해 발생하는 지혜에 의해 거기에서 이탈하는 것을 목표로 했다[4 ] . 요가 학파의 깨달음 상태란 프루샤 (순수 정신, 가미)와 프랙티티 (근본 물질, 자성)라는 세계를 구성하는 두 가지 원리의 관계가 거절되어 별개가 되어 안정된 상태로 돌아가는 것으로 이다 [8] . 양자를 혼동시키는 힘이 되는 마음의 동요를 없애기 위해 요가의 실수가 필요하다 [8] .

구성 [ 편집 ]

고장 [ 편집 ]

4:195로 이루어져 있다.

  • 제1장 (51절) - 삼매의 장
  • 제2장 (55절) - 성취 수단(실수) 장
  • 제3장(55절) - 초자연(자재) 장
  • 제4장 (34절) - 독존의 장

텍스트 성립 연대 [ 편집 ]

제1장의 전반과 제4장 이외는, 아마 400 - 450년경에 편찬되었다고 추정되고 있다 [9] . 4장은 대승불교 의 서가행 유식파 (요가챠라)의 용어를 이용하여 동파를 비판하는 내용이 있기 때문에 520-600년경의 성립이라는 설이 있다 [9] . 사보다 츠루지는 기원전 1세기 - 2세기부터 기원후 5세기 무렵 사이에 생긴 몇몇 논문을 5세기 무렵에 정리한 것으로 되어 있다[9 ] . 그 구성에 관해서 연구자의 견해는 일치하지 않지만, 하웰, 사호타 츠루지는 성립순서를 다음과 같이 추정하고 있다.

  1. 2:28-4:1 - 요가 앙가 (요가 부서) · 텍스트
  2. 1장 23-51절 - 이슈바라 플라니다나 ( 영어판 ) (자재신 기념) · 텍스트
  3. 2장 1-27절 - 클리어 요가 (행사 요가) · 텍스트
  4. 4장 2-34절 - 닐마나치타(전변심) · 텍스트
  5. 1장 1-22절 - 니로다(지멸)·텍스트 [9]

구조 [ 편집 ]

사호타 츠루지의 분류를 베이스로 호사카 슌지 가 해설한 것 [9] .

텍스트 이름내용 목차해설
니로다 텍스트1. 요가 수트라
의 대서 _ _ _ 성공





불교와의 공통성이 많다.
이슈발라 플라니다나 텍스트9. 자재신에 대한 기념
10. 삼매에 대한 장애
11. 마음의 산동상태를 대치하는 법
12. 마음의 청징을 얻는 법
13. 정의의 정의
14. 유심정
15. 무심정
16. 유伺定과 無伺定
17. 유종자
삼매
18.		13-19는 불교의 영향으로 이루어졌다.
클리어 요가 텍스트20. 행사 요가
21. 번뇌
22. 번뇌 제거
23. 업
24. 일체 모두 고
25. 제거해야 할 것
26. 보는 것으로 보이는 것
27. 제거 - 해탈
28. 판별 지
요가 앙가 텍스트29. 요가의 팔부문
30. 금계와 권계 31. 계행
실천의 성과
32. 좌법 33. 조식 34. 제감 35. 응념 36. 전변 의 여러가지 _ _ _ _ 경지 - 해탈 46. 초자연적 능력 습득법의 다양한













29-38은 요가 수습법의 심리학적 설법
40-46은 심리학적 부분
닐마나 치타 텍스트48. 사업과 잠재 인상
49. 전변의 존재론적 구조
50. 객관과 주관의 이원성
51. 마음과 진아의 관계
52.		잔키야 (수론). 주로 마음의 형이상학적 문제를 다루고, 불교, 특히 瑜伽行 유식파에 대한 반론이 되고 있다 [1] .

[9]

내용 [ 편집 ]

요가 앙가 [ 편집 ]

앙가는 부분·요소를 의미하고, 요가 앙가 텍스트는, 요가를 몇개로 나누어 해설한 장이라는 정도의 의미로, 본서에서는 8개의 부분으로 나누어져 있다[9 ] . 요가의 팔부문은 아슈턴가 요가라고도 불린다(팔지 요가, 아슈타=8). 현대의 동적 아슈턴가 비냐사 요가 ( 영어판 ) (통칭 아슈턴가 요가)와는 다르다.

  1. 야마 : 제계 - 불살생·진실어·불도·불음·무소유의 오계를 지킨다. 이를 준수해도 특별한 요가 상태가 되는 것은 아니지만, 심신이 정화된다. [10]
  2. 니야마 : 내제 - 심신을 정하고 만족을 알고 고행을 실천하고 경전을 외치고 이슈바라( 자재 신)를 기념한다는 다섯 항목의 실천으로 심신으로부터 일상적인 것, 행위의 잔재, 나머지 향 모두 제거합니다. [10]
  3. 아사나 : 좌법 - 요가 실천을 위해 안정적이고 편안한 앉는 방법을 실천한다. 자세를 유지하는 노력이 필요 없어지면 완전하다고 할 수 있다. [10]
  4. 플러너 야마 : 조식 - 통상 호흡은 외계의 영향을 받아 불규칙해지기 때문에, 호흡을 제어·조정하여 가능한 한 천천히 실시하여, 최종적으로 숨을 쉬고 있는지 모르는 상태로 한다. 이것에 의해 플라나 (생명 에너지)의 흐름의 흔들림이 없어져, 명랑함을 얻는다. [10]
  5. 플래티어 하라: 제감 - 외계의 지배로부터 감각을 떼어내, 대상과 감각을 분리한다. 통상은 것을 오감으로 파악하고 있지만, 플래티어 하라에서 오감이 마음에 따라 마음과 일체가 되는 것으로, 마음의 본질에서 직접 그 자체를 파악하게 된다. 여기까지 가 명상의 준비 단계에 해당한다. [11]
  6. 더러너 : 응념 - 마음을 응고시키고, 부동하게 하고, 마음을 외계의 한 지점에 집중시킨다. 이로 인해 다른 것이 마음에 침입 할 수없는 상태가됩니다. 더러너 이후의 3단계는 일련의 것으로, 질적으로 분명한 구별은 없다. [11]
  7. 디야나 : 조용함 - 더러너로 한 점에 집중한 마음의 고정을 시간적으로 십이배로 늘립니다. 지각이나 인식은 대상에서 벗어나고, 생각은 확장·신장해, 요가 행자의 전인격적 사유가 대상 본래의 실재성·유성에 직접 접촉하게 된다. [11]「선」은 디야나의 전만어의 음사.
  8. 서머디 : 삼매 - 전 2단계의 결과로 생각이 일종의 정지상태에 들어가고 생각하는 측이라고 생각되는 측이라는 대립하는 관계를 떠나 마음은 대상 그 자체가 된다. 요가 행자는 생과의 관계, 시간의 지배도 떠나 영원한 현재를 사는 자가 된다. 이 해방된 상태를 「아난다(喜悦)」라고 한다. [11]

유상삼매·무상삼매 [ 편집 ]

유상 삼매(샘플라주냐타·사마디)·무상 삼매(아산프라주냐타·사마디)라고 하는 삼매에 관한 교설 로, 마음의 제작을 「지멸시키는 상념」을 수습하거나, 또는 이슈바라・플라니다나(자재 신기념, 염신)에 의해, 자의식등의 상념이 아직 남아 있는 유상 삼매로부터, 상념은 없어졌지만 아직도 잠재 인상의 남은 무상 삼매로 진행된다 [12] [13] . '요가 수트라'에서는 무상 삼매가 가장 존재감을 가지고 말해지고 있어 중심적 위치가 되어 있다고 생각된다 [12] .

유종자 삼매·무종자 삼매 [ 편집 ]

유종자 삼매(사비야·사마디)·무종자 삼매(닐비야·사머디)라는 삼매에 관한 교설로, 마음의 경위(마음의 상태)가 상세하게 설명되고 있다. 번뇌를 만드는 원인이 아직 남아 있는 유종자 삼매(또한 4단계로 나뉜다)에서 대상이 모두 사라진 무종자 삼매로 진행된다 [12] [13] . 유종자 삼매의 단계를 올라가면 삼매지(직감)가 생겨 앞으로도 잠재 인상이 생긴다. 의 해탈이라고 여겨진다 [13] .

역사 [ 편집 ]

기원후 4-5세기 무렵에 편찬된 '요가 수트라' [3] [14] 는 그 성립을 기원후 3세기 이전에 거슬러 올리는 것은 문헌학적 증거로부터 어렵다고 한다 [3 ] . '요가 수트라'의 사상은 불교 사상으로부터도 큰 영향과 자극을 받고 있다 [15] [16] .

19세기에 영국령 인도 제국이 성립하면 영국의 지배하에 서유럽의 영향을 받은 인도인 지식인들은 인도에는 멸시 대상이 아닌 가치 있는 전통적인 지식이 있음을 서유럽에게 보여준다. 그렇게 활동해, 이러한 힌두교 개혁 운동, 네오·힌두이즘의 조류 속에서, 서양의 지적 전통에 의해 육파 철학의 유효성을 확립하려고 했다 . 19세기 중반의 시점에서, 인도의 전통적인 요가의 실천과 「요가 수트라」의 체계의 연결은 없어졌지만[17], 「요가 수트라」는 「육파 철학」의 하나 로서 , 서구 의식적으로 순수 이론의 요소를 강조하는 형태로 번역되었다 [18] . 인도의 문화 내셔널리즘과 얽힌 형태로, 오리엔탈리즘 과 인도의 교육시스템 중에서 지위를 높여 요가의 고전으로 생각할 수 있게 된다. 없는 것으로 여겨졌다), 대학에서도 텍스트로서 이용되어 대학에서 배운 비베커난다 등 네오 힌두이즘의 활동가 에 영향을 주었다고 생각되고 있다 [17] . 『요가 수트라』는 유럽인 연구자의 지견에 영향을 받으면서, 20세기가 되어 영어권의 요가 실천자들에 의해, 또, 비베카난다나 신지학 협회의 헬레나・P・브라 바츠 키 등 의 근대 요가의 추진자들에 의해, 「기본 교전」으로서의 권위를 주어져 갔다 [19] .

순수 이론의 요소가 아니라 실천적 요소가 강해진 것은 1890년 신지학 협회의 원조에 의한 두비베디의 번역으로부터이다 [18] . 비베커난다는 근대 힌두 사상과 19세기 과학부터 메스메리즘 에 이르기까지 다양한 서양 개념을 섞어 실천적인 '라자 요가'를 구축했지만, 싱글톤에 따르면 그 때 당시 미국에서 널리 보급 하고 있던 신지학 협회의 윌리엄 Q·저지에 의한 대중을 위한 '요가 수트라'의 번역이 이용되었다 [18] . '라자 요가'의 '요가 수트라'의 해석은 그 어느 때보다 실천적이었고, 플라나(호흡)와 플러너 야마(조식)에 관해서 하타 요가의 생리학적 요소가 더 해졌다 . 요가를 실천하고 플라나를 제어함으로써 '거의 전능, 거의 전지'가 되는 것이 가능하다고 주장되고 있으며, 당시 미국에서 영적인 높이에 오르기 위한 신심 기법으로서 인기를 얻었다 [ 20] .

'요가 수트라'는 요가의 고전, 기본 경전으로 중시되고 현대 요가에 대한 이해에 큰 영향을 주고 있다.

비평 [ 편집 ]

국내외의 요가 연구자나 실천자 중에는, 이 「요가 수트라」를 요가의 「기본 교전」이라고 하는 것이 있지만, 요가의 역사를 연구한 마크 싱글톤은, 이러한 이해에 주의를 촉구하고 있다. '요가 수트라'는 당시 많이 있었던 수행서 중 하나에 불과하며, 반드시 요가에 관한 '유일'의 '성전'과 같은 종류의 것이 아니기 때문이다[21 ] . 사호타 츠루지 는, 잔키야 요가의 사상을 전하기 위한 텍스트나 교전은, 같은 시기에 많은 지파의 사가의 손으로 만들어져 있어, 그 중에서 우연히 오늘에 전해지고 있는 것이 『요가・수트라』라고 말하고 있다 [22] .

영향 [ 편집 ]

이슬람 세계 [ 편집 ]

『인도지』(1030년)를 저술한 아부 라이한 빌루니 에 의해 처음으로 이슬람계 언어로 번역되었다 [23] . 이 책은 그다지 널리 읽히지 않았지만, 16세기에 아블 퍼즐이 인도 철학 제파의 해설에서 충실하고 간결하게 소개하고, 동시대의 요가 실천자들의 생각과 실천적으로 육체와 영혼의 단련 법은 이슬람의 지식인이나 수도자의 관심을 모아 14~17세기의 저명한 수피문인으로 돌아갈 수 있는 수도론이나 잡록 등에 빠졌다 [23] . 18~19세기 인도 무슬림에 의한 수피 문헌에도 짙은 영향을 주었다 [23] .

일본어 번역 [ 편집 ]

각주·출처 [ 편집 ]

[ 각주 사용법 ]
  1. ↑ a b 미야모토 2005 , p. 84.
  2. ↑ 가와사키 1993 , p. 116.
  3. ^ a b c 야마시타 2009 , p. 105.
  4. ↑ a b c 호사카 2004 , pp. 139–143.
  5. ↑ 가와사키 1993 , p. 120.
  6. ↑ a b 호사카 2004 , pp. 146–147.
  7. ↑ 호사카 2004 , p. 160.
  8. ↑ a b 호사카 2004 , pp. 143–144.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g 호사카 2004 , pp. 93-99.
  10. ↑ a b c d 가와사키 1993 , pp. 117–118.
  11. ↑ a b c d 가와사키 1993 , pp. 118–119.
  12. ^ a b c 번장 2015 .
  13. ↑ a b c 미야모토 2005 , pp. 88–89.
  14. ↑ 『세계 종교 백과사전』 마루젠 출판, 2012년. p.522
  15. ↑사 호타 츠루지 『요가 근본 교전』. p.36
  16. ↑ Singleton 2014 , p. 279.
  17. ^ a b 가와라 2014 , p. 96.
  18. ^ a b c 가와라 2014 , p. 97.
  19. ^ 가와라 2014 , p. 35.
  20. ^ 가와라 2014 , pp. 94-95.
  21. ↑ Singleton 2014 , p. 35.
  22. ↑ 사호타 츠루지 『요가 근본 교전』 히라카와 출판사, 1973년, 35페이지.
  23. ↑ a b c 사카키 와라 「요가의 실천과 페르시아어 번역 『고락샤샤타카』」 동양문화연구소 기요 163, 108-80, 2013-03

참고 문헌 [ 편집 ]

  • 가와사키 정신 「인도의 사상」방송대학교육진흥회, 1993년.
  • 호사카 슌지「불교와 요가」도쿄 서적 , 2004년.
  • 2005, 「힌두교의 사전」, 도쿄도 출판
  • 야마시타 박사 ​​「요가의 사상」 코단샤〈고단샤 선서 메티에〉, 2009년.
  • 마크 싱글턴 『요가 바디 - 포즈 연습의 기원』 키타 치쿠사역, 오구미 서점, 2014년.
  • 반장 히로유키 「요가파의 명상～일경 집중에의 가교 」「도요대학 국제철학연구센터」 제6권, 국제철학연구 = Journal of International Philosophy(별책), 2015년, 49-59페이지, NAID . 
  • 가와라 카즈에다 「요가 : 문화의 글로벌화를 둘러싸고」 「고난여자대학 연구기요 인간과학편」 제51권, 고난여자대학, 2014년, 89-97쪽.

관련 항목 [ 편집 ]

외부 링크 [ 편집 ]

영어판 위키소스에는 이 기사와 관련된 원문이 있습니다.


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