Showing posts with label Reincarnation. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Reincarnation. Show all posts

2020/09/18

Brian Weiss - Wikipedia

Brian Weiss - Wikipedia



Brian Weiss

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Brian Weiss
BLWEISS.jpg
Brian Weiss in 2012
Born
Brian Leslie Weiss

November 6, 1944 (age 75)
NationalityUnited States
CitizenshipAmerican
Alma materColumbia UniversityYale University
Known forReincarnation research
Scientific career
FieldsPsychiatry
Websitewww.brianweiss.com
Brian Leslie Weiss (born November 6, 1944) is an American psychiatristhypnotherapist, and author who specializes in past life regression.[1][2][3] His research includes purported reincarnationpast life regression, future life progression, and survival of the soul after death.

Education and medical career[edit]

Weiss studied at Columbia University,[4] and later graduated from the Yale University School of Medicine in 1970, completing an internship in internal medicine at the New York University Medical Center then returning to Yale for a two-year residency in psychiatry.[5] He went on to become Head of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai Medical Center, Miami.[6][7]

Past life regression and future life progression[edit]

According to Weiss, in 1980 one of his patients, "Catherine", began discussing past-life experiences under hypnosis. Weiss did not believe in reincarnation at the time but, after confirming elements of Catherine's stories through public records, came to be convinced of the survival of an element of the human personality after death.[8] Weiss claims he has regressed more than 4,000 patients since 1980.[9]
Weiss advocates hypnotic regression as therapy, claiming that many phobias and ailments are rooted in past-life experiences whose acknowledgement by the patient can have a curative effect. Weiss also writes about messages received from the "Masters", or "super-evolved, nonphysical souls", he claims to have communicated with through his subjects.[10] Weiss holds workshops and seminars across the United States that explain and teach self-regression mediation techniques. This includes the Hay House I Can Do It one day workshops and the intense experiential workshops at the Omega Institute for Holistic Studies in NY.

Personal life[edit]

Weiss lives with his wife Carole in Miami, Florida, where he writes and conducts public seminars and workshops on the subject of reincarnation.[4] His daughter Amy E. Weiss is the co-author of his 2012 book Miracles Happen: The Transformational Healing Power of Past-Life Memories.[11]

Bibliography[edit]

  • Many Lives, Many Masters: The True Story of a Prominent Psychiatrist, His Young Patient, and the Past-Life Therapy That Changed Both Their Lives (1988). ISBN 0-671-65786-0
  • Through Time into Healing: Discovering the Power of Regression Therapy to Erase Trauma and Transform Mind, Body and Relationships (1993). ISBN 0-7499-1835-7.
  • Only Love Is Real: A Story of Soulmates Reunited (1997) ISBN 0-7499-1620-6.
  • Messages From the Masters: Tapping into the Power of Love (2001). ISBN 0-7499-2167-6
  • Mirrors of Time: Using Regression for Physical, Emotional, and Spiritual Healing (2002). ISBN 1-5617-0929-8.
  • Same Soul, Many Bodies: Discover the Healing Power of Future Lives through Progression Therapy (2005). ISBN 0-7499-2541-8ISBN 0-7432-6434-7.
  • Miracles Happen: The Transformational Healing Power of Past Life Memories (2012) ISBN 978-0-06-220122-5

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Past Life Regression Therapy: Encouraging Fantasy"Science-Based Medicine. 2016-07-26. Retrieved 2018-07-06.
  2. ^ Bodkin, J. A. (2003-07-09). "Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology"JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association290 (2): 268–269. doi:10.1001/jama.290.2.268ISSN 0098-7484.
  3. ^ Regal, Brian (2009-10-15). Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia: A Critical EncyclopediaABC-CLIOISBN 9780313355080.
  4. Jump up to:a b Miller, Lisa (August 27, 2010). "Remembrances of Lives Past"The New York Times.
  5. ^ "FL DOH MQA Search Portal | Home Page"appsmqa.doh.state.fl.us.
  6. ^ "Past Lives"Lodi News-Sentinel. Oct 19, 1989. Retrieved June 3, 2013.
  7. ^ "Doctor Details Patient's Past Lives". Miami Herald. May 29, 1989. p. 6B.
  8. ^ Breakfast with Brian WeissPittsburgh Post-Gazette, August 5, 2002, Accessed April 25, 2009.
  9. ^ Weinstein-Moser, Edie. "Interview with Brian Weiss"Wisdom magazine. Wisdom-Magazine.com. 2008. Retrieved June 18, 2015.
  10. ^ "Messages From The Masters | Brian L. Weiss, MD".
  11. ^ Miracles Happen: The Transformational Healing Power of Past-Life Memories

External links[edit]

Many Mansions: Cerminara, Gina: Amazon.com.au: Books

Many Mansions: Cerminara, Gina: Amazon.com.au: Books





Many Mansions Mass Market Paperback – 28 January 1993

by Gina Cerminara (Author)

4.5 out of 5 stars    133 ratings

---

Kindle

$6.99



...is recorded fact. Thousands of microfilms filed at the Association for Research and Enlightenment at Virginia Beach testify to Cayce's ability to diagnose, prescribe for, and cure the ills of people whose names and locations he was given, but whom he had never seen. Known as "The Miracle Man of Virginia Beach," his successes astonished medical authorities--and the world. Many Mansions is Dr. Gina Cerminara's account of these healings--and an affirmation of the age-old belief in reincarnation. She tells how Cayce saw past the barriers of space and time, how he penetrated the "previous" lives of his subjects, and performed the fantastic cures and prophesies that made him the most remarkable clairvoyant in modern history.

4.5 out of 5 stars 225

Mass Market Paperback

$16.84

-

Mass Market Paperback : 240 pages

Product Dimensions : 11.02 x 2.13 x 17.37 cm

Publisher : Penguin (28 January 1993)

Reading level : 18 and up

Language: : English

Customer Reviews: 4.5 out of 5 stars    133 ratings

Customer reviews

4.5 out of 5 stars

4.5 out of 5

133 global ratings

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Top review from Australia



Leigh G

5.0 out of 5 stars Outstanding and Convincing Case for Karma and Reincarnation

Reviewed in Australia on 5 November 2019

I was so delighted to see that this book is now available as an e-book on Kindle. Originally published in 1950 it is the best book of the many I have read on the Edgar Cayce readings and makes a convincing case for karma and reincarnation. I had given several copies away as gifts to friends and could never understand why it was not apparently currently in print – as it's so well written and well researched and is so spiritually alive.



The presentation of karma and reincarnation places Christ at the centre of things and sees life on earth as a spiritual learning experience rather than a vale of tears to be escaped from at the earliest opportunity. Thus it has more in common with the teachings of Rudolf Steiner than with Buddhism or Hinduism.



But it does make much sense of why we are born as we are with our various talents and limitations. So the book tries to unearth and bring to the surface the deeply hidden cosmic moral laws that must govern human karma and it always seemed to me that Gina Cerminara did a very good job of this.



If the idea of karma seems to make sense to you but you wonder how and why it works, then please give this book a read as it may just answer your questions.

---

Leigh G

5.0 out of 5 stars Outstanding and Convincing Case for Karma and Reincarnation

Reviewed in the United Kingdom on 5 November 2019

Verified Purchase

I was so delighted to see that this book is now available as an e-book on Kindle. Originally published in 1950 it is the best book of the many I have read on the Edgar Cayce readings and makes a convincing case for karma and reincarnation. I had given several copies away as gifts to friends and could never understand why it was not apparently currently in print – as it's so well written and well researched and is so spiritually alive.



The presentation of karma and reincarnation places Christ at the centre of things and sees life on earth as a spiritual learning experience rather than a vale of tears to be escaped from at the earliest opportunity. Thus it has more in common with the teachings of Rudolf Steiner than with Buddhism or Hinduism.



But it does make much sense of why we are born as we are with our various talents and limitations. So the book tries to unearth and bring to the surface the deeply hidden cosmic moral laws that must govern human karma and it always seemed to me that Gina Cerminara made a very good job of this.



If the idea of karma seems to make sense to you but you wonder how and why it works, then please give this book a read as it may just answer your questions.

---

texas7

4.0 out of 5 stars Thought provoking

Reviewed in the United Kingdom on 15 October 2019

Verified Purchase

A very enlightening & thought provoking book. It was recommended by an acquaintance who is a Buddhist even though it is written from a Christian point of view. Clairvoyancy, past lives, karma are the major themes of the book. Well written & easy to read.

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Sam

5.0 out of 5 stars The best!!

Reviewed in the United Kingdom on 26 March 2015

Verified Purchase

The most fascinating book I have read on Edgar Cayce, so well written and put together. So much of what Edgar has said resonates, it answers so many questions that I had. Can never recommend this highly enough. Having read many spiritual books, this one stands out above all others by far.

5 people found this helpful

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Mr. M. Brown

4.0 out of 5 stars Reincarnation proof or otherwise?

Reviewed in the United Kingdom on 24 August 2012

Verified Purchase

Not the easiest of books to read by any means-would probably benefit from reading at least twice, however worth reading along with other books such as Zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance to maybe help change your attitude to your own behaviour and faults (if you have any-ha!ha!).If you follow the instructions in the last chapter it won't do you any harm and might help improve the world.

4 people found this helpful

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Mr Peter M Collins

5.0 out of 5 stars A book to make you think

Reviewed in the United Kingdom on 13 March 2014

Verified Purchase

The independently witnessed evidence by way of recorded sessions with Edgar Cayce will make any sceptic pause for thought. Use this book as a sign post on the way to appreciation of the big picture. Anyone who is 100% materialistic and does not believe in a higher being or an organised scheme to Life should read this book and pass it on to other sceptics. You owe it to yourself to at least become aware of the facts and draw your own conclusions.

Peter

3 people found this helpful

---

Many Mansions: The Edgar Cayce Story on Reincarnation
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Many Mansions: The Edgar Cayce Story on Reincarnation
by Gina Cerminara, Hugh Lynn Cayce (Introduction)
 4.31  ·   Rating details ·  1,564 ratings  ·  44 reviews
...is recorded fact. Thousands of microfilms filed at the Association for Research and Enlightenment at Virginia Beach testify to Cayce's ability to diagnose, prescribe for, and cure the ills of people whose names and locations he was given, but whom he had never seen. Known as "The Miracle Man of Virginia Beach," his successes astonished medical authorities--and the world ...more
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Mass Market Paperback, 304 pages
Published October 5th 1988 by Signet (first published 1950)
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LISTS WITH THIS BOOK
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Leo .
Dec 30, 2017Leo . rated it really liked it
Do some trees die off in the Winter? Do they shed their leaves and does the leaf litter Decompose and become the Earth? Does the Acorn fall from the Oak Tree and new life begins? The green shoots of new beginnings. The Composition of new cells. Does a fruit plant do the same? Are we the same? Do we come from dust and return to dust? Buried and returned to the Earth? (Heart). Whence life begins.

Or cremated and the Ashes blowing in the wind to settle and return to the Earth? Mother Earth giving Birth. Creation? To die and to be reborn. To be, or not to be? Is reincarnation real? Is it a natural universal concept? Like natures pattern? Or is it more sinister? Is it a repetitive concept? Is it, by design? Is it a nefarious structure like Humans do with animals? Rearing, controlling life for food. Do we come back because we have not fulfilled our lifetime? Are we punished and come back as a pig? A spider? A flea? To start the cycle over and and over. Was all life created? If so why? Are we here by accident? Questions, many questions and only theoretical answers.🐯👍 (less)
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Jon
Sep 07, 2009Jon rated it it was amazing
Excellent book - definitely changed my attitude towards reincarnation as a philosophy. I may have to consider myself a true believer at this point! While not always the most logically sound presentation of the concepts involved, it certainly contained enough gems for me to find it a fascinating and very insightful read. Best moment - uncovering the solution to the paradox of the importance of meaning and purpose in this life vs. the ultimate meaninglessness of existence. Really good stuff :)
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Sarah
Mar 30, 2009Sarah rated it really liked it
This book certainly broadened my perspective on past lives. The case studies end in 1945, so the view of homosexuality is odd: it's not clear if the clients of the readings, Cayce, or Cerminara considered it a problem in the current life.
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Brandon
Dec 31, 2012Brandon rated it it was ok
There is something exciting about starting a new book. And, if you know nothing about the book, there is an air of mystery attached, too. Which is probably why I never refuse to read a book that has been recommended to me by a friend. Something deep down inside says to me, "If this person you know liked it, you should totally give it a shot. You'll probably like it!" (I feel like my friends will now exploit knowing this about me and I'll be reading some ridiculous recommendations)

Many Mansions falls into this category... a book handed to me by a friend with the instructions, "Give it a shot... I'll be curious to hear what you think."

Let me be entirely forthcoming. I didn't finish the book. Something I rarely let happen.

Before I explain why I set down the book, let me explain the general premise. The author of this book has combed over countless records of Edgar Cayce's experiences in helping people understand their previous lives. Yep, reincarnation. Through case studies, each chapter expounds on how certain traits from previous lives will impact the life you're living.

Now, my reason for abandoning this book: It was simply asking too much of me. The book is built on a foundation of beliefs and assumptions that I simply do not (and probably can not) believe, and therefore as I read page after page I could assign very little validity to the arguments the author was making. A short list of offenses: reincarnation, the lost city of Atlantis, karma, mentalism. Would I like to believe in these things? Eh, maybe. Sometimes I feel like karma is playing out in the lives around me, but I do not feel like karma - or any of these beliefs - are as scientifically quantifiable as the author professes them to be. Does this make me closed minded and unwilling to open myself up to new beliefs? I hope not, but the argument could be made. I'm sure this opens me up to criticism of my own religion and beliefs... but that'll have to wait for another time.

The book still gets a couple of stars from me in the rating. Primarily because it is a well-written book. The author is no dummy... there are a tremendous number of case studies here, and cataloging them to find patterns and conclusions is a daunting task. So, she gets credit for the work put forth to reach her conclusions. (less)
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Chris
Jan 19, 2009Chris rated it it was amazing
A really amazing book. I am one to be subject to the more hocus pocusy sorts of things, but this book takes a very open mindedly scientific approach. Many of the more unexplainable, or seemingly inconsistent, things in my life have finally been set to order for me and has now put me on my way to seeking out testing this new theory on spirituality presented in the book. I get sort of annoyed with myself while explaining this because continually referring back to "that book" feels cultish to me, hence the hope to get beyond using that as reference.

Either way, if you're looking for something that will make sense to get at spiritual questions that have been nagging you, I would highly recommend giving this book a shot. (less)
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Mtejeda
Feb 04, 2013Mtejeda rated it it was amazing
I read this when it was first published in the late 1960's and still remember being absolutely stunned. I can actually see myself reading as I walked down the street in San Francisco where I was working as a legal secretary, completely absorbed in the book and paying no attention to the visceral world around me. I had a profound influence on my thinking and understanding of spirituality. I think it may be time to read it again...
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Michael
Aug 12, 2008Michael rated it really liked it
As the consummate skeptic, I still have a hard time with reincarnation. No question, it answers so many questions and fills in the blanks of so many inequities and theodicies so visible in life. If your cosmology is in a state of flux, try this on for size. It certainly isn't the whole story, but it helps.
flag3 likes · Like  · see review
Adele
Jan 31, 2011Adele rated it really liked it
Anything about Edgar Cayce is good for the soul. I liked this book in particular because it is about reincarnation and how it fits into Christianity.
flag2 likes · Like  · see review
Asha Mohun
Jan 05, 2016Asha Mohun rated it liked it
An interesting book with Edgar Cayce's (an American fortune teller lived during 19th century) case studies on reincarnation, lost city of Atlantis and many more.
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Daniel Rickenbach
Feb 25, 2017Daniel Rickenbach rated it it was ok
Too metaphysical for my liking...interesting stories are presented. Since I never met Edgar Cayce personally I cannot judge his character. It seems that he had a heart for and a genuine interest in doing much good in life and was able to help many people. I think that we cannot expect all people in all times to be helped in the same way.

Maybe this was a work for a specific time in human evolution.

Mystery is intriguing. I did find myself wondering how the seekers really ended up feeling about their over all experiences. It's one thing to be given hope, but another thing to actually experience real, postitive change in one's life. It concerns me that previous lives, which I tried and still try to have an open mind to are used in more than strictly metaphoric purposes.

It is hard for me to accept that today I'm struggling through an issue because of some previous, pre-existing issue that needs solving from a lifetime that I'm burdened with today. I choose to be born into this current life seems to be a very subjective idea. Maybe some find this analogy helpful, but to me it makes me feel stranded....wondering almost if there is something to the idea of "fated".

I think all humans have a unique opportunity, at least in their individual existing lives to create the kind of person they'd like to be or they'd like to become...I also wonder if life is about learning to explore, discover, and embrace our unique human freedom to be who we are. I'd like to know that life has purpose, but wonder at the safety of such certainty of "I have a purpose." Sartre's philosophical maxim seems to apply: "damned to be free" There is responsibility embedded in this kind of freedom. I'm not sure I see freedom of personal self-actualization emerging in Cayce's Reincarnation views.

I have at least a working knowledge, at least through the eyes of Gina Cerminara of Cayce's work and the good that he did. I find that his concepts of the hypnotic state are intriguing, though I don't know if any of these subjective experiences might be useful from a scientific research point. At a minimum his work and views do resonate with some segments of the population, and if they find themselves helped then I cannot criticize too harshly. (less)
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Saiisha
Mar 03, 2016Saiisha rated it really liked it
Shelves: self-help, reviewed, spiritual
This was a well-researched, well-written book about Edgar Cayce's beliefs about karma and reincarnation, cases of healings through past life prognoses, and fantastic prophesies as a clairvoyant. Gina Cerminara does him great credit by taking the reader on a journey starting with Edgar's original beliefs as a Christian, but having to slowly change and acknowledge his new beliefs as he discovers his gifts as a medical clairvoyant. There are probably several hundred cases and examples discussed in several chapters about karma, reincarnation, mentalism, etc. which are all fascinating backstories to the topics themselves.

These are topics that I'm very familiar with in my own background as well as my work as a soulistic life coach (www.NestInTheForest.com), however I only give the book 4 stars because of a couple of nags:

1. The author's personal conjecture that Indians use the karma theory as an excuse for being "passive, lethargic and fatalistic." This might seem like a minor comment, but it shows me that despite the topics of karma and reincarnation that she covers in this book, she doesn't understand Indian spirituality if she deems it as passive, lethargic and fatalistic.

2. As thoroughly researched, cataloged and described as the cases are, I felt that the language was dry and detached.

I recommend the book to anyone who's interested in learning more about Edgar Cayce, and a deeper dive into past lives, karma and reincarnation.

If you've enjoyed this review, consider joining my Old Souls Book Club (https://www.goodreads.com/group/show/...) for more recommendations and lively conversations about such topics! (less)
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Julie
Jun 10, 2009Julie rated it it was amazing
Shelves: non-fiction, reincarnation, spiritual-religous-mythology
I have read about Edgar Cayce over the years, but this book delves into areas i didn't know much about; Cayce's 'life readings' which dealt with past-life experiences, karma, and healing.

Although I did not agree with all of the thoughts set forth in this book (e.g. the karmic cause of epilepsy, Hinduism as it relates to Cayce's idea of Karma), i did read some interesting things about Cayce and how he conducted his life readings.

Albeit - this book does have some deep christian belief's embedded in it, but all in all a good read and a thought provoking study of a fascinating man. (less)
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Beth
Mar 08, 2010Beth rated it liked it  ·  review of another edition
I knew that Edgar Cayce was considered one of the best psychics of his time, but what I learned by reading this book is that he also gave people readings about past lives. Cayce, himself, was raised a Christian, so it took him quite a while before he believed in reincarnation. It read more like a text book at times, but it was very interesting. It seemed as though every time I came up with a question about the subject, within the next chapter or so, my question would be addressed and answered. V ...more
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Niva
Jun 02, 2008Niva rated it really liked it
The book discusses reincarnation, based on the many case readinds of Edgar Cayce, and its impplications to philosophy and religious beliefs. Why are we here? Why do we have the circumstances of life that we have or why do we have the kind of illness or personality that we have? It talks about karma as being redistributive justice or continuing process towards perfection.
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Mercy
Apr 12, 2009Mercy rated it liked it
This book broadened my perspective on past lives. I have always believed in reincarnation but this book gets in deeper and really puts it into perspective. I definetly recommend this book. I also recommend the book Soul Mates book by Kevin J Todeschi. Its written off Edgar Cayce's work whom I consider brilliant.
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Diana
May 31, 2012Diana rated it it was amazing
This book is about Edgar Cayce and his readings on reincarnation. I first read this book more than 35 years ago. Here is a simple man who had extraordinary abilities. The topics addressed in this book are relevant today and provide alternate viewpoints on issues affecting society. Very, very interesting.
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Jan
Jun 05, 2017Jan rated it it was ok
Very interesting at the beginning, after some 20% of its contents the book becomes monotonous an, quite frankly, boring with hundreds of cases that you eventually lose track of... Pity as I had quite high hopes for that one... Will have to find a new one...
flag1 like · Like  · see review
jasmine
Feb 14, 2007jasmine rated it really liked it
Recommends it for: interested in reincarnation
very interesting theory....really enjoy this book and often return to it
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Daniel Hernandez
Apr 08, 2008Daniel Hernandez rated it it was amazing
This book is a treasure for believers of reincarnation.
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Candace
Sep 01, 2009Candace rated it really liked it
It is documentation on channelled readings on reincarnation and karma. A very interesting read with lots of food for thought.
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Teressa
Jul 15, 2010Teressa rated it liked it
Definitely fascinating. This is a fact based "research" type of book, so it's a little dry and detailed. Not a fast paced ready by an means, but there's no denying Edgar Cayce was a phenomenon.
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Islin Munisteri
Feb 12, 2011Islin Munisteri rated it it was amazing
I first read it in middle and it still has many recurrent themes, particularly the chapter on isolation and past emotional states and previous lives.
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Maria P
Aug 20, 2012Maria P rated it it was amazing
Very interesting book unlike the other book of edgar cayce I read are not so much irrelevant.
flag1 like · Like  · see review
AimeeWrites
Jan 10, 2013AimeeWrites rated it really liked it
Dated...very, very dated...but fascinating.
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Cynthia
Jun 05, 2013Cynthia rated it it was amazing
AWESOME
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Linda Anderson
Jan 29, 2016Linda Anderson rated it it was amazing
This book is amazing! All I have to say is...I need a life reading...I wonder if Edgar Cayce has reincarnated yet..,
flag1 like · Like  · see review
Priyanka
Mar 02, 2018Priyanka rated it it was amazing
Raised a Hindu, I have very early on accepted and deeply believe in reincarnation. To be provided validation for the same, was cherry on the cake. I often wondered about nature of Karma; why is it unfair and how it really works. This book gave me the answers. It helped erase lot of ambiguity and fear fed to me by religion. I'm grateful to have found this book at this point in my life.
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2020/09/14

불교언론-윤회는 불교적인가 - 법보신문

불교언론-윤회는 불교적인가 - 법보신문



윤회는 불교적인가

 이재형 국장 승인 2019.02.25

.

이달 초 출간된 ‘일묵 스님이 들려주는 초기불교 윤회 이야기’가 서점가에서 반향을 일으키고 있다. 교보문고와 예스24 등 대형서점에서 불교분야의 상위권에 링크돼 있으며, 이러한 흐름은 당분간 지속될 것 같다. 많은 이들이 궁금하게 여기는 윤회 문제를 초기경전에 근거해 세계의 구조, 업과 윤회의 관계, 죽음 직전의 모습과 재생연결, 윤회의 원리와 구조, 무아인데 윤회하는 이유 등을 쉽게 전달하기 때문이다.



윤회는 다음 세상에 좋은 곳에 태어났으면 하는 불자들에게도 그렇지만 불교학을 전공한 학자들에게도 초미의 관심사다. 본질이나 실체를 인정하지 않는 것이 불교의 무아론이기에 윤회하는 주체가 무엇인지를 두고 오랜 옛날부터 지금까지 논쟁과 해석이 끊이질 않는다.



초기불교 수행법을 전하는 제따와나선원장 일묵 스님은 책 서두에서 “윤회를 믿지 않는 불자가 의외로 많다. 심지어 윤회는 부처님의 가르침이 아니라고까지 말하는 불교학자나 스님들도 있었다”라고 말한다. 그리고는 “윤회를 부정하는 것은 불교를 부정하는 것이고, 그릇된 견해에 빠지는 것이다. 반면에 윤회를 이해하는 것은 불교를 아는 것이고 바른 견해를 갖춘 것이다”라며 윤회 중요성을 크게 강조한다.



일묵 스님이 언급하듯 불교계에서 윤회를 당연하게 받아들이지 않는 흐름은 꽤 일찍부터 있어왔다. 그 배경에는 윤회가 과학적으로 입증하기 어렵다는 사실과 함께 불교에 대한 다양한 연구와 분석이 이뤄진 영향이 적지 않다. 세계적인 불교학자였던 고 히라카와 아키라(1915~2002) 박사는 “석존의 불교는 윤회사상을 인정해야만 하는 종교는 아니었다. 물론 윤회사상과 모순되는 것은 없었다. 고통으로부터의 해탈이라는 것은, 생존이 윤회적이라면 그 윤회의 생존으로부터 해탈한다는 의미가 되기 때문에 윤회사상을 적극적으로 배격할 필요는 없었다”며 윤회가 불교의 핵심 사상이 아님을 시사했다. 연구자들에 따르면 윤회론은 인도 고유의 사상이 아니라 기원전 7세기를 전후해 본격화된 비(非)바라문적인 문화의 소산이다. 그런 윤회론이 인도문화에서 주류로 정착된 것은 철저한 신분제인 카스트 제도를 윤회론이 이론적으로 뒷받침해서다.



초기불교의 윤회사상을 잘 드러나는 ‘자타카’에서 붓다의 본생으로 제시된 547생들 간에는 전생과 후생의 인과관계가 성립하지 않으며 불교의 윤회론 목적이 보살행의 강조와 연관됐다는 분석이 있다. 정암 스님은 ‘문학 사학 철학’(통권 9호, 2007년)에서 “전생과 후생의 유기적 연관관계가 없는 윤회론이라면 그 윤회론적 의미가 과연 존재하는지에 관해 우리는 의문을 제기할 수 있게 된다”며 “이것은 붓다에게 있어서 수용된 윤회론이 인도문화에 있어서의 특수성을 고려한 방편이 아니었는가라는 추측을 가능하게 한다”고 말한다. 윤회론에 있어서 전생과 후생의 유기적 연관관계가 없다는 것은 윤회론의 실존 자체를 인정하지 않는 것과 상통되는 측면이 존재한다는 것이다.



윤회론에 대해 가장 비판적인 학자는 정세근 충북대 철학과 교수다. 그는 2008년 ‘윤회와 반윤회-그대는 힌두교도인가, 불교도인가?’라는 저술을 통해 ‘윤회는 신분차별을 공고히 하는 힌두교 것이고 불교는 이를 비판하고 극복한 것이므로 반윤회’라고 말한다. 힌두교는 전생의 내가 현생의 나를 규정하고 현생의 내가 다음생의 나를 규정한다고 하여 생을 거듭하는 나의 동일성[有我]을 주장하므로, 불교에서처럼 나라는 것을 부정하면 윤회의 근본이 무너진다. 이것이 곧 윤회의 근본인 자아를 부정한 무아의 깨달음, 즉 붓다의 깨달음이라는 것이 그의 주장이다.





이재형 국장

팔만대장경에는 윤회론을 옹호하거나 부정할 수 있는 내용과 해석의 여지가 많다. 그렇기에 윤회를 부정하면 불자가 아니라거나 반대로 윤회를 인정하면 힌두교도라는 주장은 과격하다. 그 같은 주장이 한쪽으로 쏠릴 경우 불교 철학적, 종교적, 윤리적, 문화적 측면을 크게 상실할 수 있다. 오히려 견해를 달리하는 이들이 한 자리에 모여 불교의 핵심사상에 부합하면서도 비불자도 긍정할 수 있는 현대적인 윤회사상의 재정립이 필요한 시기다.



mitra@beopbo.com







[1478 / 2019년 2월 27일자 / 법보신문 ‘세상을 바꾸는 불교의 힘’]

※ 이 기사를 응원해주세요 : 후원 ARS 060-707-1080, 한 통에 5000원

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:06더보기

불교의 믿음은 '지혜가 있는 믿음' 입니다.

무조건적인 믿음은 아닙니다.

먼저 받아들일 수 있는 부분부터 수용하고

차츰 지혜와 선정을 개발하다보면

윤회와 인과, 무아와 공성에 대해 실증적으로

알게되고 부처님 가르침에 대한 확신이 생길 것입니다.그리고 믿음이 없다하여도 단순히 교학적인

추론만 해보더라도 윤회를 부정하고는 불교의

핵심인 인과, 연기법, 사성제가 성립하기 어렵다는 걸

알 수 있습니다.

윤회와 인과의 가르침은 상좌부, 대승 막론하고 어느

부파에서건 강조하는 기본적인 가르침입니다 또한 실제 많은 수행자들이 숙명통의 경지를 체득하였으며 일반인들도 알 수있는 드러난 사례가 다수 존재합니다..

답글쓰기4 0

나그네 2019-03-04 21:06:37더보기

그런데,



일묵비구의 "무아의 윤회설,'

그 견해는

진정 모순된 설이다.



만약,

그 대목이 경전상에 기록되어 있다면,

그 설은,

붓다의 정설이 아니다.



무아의 경지란,

중생의 근본을 초탈한 경지이며,

불교수행의 궁극처인 Nirvana의 경지이며,

유위를 초탈한 무위의 경지이며

중생근본의 해탈 경지 인 것이다.

그리고

그 경지를 체득한자가

이제 남은 중생 삶을 마치면 돌아갈 본지이다.



헌데,

"무아의 윤회"를 거론하며

무아의 해석을 "일묵비구"식으로 왜곡해석하려는 것인가?

분명한 답을 해야할 것이다.

----. .

답글쓰기4 3

동의어렵죠 2019-02-27 12:31:02더보기

지금도 왕권불교는 남방불교 대부분 지역이 그렇지 않나요.

그러나 우리나라는 옛날에 벌써 불교라는 종교적 측면의 정치적 이데올로기도 벗어났나고 봅니다.

답글쓰기3 1

보리 2019-02-25 20:49:42더보기

부처님은 출생이 브라만을 결정하는 것이 아니라 행위가 브라만을 결정한다고 분명히 말씀하셨지요. 집배층에 의해 왜곡된 가르침이라고 불설도 무시하실건가요? 절대왕권사회에서는 불교 뿐 아니라 유교 도교 기독교 등 거의 모든 종교와 사상이 지배층의 입맛에따라 왜곡되었습니다. 오늘날같은 민주주의사회에서는 무아만을 논하다 막행막식하여 반윤리적 행동을 일삼고 깨달음과는 더욱 멀어지며 대중에게 지탄받는 부작용을 먼저 생각해야합니다

답글쓰기3 0

보리 2019-02-25 20:06:43더보기

힌두교와 불교는 윤회의 주체가 다릅니다. 힌두교는 영원불변한 아트만이라 하지만 불교는 끊임없이 변하는 의식의 흐름이라 하지 않던가요? 그래서 불교는 현생의 업도 중요시합니다. 부처님은 전생의 업 뿐만 아니라 현생에 어떤 업을 짓느냐에 따라 운명이 바뀔 수 있다고 하셨습니다. 기사에 의거한다면 정세근교수님 말씀은 불설을 면밀히 고찰하지 않은 주장같아 보입니다

답글쓰기3 0


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18.윤회는 부처님 가르침인가요


승인 2005.05.07 10:01
호수 152




갈애.무명 있으면 윤회는 계속돼 상응부 등 경전 ‘오도송’서도 언급Q:불교는 무아를 근본으로 하는 가르침이라고 합니다. 그러면서도 윤회를 강조합니다. 무아와 윤회는 상호 모순되는 가르침인 듯합니다. 어떻게 무아이면서 윤회합니까? 어떤 분은 부처님은 윤회를 설하지 않으셨다고도 하던데 … 설명을 부탁드립니다.A:먼저 힌두교에서 설명하는 윤회와 불교에서 설명하는 윤회를 정확하게 구분지어서 이해해야합니다. 힌두교에서는 불변하는 아뜨만(자아)이 있어서 금생에서 내생으로 ‘재육화(再肉化, reincarnation)’하는 것을 윤회라 하지만 불교에서는 금생의 흐름이 내생으로 연결되어 다시 태어나는 것, 즉 ‘재생(再生, rebirth)’을 윤회라고 부릅니다.주석서에서는 “5온/12처/18계(蘊處界)가 연속하고 끊임없이 전개되는 것을 윤회라 한다”고 정의합니다. 그러므로 불교에서 말하는 윤회는 서로서로 조건지워져서 생멸변천하고 천류(遷流)하는 일체법의 연기적 흐름을 뜻합니다. 이처럼 불교에서는 윤회의 주체가 없는(무아) 연기적 흐름을 윤회라고 멋지게 정의하고 있습니다. 윤회의 원어는 삼사라(sam+√sr, to move)인데 문자적으로는 ‘함께 움직이는 것, 함께 흘러가는 것’이라는 뜻입니다. 이것은 자아의 재육화보다는 오히려 연기적 흐름에 가까운 의미를 가지고 있습니다. 그러므로 무아(연기)와 윤회는 아무 모순이 없습니다. 근본적인 입장에서 보자면 매찰나 전개되는 오온의 생멸자체가 윤회입니다. 생사의 입장에서 보자면 한 생에서의 마지막 마음(死心)이 일어났다 멸하고, 이것을 조건으로 하여 다음 생의 재생연결식이 일어나는 것이 윤회입니다. 많은 불자들이 힌두교의 재육화와 불교의 재생을 정확하게 구분짓지 못하고 있어서 안타깝습니다. 힌두교의 재육화는 자아의 전변이지만 불교의 재생은 갈애를 근본원인으로 한 다시 태어남입니다.윤회는 〈상응부〉 여러 경에서 “무명에 덮인 중생들은 갈애에 속박되어 치달리고 윤회하므로 그 시작점을 꿰뚫어 알 수 없다”는 문맥 등 여러 곳에서 언급되고 있습니다. 그리고 부처님의 오도송이라고 알려진 “많은 생을 윤회하면서/ 나는 헛되이 치달려왔다./ 집짓는 자를 찾으면서/ 거듭되는 태어남은 괴로움이었다./ 집 짓는 자여, 마침내 그대는 보아졌구나./ 그대 다시는 집을 짓지 못하리./ 그대의 모든 골재들은 무너졌고/ 집의 서까래는 해체되었기 때문이다./ 이제 마음은 업형성을 멈추었고/ 갈애의 부서짐을 성취하였다.”(법구경 153-154)는 게송도 윤회와 윤회의 종식을 명쾌하게 밝히고 있습니다.이처럼 부처님께서는 분명히 윤회를 설하셨고, 갈애와 무명이 윤회의 원인이라고 밝히셨습니다. 그래서 부처님께서는 갈애(渴愛)를 ‘재생을 하게 하는 것(ponobhaavikaa)’이라고 정의하셨습니다. 갈애와 무명이 있는 한 윤회의 흐름은 계속됩니다. 이것을 우리는 생사윤회라 합니다. 물론 갈애로 대표되는 번뇌들이 다한 아라한에게는 더 이상 윤회는 없습니다. 그러나 그 외에는 불환과(아나함)까지도 다시 태어남 즉 윤회는 있습니다.윤회는 결코 방편설이 아닙니다. 갈애와 무명에 휩싸여 치달리고 흘러가는 중생들의 가장 생생한 모습입니다. 그러므로 윤회는 힌두교 개념이고 불교는 윤회를 인정하지 않는다는 잘못된 주장에 현혹되면 안 됩니다. 부처님께서는 윤회(苦)를 설하셨고, 윤회의 원인(集, 갈애)을 설하셨고, 윤회가 다한 경지(滅, 열반)를 설하셨고, 윤회가 다한 경지를 실현하는 방법(道, 팔정도)을 설하셨습니다. 그러므로 어설프게 ‘윤회는 없다, 부처님은 윤회를 설하지 않으셨다’고 주장해서는 곤란합니다.각묵스님/초기불전연구원 지도법사
저작권자 © 불교신문 무단전재 및 재배포 금지

Karma - Wikipedia

 

Karma - Wikipedia

Karma - Wikipedia

Karma

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Endless knot
Endless knot on Nepalese temple prayer wheel
Karma symbols such as endless knot (above) are common cultural motifs in Asia. Endless knots symbolize interlinking of cause and effect, a Karmic cycle that continues eternally. The endless knot is visible in the center of the prayer wheel.
Karma (/ˈkɑːrmə/Sanskritकर्मromanizedkarmaIPA: [ˈkɐɽmɐ] (About this soundlisten)Palikamma) means action, work or deed;[1] it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect).[2] Good intent and good deeds contribute to good karma and happier rebirths, while bad intent and bad deeds contribute to bad karma and bad rebirths.[3][4]
The philosophy of karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Indian religions (particularly HinduismBuddhismJainism and Sikhism[5]) as well as Taoism.[6] In these schools, karma in the present affects one's future in the current life, as well as the nature and quality of future lives – one's saṃsāra.[7][8]
Shrivatsa or the karmic knot depicted on the chest of the Tirthankara.

Definition

Karma as action and reaction: if we show goodness, we will reap goodness.
Karma is the executed "deed", "work", "action", or "act", and it is also the "object", the "intent". Wilhelm Halbfass[3] explains karma (karman) by contrasting it with another Sanskrit word kriya. The word kriya is the activity along with the steps and effort in action, while karma is (1) the executed action as a consequence of that activity, as well as (2) the intention of the actor behind an executed action or a planned action (described by some scholars[9] as metaphysical residue left in the actor). A good action creates good karma, as does good intent. A bad action creates bad karma, as does bad intent.[3]
Karma also refers to a conceptual principle that originated in India, often descriptively called the principle of karma, sometimes as the karma theory or the law of karma.[10] In the context of theory, karma is complex and difficult to define.[11] Different schools of Indologists derive different definitions for the karma concept from ancient Indian texts; their definition is some combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.[11][12] Other Indologists include in the definition of karma theory that which explains the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in past. These actions may be those in a person's current life, or, in some schools of Indian traditions, possibly actions in their past lives; furthermore, the consequences may result in current life, or a person's future lives.[11][13] The law of karma operates independent of any deity or any process of divine judgment.[14]
Difficulty in arriving at a definition of karma arises because of the diversity of views among the schools of Hinduism; some, for example, consider karma and rebirth linked and simultaneously essential, some consider karma but not rebirth essential, and a few discuss and conclude karma and rebirth to be flawed fiction.[15] Buddhism and Jainism have their own karma precepts. Thus karma has not one, but multiple definitions and different meanings.[16] It is a concept whose meaning, importance and scope varies between Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and other traditions that originated in India, and various schools in each of these traditions. O'Flaherty claims that, furthermore, there is an ongoing debate regarding whether karma is a theory, a model, a paradigm, a metaphor, or a metaphysical stance.[11]
Karma theory as a concept, across different Indian religious traditions, shares certain common themes: causality, ethicization and rebirth.

Causality

Lotus symbolically represents karma in many Asian traditions. A blooming lotus flower is one of the few flowers that simultaneously carries seeds inside itself while it blooms. Seed is symbolically seen as cause, the flower effect. Lotus is also considered as a reminder that one can grow, share good karma and remain unstained even in muddy circumstances.[17]
A common theme to theories of karma is its principle of causality.[10] One of the earliest association of karma to causality occurs in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad of Hinduism. For example, at 4.4.5–6, it states:
Now as a man is like this or like that,
according as he acts and according as he behaves, so will he be;
a man of good acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad;
he becomes pure by pure deeds, bad by bad deeds;

And here they say that a person consists of desires,
and as is his desire, so is his will;
and as is his will, so is his deed;
and whatever deed he does, that he will reap.
— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 7th Century BCE[18][19]
The relationship of karma to causality is a central motif in all schools of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist thought.[20] The theory of karma as causality holds that (1) executed actions of an individual affects the individual and the life he or she lives, and (2) the intentions of an individual affects the individual and the life he or she lives. Disinterested actions, or unintentional actions do not have the same positive or negative karmic effect, as interested and intentional actions. In Buddhism, for example, actions that are performed, or arise, or originate without any bad intent such as covetousness, are considered non-existent in karmic impact or neutral in influence to the individual.[21]
Another causality characteristic, shared by Karmic theories, is that like deeds lead to like effects. Thus good karma produces good effect on the actor, while bad karma produces bad effect. This effect may be material, moral or emotional — that is, one's karma affects one's happiness and unhappiness.[20] The effect of karma need not be immediate; the effect of karma can be later in one's current life, and in some schools it extends to future lives.[22]
The consequence or effects of one's karma can be described in two forms: phalas and samskaras. A phala (literally, fruit or result) is the visible or invisible effect that is typically immediate or within the current life. In contrast, samskaras are invisible effects, produced inside the actor because of the karma, transforming the agent and affecting his or her ability to be happy or unhappy in this life and future ones. The theory of karma is often presented in the context of samskaras.[20][23]
Karmic principle can be understood, suggests Karl Potter,[10][24] as a principle of psychology and habit. Karma seeds habits (vāsanā), and habits create the nature of man. Karma also seeds self perception, and perception influences how one experiences life events. Both habits and self perception affect the course of one's life. Breaking bad habits is not easy: it requires conscious karmic effort.[10][25] Thus psyche and habit, according to Potter[10] and others,[26] link karma to causality in ancient Indian literature. The idea of karma may be compared to the notion of a person's "character", as both are an assessment of the person and determined by that person's habitual thinking and acting.[8]

Karma and ethicization

The second theme common to karma theories is ethicization. This begins with the premise that every action has a consequence,[7] which will come to fruition in either this or a future life; thus, morally good acts will have positive consequences, whereas bad acts will produce negative results. An individual's present situation is thereby explained by reference to actions in his present or in previous lifetimes. Karma is not itself "reward and punishment", but the law that produces consequence.[27] Halbfass notes, good karma is considered as dharma and leads to punya (merit), while bad karma is considered adharma and leads to pāp (demerit, sin).[28]
Reichenbach suggests that the theories of karma are an ethical theory.[20] This is so because the ancient scholars of India linked intent and actual action to the merit, reward, demerit and punishment. A theory without ethical premise would be a pure causal relation; the merit or reward or demerit or punishment would be same regardless of the actor's intent. In ethics, one's intentions, attitudes and desires matter in the evaluation of one's action. Where the outcome is unintended, the moral responsibility for it is less on the actor, even though causal responsibility may be the same regardless.[20] A karma theory considers not only the action, but also actor's intentions, attitude, and desires before and during the action. The karma concept thus encourages each person to seek and live a moral life, as well as avoid an immoral life. The meaning and significance of karma is thus as a building block of an ethical theory.[29]

Rebirth

The third common theme of karma theories is the concept of reincarnation or the cycle of rebirths (saṃsāra).[7][30][31] Rebirth is a fundamental concept of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.[8] The concept has been intensely debated in ancient literature of India; with different schools of Indian religions considering the relevance of rebirth as either essential, or secondary, or unnecessary fiction.[15] Karma is a basic concept, rebirth is a derivative concept, so suggests Creel;[32] Karma is a fact, asserts Yamunacharya,[33] while reincarnation is a hypothesis; in contrast, Hiriyanna suggests[34] rebirth is a necessary corollary of karma.
Rebirth, or saṃsāra, is the concept that all life forms go through a cycle of reincarnation, that is a series of births and rebirths. The rebirths and consequent life may be in different realm, condition or form. The karma theories suggest that the realm, condition and form depends on the quality and quantity of karma.[35] In schools that believe in rebirth, every living being's soul transmigrates (recycles) after death, carrying the seeds of Karmic impulses from life just completed, into another life and lifetime of karmas.[7][36] This cycle continues indefinitely, except for those who consciously break this cycle by reaching moksa. Those who break the cycle reach the realm of gods, those who don't continue in the cycle.
The theory of "karma and rebirth" raises numerous questions—such as how, when, and why did the cycle start in the first place, what is the relative Karmic merit of one karma versus another and why, and what evidence is there that rebirth actually happens, among others. Various schools of Hinduism realized these difficulties, debated their own formulations, some reaching what they considered as internally consistent theories, while other schools modified and de-emphasized it, while a few schools in Hinduism such as Charvakas, Lokayatana abandoned "karma and rebirth" theory altogether.[3][37][38] Schools of Buddhism consider karma-rebirth cycle as integral to their theories of soteriology.[39][40]

Early development

The Vedic Sanskrit word kárman- (nominative kárma) means "work" or "deed",[41] often used in the context of Srauta rituals.[42] In the Rigveda, the word occurs some 40 times.[41] In Satapatha Brahmana 1.7.1.5, sacrifice is declared as the "greatest" of works; Satapatha Brahmana 10.1.4.1 associates the potential of becoming immortal (amara) with the karma of the agnicayana sacrifice.[41]
The earliest clear discussion of the karma doctrine is in the Upanishads.[7][41] For example, the causality and ethicization is stated in Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.2.13 ("Truly, one becomes good through good deeds, and evil through evil deeds.")[7][41][43]
Some authors[44] state that the samsara (transmigration) and karma doctrine may be non-Vedic, and the ideas may have developed in the "shramana" traditions that preceded Buddhism and Jainism. Others[11][45] state that some of the complex ideas of the ancient emerging theory of karma flowed from Vedic thinkers to Buddhist and Jain thinkers. The mutual influences between the traditions is unclear, and likely co-developed.[46]
Many philosophical debates surrounding the concept are shared by the Hindu, Jain and Buddhist traditions, and the early developments in each tradition incorporated different novel ideas.[47] For example, Buddhists allowed karma transfer from one person to another and sraddha rites, but had difficulty defending the rationale.[47][48] In contrast, Hindu schools and Jainism would not allow the possibility of karma transfer.[49][50]

In Hinduism

The concept of karma in Hinduism developed and evolved over centuries. The earliest Upanishads began with the questions about how and why man is born, and what happens after death. As answers to the latter, the early theories in these ancient Sanskrit documents include pancagni vidya (the five fire doctrine), pitryana (the cyclic path of fathers) and devayana (the cycle-transcending, path of the gods).[51] Those who do superficial rituals and seek material gain, claimed these ancient scholars, travel the way of their fathers and recycle back into another life; those who renounce these, go into the forest and pursue spiritual knowledge, were claimed to climb into the higher path of the gods. It is these who break the cycle and are not reborn.[52] With the composition of the Epics – the common man's introduction to Dharma in Hinduism – the ideas of causality and essential elements of the theory of karma were being recited in folk stories. For example:
As a man himself sows, so he himself reaps; no man inherits the good or evil act of another man. The fruit is of the same quality as the action.
— Mahabharata, xii.291.22[53]
In the thirteenth book of the Mahabharata, also called the Teaching Book (Anushasana Parva), sixth chapter opens with Yudhishthira asking Bhishma: "Is the course of a person's life already destined, or can human effort shape one's life?"[54] The future, replies Bhishma, is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.[55] Over and over again, the chapters of Mahabharata recite the key postulates of karma theory. That is: intent and action (karma) has consequences; karma lingers and doesn't disappear; and, all positive or negative experiences in life require effort and intent.[56] For example:
Happiness comes due to good actions, suffering results from evil actions,
by actions, all things are obtained, by inaction, nothing whatsoever is enjoyed.
If one's action bore no fruit, then everything would be of no avail,
if the world worked from fate alone, it would be neutralized.
— Mahabharata, xiii.6.10 & 19[57]
Over time, various schools of Hinduism developed many different definitions of karma, some making karma appear quite deterministic, while others make room for free will and moral agency.[58] Among the six most studied schools of Hinduism, the theory of karma evolved in different ways, as their respective scholars reasoned and attempted to address the internal inconsistencies, implications and issues of the karma doctrine. According to Halbfass,[3]
  • The Nyaya school of Hinduism considers karma and rebirth as central, with some Nyaya scholars such as Udayana suggesting that the Karma doctrine implies that God exists.[59]
  • The Vaisesika school does not consider the karma from past lives doctrine very important.
  • The Samkhya school considers karma to be of secondary importance (prakrti is primary).
  • The Mimamsa school gives a negligible role to karma from past lives, disregards samsara and moksa.[60]
  • The Yoga school considers karma from past lives to be secondary, one's behavior and psychology in the current life is what has consequences and leads to entanglements.[52]
  • According to Professor Wilhelm Halbfass, the Vedanta school acknowledges the karma-rebirth doctrine, but concludes it is a theory that is not derived from reality and cannot be proven, considers it invalid for its failure to explain evil / inequality / other observable facts about society, treats it as a convenient fiction to solve practical problems in Upanishadic times, and declares it irrelevant.[ambiguous][additional citation(s) needed] In the Advaita Vedanta school, actions in current life have moral consequences and liberation is possible within one's life as jivanmukti (self-realized person).[3]
The above six schools illustrate the diversity of views, but are not exhaustive. Each school has sub-schools in Hinduism, such as Vedanta school's nondualism and dualism sub-schools. Furthermore, there are other schools of Hinduism such as Charvaka, Lokayata (the materialists) who denied the theory of karma-rebirth as well as the existence of God; to this school of Hindus, the properties of things come from the nature of things. Causality emerges from the interaction, actions and nature of things and people, determinative principles such as karma or God are unnecessary.[61][62]

In Buddhism

Karma and karmaphala are fundamental concepts in Buddhism.[63][64] The concepts of karma and karmaphala explain how our intentional actions keep us tied to rebirth in samsara, whereas the Buddhist path, as exemplified in the Noble Eightfold Path, shows us the way out of samsara.[65][66] Karmaphala is the "fruit",[67][68][69] "effect"[70] or "result"[71] of karma. A similar term is karmavipaka, the "maturation"[72] or "cooking"[73] of karma.[68][note 1] The cycle of rebirth is determined by karma,[74] literally "action".[note 2] In the Buddhist tradition, karma refers to actions driven by intention (cetanā),[80][81][69][note 3] a deed done deliberately through body, speech or mind, which leads to future consequences.[84] The Nibbedhika SuttaAnguttara Nikaya 6.63:
Intention (cetana) I tell you, is kamma. Intending, one does kamma by way of body, speech, & intellect.[85][note 4]
How these intentional actions lead to rebirth, and how the idea of rebirth is to be reconciled with the doctrines of impermanence and no-self,[87][note 5] is a matter of philosophical inquiry in the Buddhist traditions, for which several solutions have been proposed.[74] In early Buddhism no explicit theory of rebirth and karma is worked out,[77] and "the karma doctrine may have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology."[78][79] In early Buddhism, rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance.[75][76] The Buddha's teaching of karma is not strictly deterministic, but incorporated circumstantial factors, unlike that of the Jains.[88][89][note 6] It is not a rigid and mechanical process, but a flexible, fluid and dynamic process.[90] There is no set linear relationship between a particular action and its results.[89] The karmic effect of a deed is not determined solely by the deed itself, but also by the nature of the person who commits the deed, and by the circumstances in which it is committed.[91][89] Karmaphala is not a "judgement" enforced by a God, Deity or other supernatural being that controls the affairs of the Cosmos. Rather, karmaphala is the outcome of a natural process of cause and effect.[note 7] Within Buddhism, the real importance of the doctrine of karma and its fruits lies in the recognition of the urgency to put a stop to the whole process.[93][94] The Acintita Sutta warns that "the results of kamma" is one of the four incomprehensible subjects,[95][96] subjects that are beyond all conceptualization[95] and cannot be understood with logical thought or reason.[note 8] Nichiren Buddhism teaches that transformation and change through faith and practice changes adverse karma—negative causes made in the past that result in negative results in the present and future—to positive causes for benefits in the future.[101]

In Jainism

Types of Karmas as per Jain philosophy
In Jainism, karma conveys a totally different meaning from that commonly understood in Hindu philosophy and western civilization.[102] Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that completely separates body (matter) from the soul (pure consciousness).[103] In Jainism, karma is referred to as karmic dirt, as it consists of very subtle particles of matter that pervade the entire universe.[104] Karmas are attracted to the karmic field of a soul due to vibrations created by activities of mind, speech, and body as well as various mental dispositions. Hence the karmas are the subtle matter surrounding the consciousness of a soul. When these two components (consciousness and karma) interact, we experience the life we know at present. Jain texts expound that seven tattvas (truths or fundamentals) constitute reality. These are:[105]
  1. Jīva- the soul which is characterized by consciousness
  2. Ajīva- the non-soul
  3. Āsrava- inflow of auspicious and evil karmic matter into the soul.
  4. Bandha (bondage)- mutual intermingling of the soul and karmas.
  5. Samvara (stoppage)- obstruction of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul.
  6. Nirjara (gradual dissociation)- separation or falling off of part of karmic matter from the soul.
  7. Mokṣha (liberation)- complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with any particular soul).
According to Padmanabh Jaini,
This emphasis on reaping the fruits only of one's own karma was not restricted to the Jainas; both Hindus and Buddhist writers have produced doctrinal materials stressing the same point. Each of the latter traditions, however, developed practices in basic contradiction to such belief. In addition to shrardha (the ritual Hindu offerings by the son of deceased), we find among Hindus widespread adherence to the notion of divine intervention in ones fate, while Buddhists eventually came to propound such theories like boon-granting bodhisattvas, transfer of merit and like. Only Jainas have been absolutely unwilling to allow such ideas to penetrate their community, despite the fact that there must have been tremendous amount of social pressure on them to do so.[106]
The relationship between the soul and karma, states Padmanabh Jaini, can be explained with the analogy of gold. Like gold is always found mixed with impurities in its original state, Jainism holds that the soul is not pure at its origin but is always impure and defiled like natural gold. One can exert effort and purify gold, similarly, Jainism states that the defiled soul can be purified by proper refining methodology.[107] Karma either defiles the soul further, or refines it to a cleaner state, and this affects future rebirths.[108] Karma is thus an efficient cause (nimitta) in Jain philosophy, but not the material cause (upadana). The soul is believed to be the material cause.[109]
The key points where the theory of karma in Jainism can be stated as follows:
  1. Karma operates as a self-sustaining mechanism as natural universal law, without any need of an external entity to manage them. (absence of the exogenous "Divine Entity" in Jainism)
  2. Jainism advocates that a soul attracts karmic matter even with the thoughts, and not just the actions. Thus, to even think evil of someone would endure a karma-bandha or an increment in bad karma. For this reason, Jainism emphasise on developing Ratnatraya (The Three Jewels): samyak darśana (Right Faith), samyak jnāna (Right Knowledge) and samyak charitra (Right Conduct).
  3. In Jain theology, a soul is released of worldly affairs as soon as it is able to emancipate from the "karma-bandha".[110] In Jainism, nirvana and moksha are used interchangeably. Nirvana represents annihilation of all karmas by an individual soul and moksha represents the perfect blissful state (free from all bondage). In the presence of a Tirthankara, a soul can attain Kevala Jnana (omniscience) and subsequently nirvana, without any need of intervention by the Tirthankara.[110]
  4. The karmic theory in Jainism operates endogenously. Even the Tirthankaras themselves have to go through the stages of emancipation, for attaining that state.
  5. Jainism treats all souls equally, inasmuch as it advocates that all souls have the same potential of attaining nirvana. Only those who make effort, really attain it, but nonetheless, each soul is capable on its own to do so by gradually reducing its karma.[111]

Reception in other traditions

Sikhism

In Sikhism, all living beings are described as being under the influence of maya's three qualities. Always present together in varying mix and degrees, these three qualities of maya bind the soul to the body and to the earth plane. Above these three qualities is the eternal time. Due to the influence of three modes of maya's nature, jivas (individual beings) perform activities under the control and purview of the eternal time. These activities are called "karma". The underlying principle is that karma is the law that brings back the results of actions to the person performing them.
This life is likened to a field in which our karma is the seed. We harvest exactly what we sow; no less, no more. This infallible law of karma holds everyone responsible for what the person is or is going to be. Based on the total sum of past karma, some feel close to the Pure Being in this life and others feel separated. This is the Gurbani's (Sri Guru Granth Sahib) law of karma. Like other Indian and oriental schools of thought, the Gurbani also accepts the doctrines of karma and reincarnation as the facts of nature.[112]

Shinto

Interpreted as musubi, a view of karma is recognized in Shinto as a means of enriching, empowering and life affirming.[113]

Taoism

Karma is an important concept in Taoism. Every deed is tracked by deities and spirits. Appropriate rewards or retribution follow karma, just like a shadow follows a person.[6]
The karma doctrine of Taoism developed in three stages.[114] In the first stage, causality between actions and consequences was adopted, with supernatural beings keeping track of everyone's karma and assigning fate (ming). In the second phase, transferability of karma ideas from Chinese Buddhism were expanded, and a transfer or inheritance of Karmic fate from ancestors to one's current life was introduced. In the third stage of karma doctrine development, ideas of rebirth based on karma were added. One could be reborn either as another human being or another animal, according to this belief. In the third stage, additional ideas were introduced; for example, rituals, repentance and offerings at Taoist temples were encouraged as it could alleviate Karmic burden.[114][115]

Falun Gong

David Ownby, a scholar of Chinese history at the University of Montreal,[116] asserts that Falun Gong differs from Buddhism in its definition of the term "karma" in that it is taken not as a process of award and punishment, but as an exclusively negative term. The Chinese term "de" or "virtue" is reserved for what might otherwise be termed "good karma" in Buddhism. Karma is understood as the source of all suffering – what Buddhism might refer to as "bad karma". Li says, "A person has done bad things over his many lifetimes, and for people this results in misfortune, or for cultivators it's karmic obstacles, so there's birth, aging, sickness, and death. This is ordinary karma."[117]
Falun Gong teaches that the spirit is locked in the cycle of rebirth, also known as samsara,[118] due to the accumulation of karma.[119] This is a negative, black substance that accumulates in other dimensions lifetime after lifetime, by doing bad deeds and thinking bad thoughts. Falun Gong states that karma is the reason for suffering, and what ultimately blocks people from the truth of the universe and attaining enlightenment. At the same time, karma is also the cause of one's continued rebirth and suffering.[119] Li says that due to accumulation of karma the human spirit upon death will reincarnate over and over again, until the karma is paid off or eliminated through cultivation, or the person is destroyed due to the bad deeds he has done.[119]
Ownby regards the concept of karma as a cornerstone to individual moral behaviour in Falun Gong, and also readily traceable to the Christian doctrine of "one reaps what one sows". Others say Matthew 5:44 means no unbeliever will not fully reap what they sow until they are judged by God after death in Hell. Ownby says Falun Gong is differentiated by a "system of transmigration", although, "in which each organism is the reincarnation of a previous life form, its current form having been determined by karmic calculation of the moral qualities of the previous lives lived." Ownby says the seeming unfairness of manifest inequities can then be explained, at the same time allowing a space for moral behaviour in spite of them.[117] In the same vein of Li's monism, matter and spirit are one, karma is identified as a black substance which must be purged in the process of cultivation.[117]
Li says that "Human beings all fell here from the many dimensions of the universe. They no longer met the requirements of the Fa at their given levels in the universe, and thus had to drop down. Just as we have said before, the heavier one's mortal attachments, the further down one drops, with the descent continuing until one arrives at the state of ordinary human beings." He says that in the eyes of higher beings, the purpose of human life is not merely to be human, but to awaken quickly on Earth, a "setting of delusion", and return. "That is what they really have in mind; they are opening a door for you. Those who fail to return will have no choice but to reincarnate, with this continuing until they amass a huge amount of karma and are destroyed."[120]
Ownby regards this as the basis for Falun Gong's apparent "opposition to practitioners' taking medicine when ill; they are missing an opportunity to work off karma by allowing an illness to run its course (suffering depletes karma) or to fight the illness through cultivation." Benjamin Penny shares this interpretation. Since Li believes that "karma is the primary factor that causes sickness in people", Penny asks: "if disease comes from karma and karma can be eradicated through cultivation of xinxing, then what good will medicine do?"[121] Li himself states that he is not forbidding practitioners from taking medicine, maintaining that "What I'm doing is telling people the relationship between practicing cultivation and medicine-taking". Li also states that "An everyday person needs to take medicine when he gets sick."[122] Schechter quotes a Falun Gong student who says "It is always an individual choice whether one should take medicine or not."[123]

Discussion

Free will and destiny

One of the significant controversies with the karma doctrine is whether it always implies destiny, and its implications on free will. This controversy is also referred to as the moral agency problem;[124] the controversy is not unique to karma doctrine, but also found in some form in monotheistic religions.[125]
The free will controversy can be outlined in three parts:[124] (1) A person who kills, rapes or commits any other unjust act, can claim all his bad actions were a product of his karma: he is devoid of free will, he can not make a choice, he is an agent of karma, and he merely delivers necessary punishments his "wicked" victims deserved for their own karma in past lives. Are crimes and unjust actions due to free will, or because of forces of karma? (2) Does a person who suffers from the unnatural death of a loved one, or rape or any other unjust act, assume a moral agent is responsible, that the harm is gratuitous, and therefore seek justice? Or, should one blame oneself for bad karma over past lives, and assume that the unjust suffering is fate? (3) Does the karma doctrine undermine the incentive for moral education—because all suffering is deserved and consequence of past lives, why learn anything when the balance sheet of karma from past lives will determine one's action and sufferings?[126]
The explanations and replies to the above free will problem vary by the specific school of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The schools of Hinduism, such as Yoga and Advaita Vedanta, that have emphasized current life over the dynamics of karma residue moving across past lives, allow free will.[127] Their argument, as well of other schools, are threefold: (1) The theory of karma includes both the action and the intent behind that action. Not only is one affected by past karma, one creates new karma whenever one acts with intent – good or bad. If intent and act can be proven beyond reasonable doubt, new karma can be proven, and the process of justice can proceed against this new karma. The actor who kills, rapes or commits any other unjust act, must be considered as the moral agent for this new karma, and tried. (2) Life forms not only receive and reap the consequence of their past karma, together they are the means to initiate, evaluate, judge, give and deliver consequence of karma to others. (3) Karma is a theory that explains some evils, not all (see moral evil versus natural evil).[128][129]
Other schools of Hinduism, as well as Buddhism and Jainism that do consider cycle of rebirths central to their beliefs and that karma from past lives affects one's present, believe that both free will (Cetanā) and karma can co-exist; however, their answers have not persuaded all scholars.[124][129]

Psychological indeterminacy

Another issue with the theory of karma is that it is psychologically indeterminate, suggests Obeyesekere.[130] That is, if no one can know what their karma was in previous lives, and if the karma from past lives can determine one's future, then the individual is psychologically unclear what if anything he or she can do now to shape the future, be more happy, or reduce suffering. If something goes wrong, such as sickness or failure at work, the individual is unclear if karma from past lives was the cause, or the sickness was caused by curable infection and the failure was caused by something correctable.[130]
This psychological indeterminacy problem is also not unique to the theory of karma; it is found in every religion adopting the premise that God has a plan, or in some way influences human events. As with the karma-and-free-will problem above, schools that insist on primacy of rebirths face the most controversy. Their answers to the psychological indeterminacy issue are the same as those for addressing the free will problem.[129]

Transferability

Some schools of Asian religions, particularly Popular Theravada Buddhism, allow transfer of karma merit and demerit from one person to another. This transfer is an exchange of non-physical quality just like an exchange of physical goods between two human beings. The practice of karma transfer, or even its possibility, is controversial.[131][132] Karma transfer raises questions similar to those with substitutionary atonement and vicarious punishment. It defeats the ethical foundations, and dissociates the causality and ethicization in the theory of karma from the moral agent. Proponents of some Buddhist schools suggest that the concept of karma merit transfer encourages religious giving, and such transfers are not a mechanism to transfer bad karma (i.e., demerit) from one person to another.
In Hinduism, Sraddha rites during funerals have been labelled as karma merit transfer ceremonies by a few scholars, a claim disputed by others.[133] Other schools in Hinduism, such as the Yoga and Advaita Vedantic philosophies, and Jainism hold that karma can not be transferred.[11][134]

The problem of evil

There has been an ongoing debate about karma theory and how it answers the problem of evil and related problem of theodicy. The problem of evil is a significant question debated in monotheistic religions with two beliefs:[135] (1) There is one God who is absolutely good and compassionate (omnibenevolent), and (2) That one God knows absolutely everything (omniscient) and is all powerful (omnipotent). The problem of evil is then stated in formulations such as, "why does the omnibenevolent, omniscient and omnipotent God allow any evil and suffering to exist in the world?" Max Weber extended the problem of evil to Eastern traditions.[136]
The problem of evil, in the context of karma, has been long discussed in Eastern traditions, both in theistic and non-theistic schools; for example, in Uttara Mīmāṃsā Sutras Book 2 Chapter 1;[137][138] the 8th century arguments by Adi Sankara in Brahmasutrabhasya where he posits that God cannot reasonably be the cause of the world because there exists moral evil, inequality, cruelty and suffering in the world;[139][140] and the 11th century theodicy discussion by Ramanuja in Sribhasya.[141] Epics such as the Mahabharata, for example, suggests three prevailing theories in ancient India as to why good and evil exists – one being that everything is ordained by God, another being karma, and a third citing chance events (yadrccha, यदृच्छा).[142][143] The Mahabharata, which includes Hindu deity Vishnu in the form of Krishna as one of the central characters in the Epic, debates the nature and existence of suffering from these three perspectives, and includes a theory of suffering as arising from an interplay of chance events (such as floods and other events of nature), circumstances created by past human actions, and the current desires, volitions, dharma, adharma and current actions (purusakara) of people.[142][144][145] However, while karma theory in the Mahabharata presents alternative perspectives on the problem of evil and suffering, it offers no conclusive answer.[142][146]
Other scholars[147] suggest that nontheistic Indian religious traditions do not assume an omnibenevolent creator, and some[148] theistic schools do not define or characterize their God(s) as monotheistic Western religions do and the deities have colorful, complex personalities; the Indian deities are personal and cosmic facilitators, and in some schools conceptualized like Plato's Demiurge.[141] Therefore, the problem of theodicy in many schools of major Indian religions is not significant, or at least is of a different nature than in Western religions.[149] Many Indian religions place greater emphasis on developing the karma principle for first cause and innate justice with Man as focus, rather than developing religious principles with the nature and powers of God and divine judgment as focus.[150] Some scholars, particularly of the Nyaya school of Hinduism and Sankara in Brahmasutra bhasya, have posited that karma doctrine implies existence of god, who administers and affects the person's environment given that person's karma, but then acknowledge that it makes karma as violable, contingent and unable to address the problem of evil.[151] Arthur Herman states that karma-transmigration theory solves all three historical formulations to the problem of evil while acknowledging the theodicy insights of Sankara and Ramanuja.[152]
Some theistic Indian religions, such as Sikhism, suggest evil and suffering are a human phenomenon and arises from the karma of individuals.[153] In other theistic schools such as those in Hinduism, particularly its Nyaya school, karma is combined with dharma and evil is explained as arising from human actions and intent that is in conflict with dharma.[141] In nontheistic religions such as Buddhism, Jainism and the Mimamsa school of Hinduism, karma theory is used to explain the cause of evil as well as to offer distinct ways to avoid or be unaffected by evil in the world.[139]
Those schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism that rely on karma-rebirth theory have been critiqued for their theological explanation of suffering in children by birth, as the result of his or her sins in a past life.[154] Others disagree, and consider the critique as flawed and a misunderstanding of the karma theory.[155]

Comparable concepts

It Shoots Further Than He Dreams by John F. Knott, March 1918.
Western culture, influenced by Christianity,[5] holds a notion similar to karma, as demonstrated in the phrase "what goes around comes around".

Christianity

Mary Jo Meadow suggests karma is akin to "Christian notions of sin and its effects."[156] She states that the Christian teaching on a Last Judgment according to one's charity is a teaching on karma.[156] Christianity also teaches morals such as one reaps what one sows (Galatians 6:7) and live by the sword, die by the sword (Matthew 26:52).[157] Most scholars, however, consider the concept of Last Judgment as different from karma, with karma as an ongoing process that occurs every day in one's life, while Last Judgment, by contrast, is a one-time review at the end of life.[158]

Judaism

There is a concept in Judaism called in Hebrew midah k'neged midah, which literally translates to "value against value," but carries the same connotation as the English phrase "measure for measure." The concept is used not so much in matters of law, but rather, in matters of ethics, i.e. how one's actions affects the world will eventually come back to that person in ways one might not necessarily expect. David Wolpe compared midah k'neged midah to karma.[159]

Psychoanalysis

Jung once opined on unresolved emotions and the synchronicity of karma;
When an inner situation is not made conscious, it appears outside as fate.[160]
Popular methods for negating cognitive dissonance include meditationmetacognitioncounsellingpsychoanalysis, etc., whose aim is to enhance emotional self-awareness and thus avoid negative karma. This results in better emotional hygiene and reduced karmic impacts.[161] Permanent neuronal changes within the amygdala and left prefrontal cortex of the human brain attributed to long-term meditation and metacognition techniques have been proven scientifically.[162] This process of emotional maturation aspires to a goal of Individuation or self-actualisation. Such peak experiences are hypothetically devoid of any karma (nirvana or moksha).

Theosophy, Spiritism, New Age

The idea of karma was popularized in the Western world through the work of the Theosophical Society. In this conception, karma was a precursor to the Neopagan law of return or Threefold Law, the idea that the beneficial or harmful effects one has on the world will return to oneself. Colloquially this may be summed up as 'what goes around comes around.'
The Theosophist I. K. Taimni wrote, "Karma is nothing but the Law of Cause and Effect operating in the realm of human life and bringing about adjustments between an individual and other individuals whom he has affected by his thoughts, emotions and actions."[163] Theosophy also teaches that when humans reincarnate they come back as humans only, not as animals or other organisms.[164]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Keown: "The remote effects of karmic choices are referred to as the 'maturation' (vipāka) or 'fruit' (phala) of the karmic act."[68]
  2. ^ In early Buddhism rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance,[75][76] and the theory of karma may have been of minor importance in early Buddhist soteriology.[77][78][79]
  3. ^ Rupert Gethin: "[Karma is] a being's intentional 'actions' of body, speech, and mind—whatever is done, said, or even just thought with definite intention or volition";[82] "[a]t root karma or 'action' is considered a mental act or intention; it is an aspect of our mental life: 'It is "intention" that I call karma; having formed the intention, one performs acts (karma) by body, speech and mind.'"[83]
  4. ^ There are many different translation of the above quote into English. For example, Peter Harvey translates the quote as follows: "It is will (cetana), O monks, that I call karma; having willed, one acts through body, speech, and mind." (A.III.415).[86]
  5. ^ Dargray: "When [the Buddhist] understanding of karma is correlated to the Buddhist doctrine of universal impermanence and No-Self, a serious problem arises as to where this trace is stored and what the trace left is. The problem is aggravated when the trace remains latent over a long period, perhaps over a period of many existences. The crucial problem presented to all schools of Buddhist philosophy was where the trace is stored and how it can remain in the ever-changing stream of phenomena which build up the individual and what the nature of this trace is."[87]
  6. ^ Bhikkhu Thanissaro: "Unlike the theory of linear causality — which led the Vedists and Jains to see the relationship between an act and its result as predictable and tit-for-tat — the principle of this/that conditionality makes that relationship inherently complex. The results of kamma ("kamma" is the Pali spelling for the word "karma") experienced at any one point in time come not only from past kamma, but also from present kamma. This means that, although there are general patterns relating habitual acts to corresponding results [MN 135], there is no set one-for-one, tit-for-tat, relationship between a particular action and its results. Instead, the results are determined by the context of the act, both in terms of actions that preceded or followed it [MN 136] and in terms one's state of mind at the time of acting or experiencing the result [AN 3:99]. [...] The feedback loops inherent in this/that conditionality mean that the working out of any particular cause-effect relationship can be very complex indeed. This explains why the Buddha says in AN 4:77 that the results of kamma are imponderable. Only a person who has developed the mental range of a Buddha—another imponderable itself—would be able to trace the intricacies of the kammic network. The basic premise of kamma is simple—that skillful intentions lead to favorable results, and unskillful ones to unfavorable results—but the process by which those results work themselves out is so intricate that it cannot be fully mapped. We can compare this with the Mandelbrot set, a mathematical set generated by a simple equation, but whose graph is so complex that it will probably never be completely explored."[89]
  7. ^ Khandro Rinpoche: "Buddhism is a nontheistic philosophy. We do not believe in a creator but in the causes and conditions that create certain circumstances that then come to fruition. This is called karma. It has nothing to do with judgement; there is no one keeping track of our karma and sending us up above or down below. Karma is simply the wholeness of a cause, or first action, and its effect, or fruition, which then becomes another cause. In fact, one karmic cause can have many fruitions, all of which can cause thousands more creations. Just as a handful of seed can ripen into a full field of grain, a small amount of karma can generate limitless effects."[92]
  8. ^ Dasgupta explains that in Indian philosophy, acintya is "that which is to be unavoidably accepted for explaining facts, but which cannot stand the scrutiny of logic."[97] See also the Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta "Discourse to Vatsagotra on the [Simile of] Fire," Majjhima Nikaya 72,[98][99] in which the Buddha is questioned by Vatsagotra on the "ten indeterminate question,"[98]and the Buddha explains that a Tathagata is like a fire that has been extinguished, and is "deep, boundless, hard to fathom, like the sea".[100]

References

Citations

  1. ^ See:
    • Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, New York, pp 679–680, Article on Karma; Quote – "Karma meaning deed or action; in addition, it also has philosophical and technical meaning, denoting a person's deeds as determining his future lot."
    • The Encyclopedia of World Religions, Robert Ellwood & Gregory Alles, ISBN 978-0-8160-6141-9, pp 253; Quote – "Karma: Sanskrit word meaning action and the consequences of action."
    • Hans Torwesten (1994), Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0802132628, Grove Press New York, pp 97; Quote – "In the Vedas the word karma (work, deed or action, and its resulting effect) referred mainly to..."
  2. ^ Karma Encyclopædia Britannica (2012)
  3. Jump up to:a b c d e f Halbfass, Wilhelm (2000), Karma und Wiedergeburt im indischen Denken, Diederichs, München, Germany
  4. ^ Lawrence C. Becker & Charlotte B. Becker, Encyclopedia of Ethics, 2nd Edition, ISBN 0-415-93672-1, Hindu Ethics, pp 678
  5. Jump up to:a b Parvesh Singla. The Manual of Life – Karma. Parvesh singla. pp. 5–7. GGKEY:0XFSARN29ZZ. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
  6. Jump up to:a b Eva Wong, Taoism, Shambhala Publications, ISBN 978-1590308820, pp. 193
  7. Jump up to:a b c d e f "Karma" in: John Bowker (1997), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press.
  8. Jump up to:a b c James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp 351–352
  9. ^ Julius Lipner (2010), Hindus: Their religious beliefs and practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, pp 261–262
  10. Jump up to:a b c d e Karl Potter (1964), The Naturalistic Principle of Karma, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Apr. 1964), pp. 39–49
  11. Jump up to:a b c d e f Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, pp xi–xxv (Introduction)
  12. ^ Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, pp 3–37
  13. ^ Karl Potter (1980), in Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions (O'Flaherty, Editor), University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, pp 241–267
  14. ^ See:
    • For Hinduism view: Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0884899976, pp. 47;
    • For Buddhism view: Khandro Rinpoche (2003), This Precious Life, Shambhala, pp. 95
  15. Jump up to:a b see:
    • Kaufman, W. R. (2005), Karma, rebirth, and the problem of evil, Philosophy East and West, pp 15–32;
    • Sharma, A. (1996), On the distinction between Karma and Rebirth in Hinduism, Asian Philosophy, 6(1), pp 29–35;
    • Bhattacharya, R. (2012), Svabhāvavāda and the Cārvāka/Lokāyata: A Historical Overview, Journal of Indian Philosophy, 40(6), pp 593–614
  16. ^ Harold Coward (2003), Encyclopedia of Science of Religion, MacMillan Reference, ISBN 978-0028657042, see article on Karma
  17. ^ Maria I. Macioti, The Buddha Within Ourselves: Blossoms of the Lotus Sutra, Translator: Richard Maurice Capozzi, ISBN 978-0761821892, pp 69–70
  18. ^ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5–6 Berkley Center for Religion Peace & World Affairs, Georgetown University (2012)
  19. ^ The words "deed", "acts" above are rendered from karma; see Brihadaranyaka James Black, Original Sanskrit & Muller Oxford English Translations, University of Wisconsin, United States (2011)
  20. Jump up to:a b c d e Bruce R. Reichenbach, The Law of Karma and the Principle of Causation, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Oct. 1988), pp. 399–410
  21. ^ Anguttara-Nikaya 3.4.33, Translator: Henry Warren (1962), Buddhism in Translations, Atheneum Publications, New York, pp 216–217
  22. ^ see:
    • James McDermott, Karma and Rebirth in Early Buddhism, in Editor: Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, pp 165–192
    • Padmanabh Jaini, Karma and the problem of rebirth in Jainism, in Editor: Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, pp 217–239
    • Ludo Rocher, Karma and Rebirth in the Dharmasastras, in Editor: Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, pp 61–89
  23. ^ Damien Keown (1996), Karma, character, and consequentialism, The Journal of Religious Ethics, pp 329–350.
  24. ^ Karl Potter's suggestion is supported by the Bhagavad-Gita, which links good bondage and bad bondage to good habits and bad habits respectively. It also lists various types of habits – such as good (sattva), passion (rajas) and indifferent (tamas) – while explaining karma. See the cited Potter reference; elsewhere, in Yoga Sutras, the role of karma to creating habits is explained with Vāsanās – see Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York, ISBN 0-7914-3816-3, Chapter 3, particularly pp 102–105
  25. ^ Ian Whicher (1998), The final stages of purification in classical yoga, Asian Philosophy, 8(2), pp 85–102
  26. ^ Harold Coward (1983), "Psychology and Karma", Philosophy East and West 33 (Jan): 49–60.
  27. ^ Francis X. Clooney, Evil, Divine Omnipotence, and Human Freedom: Vedānta's Theology of Karma, The Journal of Religion, Vol. 69, No. 4 (Oct. 1989), pp. 530–548
  28. ^ Wilhelm Halbfass (1998), Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, London, see article on Karma and Rebirth (Indian Conceptions)
  29. ^ see:
    • James Hastings et al. (1915), Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (Hymns-Liberty), Volume VII, Article on Jainism, pp 469–471;
    • Chapple, Christopher (1975), Karma and the path of purification, in Virginia Hanson et al. (Editors) – Karma: Rhythmic Return to Harmony, ISBN 978-0835606639, Chapter 23;
    • Krishan, Y. (1988), The Vedic origins of the doctrine of karma, South Asian Studies, 4(1), pp 51–55
  30. ^ Obeyesekere 2005, p. 1-2, 108, 126–128.
  31. ^ Mark Juergensmeyer & Wade Clark Roof 2011, pp. 272–273, 652–654.
  32. ^ Austin Creel (1986), in Editor: Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0873959902, Chapter 1
  33. ^ M Yamunacharya (1966), Karma and Rebirth, Indian Philo. Annual, 1, pp 66
  34. ^ M. Hiriyana (1949), Essentials of Indian Philosophy, George Allen Unwin, London, pp 47
  35. ^ James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 2, Rosen Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp 589
  36. ^ Harold Coward (2003), Encyclopedia of Science of Religion, Karma
  37. ^ see:
    • Wilhelm Halbfass (1998), Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, London, see article on Karma and Rebirth (Indian Conceptions)
    • Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0873959902
  38. ^ A. Javadekar (1965), Karma and Rebirth, Indian Philosophical Annual, 1, 78
  39. ^ Damien Keown (2013), Buddhism: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199663835
  40. ^ Étienne Lamotte(1936), Le traité de l'acte de Vasubandhu: Karmasiddhiprakarana, in Mélanges chinois et bouddhiques 4, pp 151–288
  41. Jump up to:a b c d e Krishan, Y. (1988). "The Vedic Origins of the Doctrine of Karma". South Asian Studies4 (1): 51–55. doi:10.1080/02666030.1988.9628366.;
    Yuvraj Krishan (1997). The Doctrine of Karma: Its Origin and Development in Brāhmaṇical, Buddhist, and Jaina Traditions. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 4, 12, 17–19, for context see 1–27. ISBN 978-81-208-1233-8.
  42. ^ a neuter n-stem, कर्म  from the root √kṛ कृ "to do, make, perform, accomplish, cause, effect, prepare, undertake" kṛ,कृ Monier Monier-Williams, Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary(1899).
  43. ^ Mark Juergensmeyer & Wade Clark Roof 2011, p. 653.
  44. ^ see:
    • Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-208-0815-0, page 37, Quote – "This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-vedics like Ajivikism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of re-birth after coming in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India. Certainly Jainism and non-vedics [..] accepted the doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith."
    • Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press: UK ISBN 0-521-43878-0, page 86, Quote – "The origin and doctrine of Karma and Saṃsāra are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating amongst sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions."
    • Bimala Law (1952, Reprint 2005), The Buddhist Conception of Spirits, ISBN 81-206-1933-1, Asian Educational Services; in particular, see Chapter II
    • Y. Krishan, The doctrine of Karma and Śraddhas, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 66, No. 1/4 (1985), pp. 97–115
  45. ^ Yuvraj Krishan (1985), The doctrine of Karma and Śraddhas, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 66, No. 1/4, pages 97–115
  46. ^ Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, pp xvii–xviii; Quote – "There was such constant interaction between Vedism and Buddhism in the early period that it is fruitless to attempt to sort out the earlier source of many doctrines, they lived in one another's pockets, like Picasso and Braque (who, in later years, were unable to say which of them had painted certain paintings from their earlier, shared period)."
  47. Jump up to:a b Wendy Doniger (1980). Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. University of California Press. pp. xii–xxiii. ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0.
  48. ^ James McDermott (1980). Wendy Doniger (ed.). Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. University of California Press. pp. 165–192. ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0.
  49. ^ Padmanabh Jaini (1980). Wendy Doniger (ed.). Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. University of California Press. pp. 217–239. ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0.
  50. ^ Ludo Rocher (1980). Wendy Doniger (ed.). Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. University of California Press. pp. 61–89. ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0.
  51. ^ Colebrooke, H. T. (1829), Essay on the Philosophy of the Hindus, Part V. Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 2(1), 1–39
  52. Jump up to:a b William Mahony (1987), Karman: Hindu and Jain Concepts, in Editor: Mircea Eliade, Encyclopedia of Religion, Collier Macmillan, New York
  53. ^ E. Washburn Hopkins, Modifications of the Karma Doctrine, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, (Jul., 1906), pp. 581–593
  54. ^ Chapple, Christopher (1986), Karma and creativity, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-88706-251-2; see Chapter 3 and Appendix 1
  55. ^ Chapple, Christopher (1986), Karma and creativity, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-88706-251-2; pp 60–64
  56. ^ J. Bruce Long, The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata, in Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, Chapter 2
  57. ^ see:
    • Chapple, Christopher (1986), Karma and creativity, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-88706-251-2;
    • Manmatha Nath Dutt (1896), Vana Parva – in multivolume series: A prose English translation of the Mahabharata, Elysium Press, page 46-47; For a Google Books archive from Stanford University Library, see this
    • There is extensive debate in the Epic Mahabharata about karma, free will and destiny across different chapters and books. Different characters in the Epic take sides, some claiming destiny is supreme, some claiming free will is. For a discussion, see: Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul. 1957), pp. 44–45; Quote – "(...) In the Epic, free will has the upper hand. Only when a man's effort is frustrated or when he is overcome with grief does he become a predestinarian (believer in destiny)."; Quote – "This association of success with the doctrine of free will or human effort (purusakara) was felt so clearly that among the ways of bringing about a king's downfall is given the following simple advice: 'Belittle free will to him, and emphasize destiny.'" (Mahabharata 12.106.20)
  58. ^ Harold Coward (2003) Encyclopedia of Science of Religion, MacMillan Reference, see Karma
  59. ^ Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0365-5, pp. 209–10
  60. ^ Wilhelm Halbfass, The concepts of human action and rebirth in the Mahabharata, in Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520039230, Chapter 11
  61. ^ Eli Franco (1981), Lokayata La Philosophie Dite Materialiste de l'Inde Classique, Nanterre-Paris, France
  62. ^ Franco, Eli (1998), Nyaya-Vaisesika, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, London
  63. ^ Kragh 2006, p. 11.
  64. ^ Lamotte 1987, p. 15.
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External links