Toshihiko Izutsu Sufism And Taoism P2.Ch12XII Homo Politicus

    SUFISM AND TAOISM: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts

by Toshihiko Izutsu 1983

First published 1983 by Iwanami Shoten, Publishers, Tokyo
This edition is published by The University of California Press, 1984,
Rev. ed. of: A comparative study of the key philosophical concepts in Sufism and Taoism. 1966-67.

=====

Contents

Preface by T. Izutsu

Introduction

Part I - Ibn 'Arabi

1 Dream and Reality

II The Absolute in its Absoluteness

III The Self-knowledge of Man

IV Metaphysical Unification and Phenomenal Dispersion

V Metaphysical Perplexity

VI The Shadow of the Absolute

VII The Divine Nam es

VIII Allah and the Lord

IX Ontological Mercy

X The Water of Life

XI The Self-manifestation of the Absolute

XII Permanent Archetypes

XIII Creation

XIV Man as Microcosm

XV The Perfect Man as an Individual

XVI Apostle, Prophet, and Saint

XVII The Magical Power of the Perfect Man

Part II - Lao-Tzii & Chuang-Tzu

I Lao-Tzu and Chuang-Tzu

II From Mythopoiesis to Metaphysics

III Dream and Reality

IV Beyond This and That

V The Birth of a New Ego

VI Against Essentialism

VII The Way

VIII The Gateway of Myriad Wonders

IX Determinism and Freedom

X Absolute Reversai of Values

XI The Perfect Man

XII Homo Politicus

Part III - A Comparative Reftection 

I Methodological Preliminaries

II The Inner Transformation of Man

III The Multistratified Structure of Reality

IV Essence and Existence

V The Self-evolvement of Existence

===

XI 1 Homo Politicus

Throughout the preceding chapters we have been describing the

Taoist Perfect Man as a man of absolute transcendence. He wholly

transcends the world of ordinary men and ordinary things in the

sense that he is 'oblivious' of ail distinctions between them, that

nothing perturbs bis mind, and that, consequently, he sits alone in

the midst of the profound 'tranquillity' of being one with the One.

He is 'without-or above-human emotions', accepting the good as

'good' and also the non-good as 'good'. He holds fast to the princi-

ple of Non-Doing, and does not meddle with the natural course of

things. Instead, he leaves the ten thousand things alone as they

corne into being, grow, and th en disappear in accordance with the

'times' and 'turns' of each of them. He is 'indifferent' just as Heaven

and Earth are 'indifferent' to the ten thousand things, treating them

all as if they were 'straw dogs'.

The Perfect Man in this respect is a man of absolute Negativity.

And ail these and still other 'negative' properties belong to him

because he is completely unified with the 'way' (i.e., natural, spon-

taneous working) of Heaven, and ultimately with the Way itself. In

comporting himself in this manner, the Perfect Man embodies the

Way.

But it is very important to remember that pure negativity or

passivity does not exhaust the activity of the Way. In fact, the

passivity of the Way is not 'passivity' as ordinarily understood. It is a

'passivity' with 'positivity'. Or perhaps we should say that

the Way is- or looks-'passive' precisely because it is too positive to

be just 'positive' in the generally accepted sense. Non-Doing, for

example, is certainly a passive and negative principle, but it is in

reality a positive force in that it 'leaves nothing undone'. This fact is

an exact counterpart of the Way being described as 'Nothing' not

because it is purely negatively and passively 'nothing', but because it

is over-plenitude of Being.

The Perfect Man, as a perfect embodiment and personification of

the Way, must necessarily reftect this 'positive' - or 'supra-positive'

- aspect of it, too. Just as the Way itself is positively- and more than

Il

1

1•1 458 Sufism and Taoism

positively- engaged in the administration of the created world and

governs, through the very principle of Non-Doing, the whole pro-

cess of Nature to the minutest details of individual events, sois the

Perfect Man positively interested in governing the world, again

through the principle of Non-Doing.

Besides, it is, more generally speaking, very characteristic of

philosophical thinking in ancient China that it is vitally concerned

with the problem of governing the people. Homo Politicus has, in

fact, always been a central theme of all the major schools of Chinese

thought. Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu are no exception to this general

mie. It is extremely interesting to notice in this respect that a man

like Lao-tzu who develops, on the one hand, a sophisticated

metaphysics of the Way and describes the ideal man as an absolutely

unworldly-minded man living high above the noise and fuss of

everyday life, shows himself so keenly interested in the art of ruling

an empire. For Lao-tzu, the Perfect Man cannot be really 'perfect',

unless he stands at the head of an empire as the supreme Ruler of its

people. The Perfect Man is at once a philosopher and a politician.

This, of course, does not mean that the Perfect Man must posi-

tively strive to gain political power or to conquer the world. He does

not even try to make himself conspicuous.

He does not display himself. Therefore he is conspicuous.

He does not justify himself. Therefore he is illustrious.

He does not praise himself. Therefore his merit is recognized. 1

He does not try to make himself conspicuous. But due to that

'negative' attitude toward himself - and more basically, because he

is 'perfect' - he 'naturally' becomes conspicuous. He does not do

anything on his part to attract attention, but the people sponta-

neously gather around him. He keeps himself in the rear, but the

people spontaneously, and even without being conscious of it, push

him to the fore. The Tao Tê Ching is filled with expressions referring

to this peculiarity of the Perfect Man. The most famous and most

typical of them all is probably 'softening the glare and falling into

line with the dust (of the common people)'.

(The 'sacred man') blunts his sharpness, unfastens his knots, softens

his glare, and falls into line with the dust. Such 1 would call the state of

Mysterious Indistinction.

Such a man cannot be approached too intimately. Nor can one

remain too remote from him. One cannot bestow benefit upon him,

nor can one harm him .. One cannot ennoble him, nor can one humili-

ate him.

Thus he becomes the noblest of all beings under Heaven. 2

The 'Mysterious Indiscrimination' (hsüan t'ung) 3 is a very

significant expression. The Perfect Man, as a human being, lives

Homo Politicus 459

among ordinary people as a member of society. He exists there in

the midst of everyday life, quietly and calmi y, behind and beneath

other men. He 'levels' himself with the common people, without

'discriminating' himself from other men. Outwardly he seems to be

exactly the same as ordinary people. But this is, in reality, a very

peculiar 'sameness', for in his spiritual structure; he is soaring like

the Bird P' êng in the azure of absolu te freedom and independence.

And it is through the spontaneous activity of such a man that the

Virtue of the Way materializes in the form of a perfect political mie.

According to the pattern of thought peculiar to Lao-tzu and

Chuang-tzu, the Perfect Man, because of his spiritual 'perfection',

spontaneously occupies the highest place in the spiritual world; and

because he occupies the highest place in the spiritual world he must

necessarily occupy the highest place in the world of reality. He must

be the 'lord over the officiais' .4

Thus here again we corne across the paradoxical way of thinking

which characterizes the Taoist sages. For according to them, the

Perfect Man is a man who 'freely roams beyond the realm of dust

and dirt, and enjoys wandering to his heart's content in the Village

of There-Is-Absolutely-Nothing'. But exactly because he exists

permanently beyond the world of dust and dirt, he can actually keep

himself in the very midst of the dust and dirt of the real, material

world. By remaining absolutely 'indifferent' to petty interests in the

world, he is interested in the great problems of the actual world.

Surely, he is nota man 'whose ability is good enough to make him

conspicuous in the politics of one state.' 5 But he is good enough to

be the absolu te ruler of an empire, or even of 'ail un der Heaven'.

What, then, are the politics of the Perfect Man? From the point of

view of common sense, Chuang-tzu says, the most ideal form of the

management of political affairs consists in that 'the ruler should

devise all the mies and regulations for his own self, and thereby

govern his people, for, in such a case, who would <lare to disobey

him and not to be "transformed" by his virtue?' .6

Chuang-tzu declares that such a thing is nothing other than a

'deceptive virtue' .7 'To govern the world by means of such a princi-

ple is like trying to wade through the ocean, to dig a large river with

one's own hands, or tolet a mosquito carry on its back a mountain!' 8

The Perfect Man does not govern the world by means of man-

made laws, which are but external matters designed to contrai only

the external aspects of human life. He governs the world by 'govern-

ing himself', that is, by perfecting his inner Virtue.

When the 'sacred man' is in the position of the ruler, how could he

conceivably be interested in governing the external life of the people?

460 Sufism and Taoism

What he is interested in is that he should rectify his 'inside', (i.e.,

bring his inner Virtue to perfection) and then govern (his people). He

is exclusively interested in firmly establishing his own affair.

(Thus he leaves ail other things in charge of their own natures.) Just

think of a bird ftying high in the sky, escaping thereby the danger of

being shot down by a stringed arrow; or of a little mouse living in a

deep hole under the sacred hill, avoiding thereby being dug out or

smoked out. (Every living being has its own natural wisdom by which

it knows instinctively how to live safely .) Do human beings possess

less knowledge than these two little creatures?9

What Chuang-tzü means by 'rectifying one's inside' is explained by

himself in more concrete terms as follows:

Let your mind wander freely in (the field of) Simplicity (where there

is not even a trace of desires), unify your vital energy with the

limitless Tranquillity, and follow the natural course (lit. 'being-so

of-itself') of ail things without letting your 'ego' interfere with it.

Then the whole world will be governed (spontaneously). 10

Briefty stated, this means that when the Perfect Man in the real

sense of the word is actualized, the world becomes governed 'of

itself'. Not that the Perfect Man positively governs the world by

instituting severe laws and enforcing them. The right ordering of the

world is spontaneously actualized as the Perfect Man, on his part,

'rectifies his inner state'. It is clear that this is nothing but putting

into practice the fondamental principle of Non-Doing. And that is,

for Lao-tzü, and Chuang-tzü, the highest and most ideal form of

poli tics.

Lao-tzii describes the situation in the following terms:

Astate may well be governed by 'rectitude' .11 A war may well be won

by tactics. The empire, however, can be obtained only by Non-

Action.12

How do 1 know that it is so? By the following observation.

The more restrictions and prohibitions there are in the world, the

poorer the people.

The more civilized instruments the people possess, the more con-

fused the land.

The more skills and crafts the people have, the more bizarre (useless)

objects will be produced.

The more laws and regulations are promulgated, the more thieves

and robbers there will be.

Therefore the 'sacred man' says: 1 remain in Non-Doing, and the

people are (morally) fransformed of themselves. 1 enjoy quietude,

and the people become righteous of themselves. 1 do not meddle with

anything, and the people become prosperous of themselves. 1 remain

free from desires, and the people of themselves become like the

'uncarved block of wood' 13

Homo Politicus 461

As 1 have repeatedly emphasized, this supreme ability of the Perfect

Man as a statesman is due to the fact that in practising Non-Doing,

he is a perfect copy of the Way itself.

The Way in its absolute reality is inactive (i.e., 'non-doing'), yet it

leaves nothing undone.

If lords and kings abide by this principle, the ten thousand things will

grow up and develop of their own accord.

But if in the process of growth, desire (to act positively, against

Nature) should arise (on the part of some of the ten thousand things),

1 would cairn it down by the weight of the 'nameless' (simplicity of)

'uncarved wood' .14 The 'nameless' (simplicity of) 'uncarved wood'

will take things back to the (original) state of desirelessness.

And if (the people) become 'desireless' and, consequently, 'tranquil',

the whole world will of itself become peaceful.15

The Way in its absolute reality is 'nameless'. (lt is in this respect like

'uncarved wood'). 16 The 'uncarved wood' may look insignificant, but

nothing under Heaven is able to subjugate it.

If lords and kings abide by the principle (of' uncarved wood'), the ten

thousand things will of themselves corne to pay bornage to them.

Heaven and Earth will join their forces to send down sweet dew, and

the people will of themselves become peacefully governed, even if no

decrees and ordinances are published. 17

Thus the Perfect Man in the capacity of a statesman exercises his

rule in accordance with the principle of Non-Doing. 'He does

nothing other than doing-nothing.' 18 But by 'doing-nothing' he is in

truth doing a great thing. For'doing-nothing' means in his case to do

nothing against the natural course of all things. Therefore his

'doing-nothing' is tantamount to 'assisting' the natural and spon-

taneous development of all things.

The 'sacred man' dcsires to be desireless. He learns not to learn. 19

He thereby turns back constantly to (the Ultimate Source) which is

passed by unnoticed by the common people.

He assists the spontaneous being of the ten thousand things. He

refrains from interfering with it by his own action.20

Many other passages could be adduced from the Tao Tê Ching, in

which the idea of Non-Doing is extolled as the supreme principle of

Taoist poli tics. But for our particular purposes what has been given

is quite sufficient.

There is, however, one more point to make in connection with

Non-Doing as a political idea. In the foregoing we have been

concerned mainly with the attitude of the Perfect Man in governing

the empire in accordance with the principle of Non-Doing. We have

not yet dealt with the problem of the inner state or attitude of those

who are governed, the common people as the subjects over whom

the Perfect Man rules.

462 Sufism and Taoism

Already in some of the above-quoted passages it has been sug-

gested that the ideal rule of the Perfect Man encounters hindrance if

his subjects happen to have 'desire' and 'knowledge'. The Perfect

Man himself may be absolutely above all human 'desires' - because

he is 'without emotions' - and above petty 'knowledge' to be

acquired by the exercise of the rational faculty of the mind- because

he has completely 'chaotified' his mind. But however Perfect he

may be in this respect, he is not in a position to realize the ideal of

ruling by the principle of Non-Doing unless the people, on their

part, be also perfectly prepared for accepting his rule. And they are

perfectly prepared for accepting his rule only when they are purified

of 'desire' and 'knowledge'. Thus the act of purifying the people of

these obstacles constitutes part of the politics of Non-Doing.

If (the mler) does not hold the (so-called) wise men in high esteem,

the people will be kept away from contending with one another.

If he does not value goods that are hard to obtain, the people will be

kept away from committing thefts.

If he does not display things that are Iiable to excite desires, the minds

of the people will be kept undisturbed.

Therefore, the 'sacred man' in governing the people empties their

minds, 21 while making their bellies full; weakens their wills 22 while

rendering their bones strong.

In this way, he keeps his people always in the state of no-knowledge

and no-desire, so that the so-called 'knowers' might find no occasion

to interfere (and influence the people).

If he thus practises Non-Doing, the world cannot but be governed

well. 23

From of old those who excel in the practice of the Way do not try to

make the people wise and clever. Rather they try to keep the people

in the (simple) state of knowledgelessness. If the people are difficult

to mie it is because they have too much 'knowledge'.

He who mies a state by (giving the people) 'knowledge' damages the

country. He who mies astate by depriving (the people) of 'know-

Iedge' brings prosperity to the country.

To know (the difference between) these two (forms of government)

belongs to the standard measure (of the mler). And to know the

standard measure in every matter is what 1 would call the Mysterious

Virtue. How profound and far-reaching the Mysterious Virtue is! (Its

profundity is shown by the fact that) it works contrariwise to the

nature of things, yet ultimately turns back to the Great Conformity; 24

(i.e., at first sight the working of the Mysterious Virtue looks as if it

were against the natural order of things, but in reality it is in confor-

mity with the very working of the Great Way). 25

The Great Conformity which is to be achieved by the practice of

Non-Doing represents the highest degree of perfection among the

various possible forms of goveming the state. It is the art of gov-

Homo Politicus 463 emment peculiar to the Perfect Man. And judged by this standard, all the remaining political forms are found to be imperfect in varying degrees. The highest of ail types of the mler is such that the people un der him are only aware of his presence. The next is the mler to whom they feel attached and whom they praise. The next is the mler whom they fear. The next is the ruler whom they despise. If (the ruler) is not trusted enough, it is because he is not truthful enough. If (on the contrary) the ruler is cautious and weighs the words he utters, then his task will be accomplished, his work done, and the people will ail say: 'Ali this we have done naturally, by ourselves.' 26 The people feel this way because the Perfect Man rules over them by the principle of Non-Doing. They are vaguely conscious of his presence over them, but they do not notice that things run so smoothly because of his being their ruler. It is very interesting to observe that the second of the types of the ruler enumerated in this passage, namely, the case in which the people feel attached to the ruler and greatly praise him, evidently refers to the Confucian ideal of goveming the people with 'benevol- ence'. We would do well to recall in this connection the words of Lao-tzu which we have quoted earlier. 27 'Only when the great Way declines, do "benevolence" and "righteousness" arise.' The impli- cation is that the highest ideal of politics from the point of view of Confucius and his school is, from the point of view of Lao-tzu, not only the second-best, but something indicative of the decline of the great Way. Only when the great Way declines, do 'benevolence' and 'righteous- ness' arise. Only when cleverness and sagacity emerge in the world, do wiles and intrigues arise. Only when the six basic kinship relations are out of harmony do filial sons make their appearance. Only when the state is in confusion and disorder, do loyal subjects make their appearance. 28 If the ruler abolishes 'cleverness' and abandons 'intelligence', the benefit received by the people will increase a hundredfold. If he abolishes 'benevolence' and abandons 'righteousness', the people will (spontaneously) return to 'filial piety' and 'paternal love' .29 If he abolishes artifice and abandons (the pursuit of) profit, there will be no more thieves and robbers. If with these three (principles) alone one should think adornments are too scanty, let there be, then, something additional. Show out- wardly the plainness of undyed silk and embrace inwardly the sim- plicity of uncarved wood. Reduce selfishness and lessen desires. 30

464 Sufism and Taoism

In one of the passages quoted above, we saw how in Lao-tzu's view

the highest type of government is represented by the ruler who

governs the country so 'naturally' that the 'people' are conscious

only of there being a ruler over them', without attributing to him

any particular virtue or merit. Chuang-tzu unreservedly agrees with

Lao-tzu on this point. It goes without saying that, according to both

Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu, in such a form of ideal government not

only do the people not notice the merit of the ruler, but the ruler

himself is not conscious of his own merit.

Lao-tzu:

The 'sacred man' is such that he does great things, yet does not

boast of bis own achievement; he accomplishes bis task, yet does not

stick to his own merit. Is this not because he does not wish to display

his superiority over others? 31

And Chuang-tzu:

When an 'illumined king' reigns over the world, bis merit covers ail

under Heaven. But he is not conscious of the merit as something

proceeding from himself.

His transforming power affects the ten thousand things. But the

people do not feel dependent upon him.

There is 'something' occurring (in the world, because of his presence

as the ruler), but no one could definitely name it. (The existence of

that 'something' is clearly shown only by the fact that) it actually

renders ail things spontaneously happy and contented.

He himself stands in (the spiritual state of) the Unfathomable, and

wanders to bis heart's content in the There-Is-Nothing,32

I shall bring this chapter to a close by quoting from the Tao Tê Ching

a passage in which Lao-tzu pictures in an idyllic tone an imaginary

state which is govemed by a 'sacred man' - astate based on the

principle of Non-Doing, in which the highest ideal of Taoist politics

is actualized in a concrete form. It is by no means a grand-scale ideal

state like the Republic of Plato. It is almost a village. Yet, who

knows? The people of this small country may possibly be even

happier and more contented than the inhabitants of the Platonic

state.

A small country, with small population. There are (in this country)

various tools of war, but the people are not tempted to use them. The

people (are so happy and contented that) they regard death as no

slight matter (i.e., they are reluctant to die because life is so enjoy-

able ). Nor do they want to move to distant places. Though there are

ships and carts, there is no place to go with them. Though there are

armor and weapons, there arises no occasion to display them.

The people are taught to go back to (the Simplicity of immemorial

antiquity) using knotted cords (instead of the complicated system of

writing).

l

Homo Politicus 465

They find relish in their food, and beauty in their clothes. Happy and

contented with their own homes, they find delight in their old cus-

toms.

The neighbouring country is just there, within sight. The people of

this country can hear even the cocks crowing and dogs barking in that

country. And yet, the inhabitants of the two countries grow old and

die without ever visiting one another.33

Notes

1. Tao Tê Ching, XXII.

2. ibid., LVI; see also IV.

3. :P.:lîiJ. It may be translated also as 'Mysterious Levelling'.

4. op. cit., XXVIII.

5. Chuang-tzu, I, p. 16.

6. ibid., VII, p. 290.

7. ittf§, ch'i tê.

8. ibid., VII, p. 291.

9. ibid., VII, p. 291.

10. ibid., VII, p. 294.

11. This is an ironical reference to the Confucian idea of the ideal politics. A man

once asked Confucius about the art of ruling the state. Confucius replied: 'Ruling'

(chêng i3l:) means 'rectitude' (chêng IE). If you (govern the people) by 'rectifying'

yourself in the first place, no one would venture to act against 'rectitude' -Analects,

XII, 17.

12. 1!\1;$'., wu shih, synonymous with wu wei. Shih is defined by Hsün-tzii as 'doing

something in expectation of getting a profit' (ïEfiJlfiîAmz•), tfiî-, IE:ga XXII.

13. Tao Tê Ching, LVII.

14. i.e., I, the ruler, would cairn down the desire of the people, not by supressing it by

laws and edicts, but by disclosing myself to them as a living embodiment of the Way in

its aspect of absolute 'simplicity', that is, the state of being completely purified of ail

desires and passions.

15. op. cit., XXXVII.

16. Because it is not yet carved into various vessels, each of which is distinguished

from others by a special 'name' .

17. op. cit., XXXII.

466 Sufism and Taoism

18. A1!!0$, (ibid., LXIV).

19. Ordinary men try hard to study and learn in order to increase their knowledge.

The Perfect Man, on the contrary, learns to be without learning, so that at the

ultimate stage of the decrease of knowledge he might be unified with the 'simplicity'

of the 'uncarved wood' .

20. op. cit., LXIV.

21. It is the 'mind' that insatiably seeks for 'knowledge'.

22. The 'will' drives man toward gratifying his limitless desires.

23. op. cit., III.

24. *li-

25. ibid., LXV.

26. ibid., XVII.

27. See Chap. I, Note 6.

28. op. cit., XVIII.

29. This may be thought to contradict what we have read in the preceding passage.

In reality, however, there is no contradiction. For there, the point at issue was 'filial

piety' and 'paternal love' being verbal/y emphasized. Here Lao-tzu is simply talking

about the natural state of 'filial piety' and 'paternal love' which is actualized in the

minds of the people, without there being anybody who 'emphasizes' the importance

of these virtues.

30. op. cit., XIX.

31 Tao Tê Ching, LXXVII.

32. Chuang-tzu, VII, p. 296.

33. Tao Tê Ching, LXXX.

Toshihiko Izutsu Sufism And Taoism P2.Ch11XI The Perfect Man

    SUFISM AND TAOISM: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts

by Toshihiko Izutsu 1983

First published 1983 by Iwanami Shoten, Publishers, Tokyo
This edition is published by The University of California Press, 1984,
Rev. ed. of: A comparative study of the key philosophical concepts in Sufism and Taoism. 1966-67.

=====

Contents

Preface by T. Izutsu

Introduction

Part I - Ibn 'Arabi

1 Dream and Reality

II The Absolute in its Absoluteness

III The Self-knowledge of Man

IV Metaphysical Unification and Phenomenal Dispersion

V Metaphysical Perplexity

VI The Shadow of the Absolute

VII The Divine Nam es

VIII Allah and the Lord

IX Ontological Mercy

X The Water of Life

XI The Self-manifestation of the Absolute

XII Permanent Archetypes

XIII Creation

XIV Man as Microcosm

XV The Perfect Man as an Individual

XVI Apostle, Prophet, and Saint

XVII The Magical Power of the Perfect Man

Part II - Lao-Tzii & Chuang-Tzu

I Lao-Tzu and Chuang-Tzu

II From Mythopoiesis to Metaphysics

III Dream and Reality

IV Beyond This and That

V The Birth of a New Ego

VI Against Essentialism

VII The Way

VIII The Gateway of Myriad Wonders

IX Determinism and Freedom

X Absolute Reversai of Values

XI The Perfect Man

XII Homo Politicus

Part III - A Comparative Reftection 

I Methodological Preliminaries

II The Inner Transformation of Man

III The Multistratified Structure of Reality

IV Essence and Existence

V The Self-evolvement of Existence

===

XI The Perfect Man

Most of the characteristic features of the Perfect Man have already

been mentioned explicitly or implicitly in the foregoing chapters.

Sorne of them have been folly discussed, while others have been

touched upon in a cursory manner. Besides, we have repeatedly

pointed out that the Perfect Man as understood by Lao-tzu and

Chuang-tzu is nothing else than the personification of the Way

itself. The Perfect Man is 'perfect' because he is an exact persona!

imago of the Way. In this sense, by describing the nature and the

activity of the latter we can be said to have been describing the

former. Thus in a certain respect, all the preceding chapters may be

regarded as a description of the characterizing properties of the

Perfect Man. We are already quite familiar with the Taoist concept

of the Perfect Man. And the present chapter will necessarily take

the form of a mere systematic recapitulation of what has been

discussed in the course of this book concerning the Perfect Man.

Let us begin by repeating the most basic observation about the

concept of the Perfect Man, namely, that he is a man who is

completely unified and united with the Way. When a man in the

course of his spiritual discipline reaches the ultimate stage of

Illumination, a stage at which there remains no trace of his 'ego',

and therefore no discrepancy between 'himself and the Way-that

marks the birth of a Perfect Man. Lao-tzu calls this stage 'embracing

the One' .1

The 'sacred man' embraces the One, and thereby becomes the

exemplar for all things under Heaven. 2

Controlling his vacillating soul, (the Perfect Man) embraces the One

in his arms and is never separated therefrom. 3

The opening clause4 of this second quotation is interesting because

of its shamanic reminiscence. In ancient China, what corresponds to

the English 'soul' ( Greek psyche) was held to consist of two sep ara te

substances, one of them beinghun,5 and the other p'o.6 Or we could

say that man was believed to possess two souls. The former was the

The Perfect Man 445

superior or spiritual soul, the principle of mental and spiritual

fonctions. The latter was the inferior or physical (or animal) soul,

charged with bodily and material fonctions. When a man died, the

hun was believed to ascend to Heaven, while the p' o was to go down

into Earth.7 As for the phrase ying p'o, here translated as 'the

vacillating (physical) soul', it is significant that exactly the same

combination is found in the famous shamanic poem 'Traveling

Afar' (Yüan Yu) of the Elegies of Ch'u:

Controlling my vacillating soul, 1 ascend to a misty height,

And riding on the floating clouds, 1 go up and ever higher.8

But of course the Perfect Man knows how to put under contrai his

fretfol and unstable soul by 'sitting-in-oblivion', so that he might

ascend to the height of Unity and embrace the One, never to quit it.

The Perfect Man is no longer harassed by the fretfolness of his

soul. On the contrary, he always main tains his soul unperturbed.

What do 1 mean by the 'true man'? (1 am thinking of) the 'true men'

of ancient times. They did not revoit against scarcity (i.e., adverse

fortune). They did not become haughty in favorable conditions. They

did not make positive plans with the intention of accomplishing

things.

Such a person does not repent though he might commit an error; he

does not fall into self-complacency though he might meet with

success.

Such a man does not become frightened even if he ascend to the

highest place. He does not get wet even if he enters the water. He is

not burnt even if he enters the tire.

All this is the result of the (true) Wisdom having attained to the

ultimate point of perfection in (being unified with) the Way. 9

The Taoist principle of 'unperturbedness' is best illustrated by the

attitude taken by the Perfect Man toward his own Life and Death.

The problem has been folly discussed in earlier contexts. Here we

shall be content with giving one more passage in translation, which

would seem to provide a good summary of the whole argument

concerning this idea.

The 'true men' of ancient times knew nothing of loving Life and

disliking Death. They came out (into this world) without any particu-

lar delight. They went in (i.e., died) without any resistance. Calmly

they came, calmly they went. They did not forget how they had begun

to exist (i.e., that the beginning of their Life was due to the natural

working of the Way). Nor did they worry about the end of their

existence.

They simply received (Life) and they were happy (to live that Life).

But (when Death came) they simply gave (their Life) back and forgot

it.

li111

''.I

Il

446 Sufism and Taoism

This is what 1 would call: not revolting against the working Of the Way

by the use of Reason, and not interfering with what Heaven does by

straining (petty) human (efforts).

Such is the 'true man'. 10

Such an inner state cannot but produce its effect on the physical

conditions of the Perfect Man. His cairn unperturbed mind is

reftected by the very peculiar way in which his bodily fonctions are

performed. The Perfect Man is different from the common people

not only in his spiritual state, but also in his physical constitution.

The 'true men' of ancient times did not dream when they slept. They

felt no anxiety when they were awake. They did not particularly

enjoy food when they ate.

Their breathing was cairn and deep. They used to breathe with their

heels. 11 The corn mon people, on the contrary, breathe with their

throats (i.e., their respiration is shallow). You know those who are

cornered in argument - how desperately they try to vomit out the

words sticking in their throats. (Compared with the breathing of the

Perfect Man, the breathing of ordinary people is just like that.) (This

is due to the fact that, unlike the Perfect Man who has no desire, the

corn mon people) are deep in their desires, and shallow in their

natural spiritual equipment. 12

The common people are here characterized as being 'deep in their

desires' and 'shallow in their natural equipment'. In this respect

they represent exactly the opposite of what Lao-tzii emphasizes as

the ideal of the Taoist mode of human existence: 'no-wisdom and

no-desire' (wu-chih wu-yu) 13 • 'Wisdom' here means the exercise of

Reason.

We know already that purifying the Mind of physical and material

desires by 'closing up all openings and doors' is the first necessary

step toward the actualization of the idea of the Perfect Man.

The five colors make man's eyes blind. The five musical notes make

man's ears deaf. The five flavors make man's taste dull. (Garnes like)

racing and hunting make man's mind run mad. Goods that are hard to

obtain impede man's right conduct.

Therefore the 'sacred man' concentrates on the belly (i.e., endeavors

to develop his inner core of existence) and does not care for the eye

(i.e., does not follow the dicta tes of his senses). Thus he abandons the

latter and chooses the former. 14

We have already seen above how, in the view of Lao-tzii and

Chuang-tzii, Reason obstructs the free activity of Nature. Reason in

its lowest form is the 'sound' or 'normal' common sense. The mode

of living of the common people goes against the natural course of

things because they are at the mercy of Reason and common sense.

Boundless desire and the argumentative Reason constitute the

.. .

i

The Perfect Man 447

core of the 'ego'. And the 'ego', once formed goes on growing ever

stronger until it dominates the whole existence of a man; all his

actions are dictated by it, and ail his feelings, emotions, and thinking

are subjugated toits supreme command. This is why it is extremely

difficult for an ordinary man to 'nullify his own self' .15

Reason makes man 'stiff' and 'inflexible'. Desire induces him

forcibly to fight against the naturally given conditions and to

'intend' to obtain the objects of desire. This is the exact opposite of

the Taoist ideal of conforming to the natural course of things,

without reasoning and without desiring anything, and thus becom-

ing completely unified with Nature. Lao-tzii finds in the 'infant' an

apt symbol for his ideal.

He who possesses within himself the plenitude of Virtue may be

compared to an infant.

Poisonous insects dare not sting it. Ferocious animais dare not

pounce upon it. Birds of prey dare not strike it.

Its bones are frail and its sinews tender, yet its grip is firm. It does not

know yet of the union of male and female, yet the whole body is full of

energy .16 This is because its vitality is at its height.

It howls and cries all day long, yet does not become hoarse. This is

because the natural harmony in it is at its height.

To know the natural harmony is to be (one with) the eternal Reality

(ch'ang). And to know the eternal Reality is to be illumined (ming). 11

Thus the infant is 'naturally' at the stage of Illumination, because it

is 'naturally' one with the Way. And the 'weakness' or 'softness' of

the infant is a living image of the creative activity of the Way, which

is eternally supple, soft and lissom. It is a symbol of real Life.

Man, at his birth, is tender and weak, but, when dead, he is hard and

Stiff.

The ten thousand things, grass and trees, are tender and fragile while

alive, but once dead, they are dry and stiff.

Thus the hard and stiff are companions of Death, while the tender

and weak are companions of Life.

Thus an army which is too powerful is liable to lose the battle, and a

tree that is too rigid is breakable.

The powerful and mighty end by being cast down, whereas the soft

and weak end by occupying higher places. 18

The following passage is remarkable in that it gathers together the

majority of Lao-tzii's favorite symbols for 'ftexibility', 'softness',

'being low', 'being simple', in short, the virtue of Negativity.

He who knows the 'male', yet keeps to the rôle of the 'female', will

become the 'ravine' of the whole world.

And once he has become the 'ravine' of the whole world, then the

eternal Virtue will never desert him. And he will again return to the

state of 'infancy'.

i

448 Sufism and Taoism

He who knows the 'white', yet keeps to the rôle of the 'black', will

become the model for all under Heaven.

And once he has become the model for all under Heaven, then the

eternal Virtue will never fail him. And he will again return to the Limitless.

He who knows the 'glorious', yet keeps to the rôle of the 'ignoble' will

become the 'valley' of all under Heaven.

And once he has become the 'valley' of all under Heaven, then the

eternal Virtue will be complete. And he will again return to the state

of 'uncarved wood'.

'Uncarved wood' (in its 'simplicity' contains potentially all kinds of

vessels); when it is eut out, it becomes various vessels. Likewise, the

'sacred man', by using it (i.e., the virtue of 'uncarved wood'),

becomes the Lord over all officiais. The greatest carving is

non-carving.

The highest key term in the particular semantic field of Negativity is

the wu wei, Non-Doing, which we have met several times in the

foregoing. As we have noticed, the most basic meaning of Non-

Doing is the negation of all 'intention', all artificial (or 'unnatural')

effort on the part of man. And the Perfect Man is able to maintain

this principle constantly and consistently because he has no 'ego',

because he has 'nullified himself'. But the 'nullification' of the 'ego'

as the subject of all desires and all intentional actions implies at the

same time the establishment of a new Ego - the Cosmic Ego - which

is completely at one with the Way in its creative activity.

Heaven is long lasting and Earth is long enduring. The reason why

Heaven and Earth are long lasting and long enduring is that they do

not strive to go on living. Therefore they are able to be everlasting.

In accordance with this, the 'sacred man' puts himself in the rear, and

(precisely because he puts himself in the rear) he cornes (naturally) to

the fore. He remains outside, and because of that he is always there.

Is it not because he possesses no 'self' (i.e., the small ego) that he can

thus establish his Self? 20

Thus the Perfect Man is in every respect a Perfect image of Heaven

and Earth, i.e., the Way as it manifests itself as the world of Being.

The Perfect Man exists by the very same principle by which Heaven

and Earth exist. And that principle common both to the Perf ect

Man and the activity of the Way is the principle of Non-Doing or

'being-so of-itself'. The conscious effort on the part of man to live

or to procure his purpose violates this supreme principle and ends

by bringing about a result which is just the contrary of what he intended to achieve. ·

He who stands on tiptoe cannot stand firm.

He who strides cannot walk far.

He who displays himself does not shine.

The Perfect Man 449

He who considers himself right cannot be illustrious.

He who praises himself cannot achieve real success.

He who places too great confidence in himself cannot endure.

From the point of view of the Way, such attitudes are to be called

'superfluous food and useless tumors'. They are detested by all.

Therefore, he who possesses (i.e., is unified with) the Way never

takes such an attitude. 21

Therefore, the 'sacred man' keeps to the principle of Non-Doing, and

practises the teaching of No-Words. 22

If one pursues knowledge, knowledge goes on increasing day by day.

If one pursues the Way, (what one obtains) goes on decreasing day by

day.

Decreasing, and ever more decreasing, one finally reaches the state

of Non-Doing. And when one practises Non-Doing, nothing is left

undone. Therefore even an empire is sure to be gained by practising

(the principle of) There-Is-Nothing-To-Do. If one adheres to (the

principle of) There-Is-Something-To-Do, one can never gain an

empire. 23

Without going out of the door, one can know everything under

Heaven.

Without peeping out of the window, one can see the working of

Heaven.

The further one goes out, the less one knows.

Therefore the 'sacred man' knows (everything) without going out.

He has a clear view of everything without looking. He accomplishes

everything without 'doing' .24

What 1 have translated here as the 'working of Heaven' is in the

original t'ien tao meaning literally the 'way of Heaven'. lt means the

natural activity of Heaven. And 'Heaven' here means the Way as it

manifests itself in the form of Nature, or the 'being-so of-itself' of

everything. Heaven, in this sense, is constantly active; it works

without a moment's intermission; it 'does' innumerable things. lts

'doing', however, is essentially different from the in ten tional 'doing'

of man. Heaven 'does' everything without the slightest intention on

its part to 'do' something. lts 'doing' consists in the ten thousand

things being or becoming what they are 'of themselves'. Heaven, in

other words, exemplifies in the most perfect form the principle of

Non-Doing.

Commenting upon Chuang-tzii's statement:

He who knows what Heaven does (i.e., the 'way of Heaven') ... is at

the highest limit (of human Wisdom). For he who knows what

Heaven does lives in accordance with (the same principle as)

Heaven, 25

Kuo Hsiang makes the following interesting and important remark:

\

450 Sufism and Taoism

'Heaven' in this passage means Nature ('being-so of-itself'). He who

'does doing' (i.e., does something with the intention or consciousness

of doing it) cannot 'do' anything (in the real sense of the word).

(Real) 'doing' is that the thing 'does itself' (i.e., it is done 'of itself',

according toits own nature). Likewise, he who 'does knowing' (i.e.,

tries to know something intentionally and consciously) cannot 'know'

anything (in the real sense of the word). (Real) 'knowing' consists in

(the thing) coming to 'be known of itself'. The thing 'becomes known

of itself', I say. So (real 'knowing' is, in truth), 'non-knowing'. It is

'non-knowing', I say. So the ultimate source of 'knowing' is 'non-

knowing'.

In the sa me way, 'doing' consists in the thing 'being do ne of itself'. So

(real 'doing', in truth,) is 'non-doing'. It is 'non-doing', I say. So the

ultimate source of 'doing', is 'non-doing'.

Thus,' non-doing' must be considered the principle of' doing'. Like-

wise, 'knowing' originates in 'non-knowing', so that 'non-knowing

must be considered the basis of' knowing'.

Therefore, the 'true man' leaves aside 'knowing', and thereby

'knows'. He 'does not do', and thereby 'does'. Everything cornes into

being 'of itself', (and that is the meaning of the 'doing' of the 'true

man'). He simply sits, oblivious of everything, and thereby obtains

everything.

Thus (with regard to the 'true man') the word 'knowing' loses its

applicability, and the term 'doing' disappears completely. 26

This is, indeed, an excellent explanation of the key term 'Non-

Doing' as understood by Lao-tzii and Chuang-tzii, so much so that it

makes ail further efforts to clarify the concept superfluous.

There is, however, one more thing which must be mentioned here

not in order to clarify the concept of Non-Doing, but rather in order

to clarify a peculiarity of Lao-tzii's way of thinking. 1 have

repeatedly pointed out as something typical of Lao-tzii the 'sym-

bolic' way in which he develops his thinking. In the majority of

cases, particularly in dealing with problems which he considers of

crucial importance, he develops and elaborates his thought by

means of imagery. 'Water' is one of his favorite symbols. He uses it

in reference to the supreme power of Non-Doing. The empirical

observation of the activity of water provides at once conclusive

evidence for his theory of Non-Doing and a picturesque presenta-

tion of the way in which Non-Doing produces its effect.

The softest of ail things in the world (i.e., water) dominates over the

hardest of ail things in the world (like stones and rocks). Having no

definite form of its own, it penetrates even into that which has no

crevices.

By this I realize the value of Non-Doing.

However, the teaching through No-Words (i.e., the word-less teach-

ing given by the Perfect Man, himself remaining silent but his per-

The Perfect Man 451 sonal influence affecting 'naturally' ail about him) and the effect of Non-Doing - few in the whole world can understand them. 27 In this passage no explicit mention is made of water. But that Lao-tzii means water by 'the softest of ail things' is made clear by the following passage. There is under Heaven nothing softer and weaker than water. And yet in attacking things hard and strong, nothing can surpass it. For there is nothing that can destroy it. 28 The weak overcomes the strong, and the soft overcomes the hard. This everybody in the world knows, yet no one is able to put this (knowledge) into practice. 29 The 'positive passivity' or the 'powerful weakness' of water is for Lao-tzii one of the most appropria te images of the Way and, there- fore, of the Perfect Man. The highest goodness is like water. Water benefits the ten thousand things, yet it never contends with anything. It stays in (low) places loathed by ail men. But precisely because of this, it is closest to the Way (and the 'sacred man').30 'Never-contending-with-anybody' which is suggested by the nature of water is another highest principle that governs the conduct of the Perfect Man. An excellent warrior does not use violence. An excellent fighter does not lose himself in anger. He who excels in defeating does not treat his enemy as an enemy. He who excels in employing men humbles himself before them. This I would call the Virtue of 'non-contending'. This may also be called making the best use of the ability of others. And such a man may rightly be regarded as being in perfect con- formity with the Supreme Principle of Heaven. 31 The 'sacred man' ... never contends with anybody. This is why nobody under Heaven contends with him.32 Thus the Perfect Man does not contend with anybody or anything. Like a good fighter he does not allow himself to be roused and excited. In this respect, he may be said to lack ordinary human emotions and feeling. In fact, he is nota 'man', if one understands by this word an ordinary human being. He is, in reality, an infinitely large cosmic being. Concerning this problem Chuang-tzii bas left an interesting record of a discussion between himself and the Dialecti- cian Hui-tzii to whom reference was made earlier. We do not know for sure whether the dialogue is fictitious or real. But, whether fictitious or real, it is a valuable document for us in that it elucidates one important aspect of the connotation of the Perfect Man.

452 Sufism and Taoism

The discussion starts when Chuang-tzii makes the following

statement:

The 'sacred man' has the physical form of a man, but no emotion of a

man. Since he has the form of a man, he lives among other human

beings as one of them. But since 'he has no emotion of a man, 'right'

and 'wrong' (or likes and dislikes) cannot have access to him.

Ah how insignificant and small he is, in so far as he belongs to

common humanity! But infinitely great is he, in so far as he stands

unique (in the world) in perfecting Heaven in himself! 33

Against this statement, Hui-tzii raises a serious question. And the

question provokes a theoretic discussion over the theme between

Chuang-tzii and Hui-tzii.

Hui-tzü:

Chuang-tzü:

Hui-tzü:

Chuang-tzü:

Hui-tzü:

Chuang-tzü:

Hui-tzü:

Chuang-tzü:

Is it at all possible that a man should be without

emotions?

Yes, it is.

But if a man Jacks emotions, how could he be called a

'man'?

The Way has given him human features. And Heaven

has given him a bodily form. How, then, should we

not call him a 'man'?

But since you call him a 'man', it is inconceivable that

he should be without emotions.

What you mean by 'emotions' is different from wha t 1

mean by the same word. When 1 say 'he is without

emotions', 1 mean that the man does not let his inner

self be hurt (i.e., perturbed) by likes and dislikes, and

that he conforms to the 'being-so of-itself' of every-

thing, never trying to increase his vital energy.

If he does not try to increase his vital energy (i.e., by

eating nutritious food, clothing himself, etc.),34 how

could he preserve his body alive?

The Way has given him human features. And Heaven

has given him a bodily form. (And as a result, he has

corne into existence as a 'man'.) This being the case,

all he has to do is not to let his inner self be hurt by

likes and dislikes. (This is what 1 mean by 'not trying

to increase life' .)

You 'externalize' your spirit (i.e., you constantly send

out your spirit toward the external objects in the

world) and wear out your mental energy, sometimes

leaning against a tree, moaning, and sometimes lean-

ing on your desk with your eyes closed.

Heaven itself has selected for you a bodily form. But

you (instead of conforming to the Will of Heaven,

waste your time in) making a fuss about '(a stone)

being hard and white' .35

The Perfect Man 453

Thus it is clear that 'the Perfect Man having no emotions' means

nothing other than his being absolutely unperturbed whatever may

happen to him and whatever may occur before his eyes. And there is

a deep metaphysical reason for this. He can maintain this fonda-

mental attitude under all conditions because he is 'one' with all

things which are themselves ultimately 'one'. Since, as we saw

earlier, all things are metaphysically 'one', the attitude of the Per-

fect Man toward them cannot also but be 'one'.

The concept of the Perfect Man' having no cmotions' is, in this way,

ultimately reducible to the more fondamental idea which is by now

folly familiar tous; namely, that the Perfect Man has no 'ego' of his

own. Having no 'ego' of his own, he makes no distinction between

things. He is, in other terms, constantly 'one'. And his being person-

ally 'one' - which is precisely what is meant by the expression:

'having no emotions' -is based on the objective fact that Reality is

'one'. This, however, does not necessarily mean that the Perfect

Man does not know in any sense the distinction between the

infini tel y variegated things of the phenomenal world. Rather, his

'making no distinction between the things' means only that, being

folly conscious of ail these things as different things, he is possessed

of a spiritual eye with which he intuits behind the kaleidoscope of

the changing forms the metaphysical 'One', of which they are but

various manifestations. And when he looks at these seemingly

different things from such a particular point of view, they disclose

themselves to his eyes as so many repetitions of one and the same

thing 'piled up one upon the other', all being equally 'good'.

(The true man') is 'one', whether he (seemingly) likes something or

dislikes something. He is also 'one', whether he regards all things as

being 'one' or as not being 'one'.

Wh en he takes the position of ( everything being) 'one' he is acting as

a companion of Heaven; (i.e., he is taking the position of Heavenly

Equalization).36 When he takes the position of (all things) not being

'one', he is acting as a companion of Man; (i.e., he is looking at the

phenomenal world of Multiplicity as it appears to the human eye).

Thus in him Heaven and Man do not defeat each other (i.e., he unîtes

in himself harmoniously and without contradiction both the 'abso-

lute' viewpoint of Heaven and the 'relative' viewpoint of Man).

Such indeed is the nature of the 'true man' .37

'Being without emotions' should not be taken to mean that the

Perfect Man does not actually experience anger, delight, sadness,

gladness. He does experience all these and other human emotions.

The only difference between him and ordinary people in this matter

consists in the fact that in the case of the former, there always

remains something unperturbed and unperturbable at the innermost

454 Sufism and Taoism

core of his heart, even while he is experiencing strong emo-

tions, something which is not affected by them, which is not touched

by them. The emotions corne and go in his inner world as naturally

as the four seasons of the year corne and go in the outer world.

His mind is content with being in whatever situation it happens to

be.38 His outward appearance is still and cairn. His forehead is broad

and looks carefree.

Sometimes he is coldly relentless like autumn; sometimes he is

warmly amiable like spring. Joy and anger corne and go as naturally

as the four seasons do in Nature. Keeping perfect harmony with ail

things (which endlessly go on being 'transmuted' one into another)

he does not know any limit. 39

Such being his basic spiritual state, the Perfect Man perceives in the

whole world nothing to disturb his cosmic balance of mind, although

he does notice accurately all things that happen to him and to

others. He does participate in the activities of the world together

with all other men, yet at the same time, at the very core of his heart,

he remains detached from the clamor and bustle of the world.

Calmness and tranquillity are the most salient features that charac-

terize both the inside and outside of the Perfect Man.

Attaining to the utmost limit of (inner) 'emptiness', 1 firmly maintain

myself in Stillness.40

(The 'sacred man'), by being limpid and serene, becomes the norm of

ail under Heaven.41

Chuang-tzu, as usual, is less laconic in describing the virtues of

'calmness' and 'tranquillity':

Of ail level things, the most perfect is the surface of water at rest.

Because of this (perfect levelness), it can be used as a standard in

levelling. And (the perfect levelness of still water) is due to the fact

that (water at rest) maintains in its inside (profound calmness) and

shows no agitation outside.

Likewise, Virtue is a (spiritual) state which is attained when a man has

perfected the calmness (of the mind). (In such a case) Virtue does not

corne out in a visible form, (i.e., since the inside of such a man is

perfectly cairn, no agitation cornes out to the surface). But things, on

their part, (are spontaneously attracted by his invisible Virtue and)

cannot separate themselves therefrom.42

Notes

1. pao i, fi!!-.

2. Tao Tê Ching, XXII.

The Perfect Man

3. ibid., X.

4. rtUH!lJ.

5. ïJU.

6 .•.

455

7. Li Chi, Chiao Tê Shêng ( fl'Uê 1 lïJU•'1lf 7(, MIJll!,Al=ft!U Concerning the

p'o we find in the Tso Ch'uan ( "!i:ft, the following statement: 'When a man

is born, (we see) in his first bodily function what is called the p'o'.

8. ril1t(Jllffiïlllüf5, This interpretation of the word ying ( is cor-

roborated by another verse in the same poem, in which the shaman-poet describes

the instability and fretfulness of his soul-this time the word hun is used instead ofp'o

- which keeps him awake ail through the night:

9. Chuang-tzü, IV, p. 226.

10. ibid., IV, 229.

11. The expression: 'they breathed with their heels' indicates the incomparable

depth and tranquillity of their respiration. The vital energy contained in the inhaled

air is made to circulate ail through the body, in such a way that one is left with the

impression that the breathing naturally welled up from the heels.

12. op. cit., VI, p. 228.

13. Tao Tê Ching, III.

14. Tao Tê Ching, XII.

15. ibid., XIII.

16. 1 Yü Yüeh <•• VIII) thinks that the word is a mistake for

meaning 'hidden place', i.e., the genitals. The sentence would then mean: 'yet its

male member is full of force'. In some other editions we find - and Mt used instead of

17. op.cit.,LV.

18. ibid., LXXVI.

19. ibid., XXVIII.

20. ibid., VII.

21. ibid., XXIV.

22. ibid., Il.

23. ibid., XLVIII.

24. ibid., XLVII.

1111

1

456 Sufism and Taoism

25. Chuang-tzu, VI, p. 224.

26. 1-7(* ffiîmÊJAlt..A:m*1'tl€:m, îffi:m§:mit. It•

1':m&, /f.&.

t& tJ/fAA±· t&tJ/f:mA*' /fAîfiïA. ÊI

t&:m Mfê, p. 224.

27. Tao Tê Ching, XLIII.

28. r Jb:ZJ The character J1, here stands meaning 'conquering the barbarians'.

The idea evidently is that even the sharpest sword cannot eut water and 'kill' it.

29. op. cit., LXXVIII.

30. ibid., VIII.

31. ibid., LXVIII.

32. ibid., XXII.

33. Chuang-tzu, V, p. 217.

34. Here again, Hui-tzu misunderstands what Chuang-tzu means by 'not trying to

increase lif e'.

35. op. cit., V, pp. 220-222. 'A stone being bard and white' is a reference to the

famous sophistic thesis that a 'bard and white stone' is really two things, not one,

because 'bard' and 'white' are two entirely different attributes; see above, Chapter

IV. Note 18.

36. See above, Chapter VI, Note 17.

37. ibid., VI, pp. 234-235.

38. r;tt.c.,,ii\;-:J The last word ,1;: is explained by Kuo Hsiang as 'being contented with

whatever place it happens to be in' (lffl-.@îfiïîè. Aiif.J ). See Shuo Wên: r;t,

ùZ.ffl-2.itl.J. There are many scholars who think that it is a mistake for;€; (See, for

example, Hsüan Ying liif., f:('f;B, ), meaning 'forgetful' or

'oblivious' (of the essential distinctions between the ten thousand things).

39. op. cit., VI, pp. 230-231.

40. Tao Tê Ching, XVI.

41. ibid., XLV.

42. Chuang-tzu, V, pp. 214-215.

Toshihiko Izutsu Sufism And Taoism P2.Ch10 Absolute Reversal of Values

    SUFISM AND TAOISM: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts

by Toshihiko Izutsu 1983

First published 1983 by Iwanami Shoten, Publishers, Tokyo
This edition is published by The University of California Press, 1984,
Rev. ed. of: A comparative study of the key philosophical concepts in Sufism and Taoism. 1966-67.

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Contents

Preface by T. Izutsu

Introduction

Part I - Ibn 'Arabi

1 Dream and Reality

II The Absolute in its Absoluteness

III The Self-knowledge of Man

IV Metaphysical Unification and Phenomenal Dispersion

V Metaphysical Perplexity

VI The Shadow of the Absolute

VII The Divine Nam es

VIII Allah and the Lord

IX Ontological Mercy

X The Water of Life

XI The Self-manifestation of the Absolute

XII Permanent Archetypes

XIII Creation

XIV Man as Microcosm

XV The Perfect Man as an Individual

XVI Apostle, Prophet, and Saint

XVII The Magical Power of the Perfect Man

Part II - Lao-Tzii & Chuang-Tzu

I Lao-Tzu and Chuang-Tzu

II From Mythopoiesis to Metaphysics

III Dream and Reality

IV Beyond This and That

V The Birth of a New Ego

VI Against Essentialism

VII The Way

VIII The Gateway of Myriad Wonders

IX Determinism and Freedom

X Absolute Reversai of Values

XI The Perfect Man

XII Homo Politicus

Part III - A Comparative Reftection 

I Methodological Preliminaries

II The Inner Transformation of Man

III The Multistratified Structure of Reality

IV Essence and Existence

V The Self-evolvement of Existence

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X Absolute Reversal of Values

Throughout the Tao Tê Ching the term shêng jên ('sacred man') 1 is

consistently used in such a way that it might justifiably be consi-

dered the closest equivalent for the Islamic insan kami! ('perfect

man').

This word seems to go back to remote antiquity. In any case,

judging by the way it is used by Confucius in the Analects, the word

must have been widely prevalent in his age.

The Master said: A 'sacred man' is not for me to meet. 1 would be

quite satisfied if 1 could ever meet a man of princely virtue. 2

The Master said: How dare 1 daim for myself being a 'sacred man' or

even a man of (perfect) 'benevolence'? 3

It is not philologically easy to determine the precise meaning

attached by Confucius to this word. But from the general contexts in

which it is actually used as well as from the dominant features of his

teaching, we can, I think, judge fairly safely that he meant by the

term shêng jên a man with a sort of superhuman ethical perfection.

Confucius did not <lare even to hope to meet in his life a man of this

kind, not to speak of claiming that he himself was one.

This, however, is not the problem at which we must labor in the

present context. The point I would like to make here is the fact that

the word shêng jên itself represented a concept which was appar-

ently quite understandable to the intellectuals of the age of Con-

fucius, and that Lao-tzu wrought a drastic change in the connotation

of this word. This semantic change was effected by Lao-tzu through

his metaphysical standpoint, which was of a shamanic origin.

We have already seen in the first chapters of this book how

Lao-tzu - and Chuang-tzu - came out of a shamanic milieu. The

Perfect Man for Lao-tzu was originally a 'perfect' shaman. This fact

is concealed from our eyes by the fact that his world-view is not

nakedly shamanic, but is presented with an extremely sophisticated

metaphysical elaboration. But the shamanic origin of the Taoist

concept of the 'sacred man' will be disclosed if we correlate the

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following passage, for example, from the Tao Tê Ching with what

Chuang-tzu remarks conceming the ecstatic experience of 'sitting in

oblivion'.

Block all your openings (i.e., eyes, ears, mouth, etc.), and shut all

your doors (i.e., the activity of Reason), and all your life you (i.e.,

your spiritual energy) will not be exhausted.

If, on the contrary, you keep your openings wide open, and go on

increasing their activities, you will never be saved till the end.

To be able to perceive the minutest thing4 is properly to be called

Illumination (ming).

To hold on to what is soft and flexible 5 is properly to be called

strength.

If, using your external light, you go back to your internai illumina-

tion, you will never bring misfortune upon yourself. Such an (ulti-

mate) state is what is to be called 'stepping into6 the eternally real' .7

The 'etemal real' (ch'ang), as we have often noticed, refers to the

Way as the etemally changeless Reality. Thus the concept of the

'sacred man' as we understand it from this passage, namely, the

concept of the man who 'has retumed to Illumination' and has

thereby 'stepped into', that is, unified himself with, the Way, is

exactly the same as that of the man who is completely one with 'that

which cannot be made otherwise', which we have discussed in the

previous chapter in connection with the problem of Necessity and

Freedom.

The 'sacred man', for both Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu, is a man

whose mind is 'wandering about in the realm of absolute Freedom',

away from the bustle of the common people. It is quite natural,

then, that such a man, when judged by the yardstick of common

sense, should appear as outrageously 'abnormal'. If worldly-

minded people represent the 'normal', the 'sacred man' is surely to

be considered a strange, bizarre creature.

An 'abnormal' 8 man - what kind of man is he, if 1 may ask?

The answer: An 'abnormal' man is one who is totally different from

other men, while being in perfect conformity with Heaven. Hence the

saying: a petty man from the viewpoint of Heaven is, from the

viewpoint of ordinary men, a man of princely virtue; 9 while a man of

princely virtue ftom the viewpoint of Heaven is, from the viewpoint

of ordinary men, a petty man.

Thus the Perfect Man, by the very fact that he is in perfect confor-

mity with Heaven, is in every respect in discordance with ordinary

men. His behavior pattern is so totally different from the commonly

accepted one that it excludes him from 'normal' human society. The

latter necessarily regards him as 'abnormal'. He is 'abnormal'

because the Way itself with which he is in perfect conformity is,

1

432

from the standpoint of the common people, something strange and

'abnormal', so 'abnormal' indeed that they treat it as funny and

ridiculous. As Lao-tsu says:

When a man of low grade hears about the Way, he bursts into laughter.

If it is not laughed at, it would not be worthy to be the Way. 10

If the Way is of such a nature that it looks not only strange and

obscure but even funny and ridiculous, it is but natural that the

Perfect Man who is a living image of the Way should also look

ridiculous or sometimes vexatious and unbearably irritating.

Chuang-tsu often describes in his Book the 'strange' behavior of the 'abnormal'.

Once a disciple of Confucius - this is of course' a fictitious story -

saw two 'abnormal' men merrily and playfully singing in unison in

the presence of the corpse of their friend, another 'abnormal' man,

instead of duly performing the funeral service. Vexed and indig-

nant, he hastened back and reported to his Master what he had just

seen. 'What sort of men are they?' he asked Confucius.

'What sort of men are they? They do not observe the rules of proper

behavior. They do not care at ail about external forms. In the pres-

ence of the corpse they sing a song, without even changing their

countenances. Their conduct (is so abnormal that) 1 am completely at

a loss to characterize them. What kind of men are they?'

Qui te ironically, Chuang-tzu makes Confucius perspicacious

enough to understand the real situation in terms of Taoist philos-

ophy and explain the nature of their conduct to his perplexed

disciple. Here is what Confucius says about it.

They are those who freely wander beyond the boundaries (i.e., the

ordinary norms of proper behavior), while men like myself are th ose

who wander freely only within the boundaries. 'Beyond the bound-

aries' and 'within the boundaries' are poles asunder from one another. ...

They are those who, being completely unified with the Creator

Himself, take delight in the realm (i.e., spiritual state) of the original

Unity of the vital energy before it is divided into Heaven and Earth.

To their minds Life is just the growth of an excrescence, a wart, and

Death is the breaking of a boil, the bursting of a tumor. ... They

simply borrow different elements, and put them together in the

common form of body (i.e., in their view a human being is a compo-

site made of different elements which by chance are placed together

into a bodily unit). Hence they are conscious neither of their liver nor

of their gall, and they leave aside their ears and eyes. Abandoning

themselves to infinitely recurrent waves of Ending and Beginning,

they go on revolving in a circle, of which they know neither the

beginning-point nor the ending-point.

T

l'

433

Thus, without being conscious (of their persona} existence), they

roam beyond the realm of dust and dirt, and enjoy wandering to their

heart's content in the work of Non-Doing.

How should such men bother themselves with meticulously observ-

ing the rules of conduct peculiar to the vulgar world, so that they

might attract (i.e., satisfy) the ears and eyes of the common

people? 11

Thus the behavior pattern of these men necessarily brings about a

complete overturn of the commonly accepted order of values. Of

course it is not their intention to turn upside down the ordinary

system of values. But as these men live and behave in this world,

their conduct naturally reftects a very peculiar standard of values,

which could never square with that accepted by common sense and

Reason.

Chuang-tzu expresses this idea in a number of ways. As one of the

most interesting expressions he uses for this purpose we may men-

tion the paradoxical-sounding phrase: 'deforming, or crippling the

virtues'. 12 After relating how a man of hideous deformity - Shu the

Crippled- because of his deformity, completes his term of life safely

and pleasantly, Chuang-tzu makes the following observation:

If even a man with such a crippled body was able to support himself

and complete the span of life that had been assigned to him by

Heaven, how much more should this be the case with those who have

'crippled the virtues' ! 13

To 'cripple' or' deform' the virtues is a forceful expression meaning:

to damage and overturn the common hierarchy of values. And sin ce

the system of values on which is based the mode of living or

principle of existence peculiar to these 'cripples' is thus radically

opposed to that of the common people, their real greatness cannot

be recognized by the latter. Even the most sophisticated man of

Reason - Reason being, after all, an elaboration of common sense -

fails to understand the significance of the 'abnormal' way of living,

although he may at least vaguely sense that he is in the presence of

something great.

Hui Shih (Hui-tzu), a famous dialectician of Chuang-tzu's time,

of whom mention was made earlier, 14 criticizes Chuang-tzu -in one

of the anecdotes about this 'sophist' recorded in the Book of

Chuang-tzu - and remarks that Chuang-tzu's thought is certainly

'big', but it is too big to be of any use in the world of reality. It is 'big

but crippled'. Against this Chuang-tzu points out that the eyes of

those who are tied down to a stereotyped and fossilized system of

traditional values cannot see the greatness of the really great.

Besides, he says, things that are 'useful' in the real sense of the term

are those things that transcend the common notion of 'usefulness'.

434 

The 'usefulness' of the 'useless', the greatness of the 'abnormal', in

short, an absolute reversai of the order of values - this is what

characterizes the world-view of the Perfect Man.

Let us, first, see how Hui-tzii describes the 'uselessness' of things

that are 'abnormally big'.

The king of Wei once gave me the seeds of a huge gourd. 1 sowed

them, and finally they bore fruit. Each gourd was big enough to

con tain as mu ch as five piculs. 1 used one of them to con tain water and

other liquids; but 1 found that it was so heavy that 1 could not lift it by

myself. So 1 eut it into two pieces and tried to use them as ladies. But

they were too fiat and shallow to hold any liquid.

Not that it was not big enough. Big it surely was, to the degree of

monstrosity! But it was utterly useless. So 1 ended up by smashing

them ail to pieces. 15

lt is interesting to notice that Hui-tzu does recognize the gourds as

big, very big indeed. But their excessive bigness renders them

unsuitable for any practical use. Through this symbol he wants to

indicate that the spiritual size of the Perfect Man may be very large,

but that when his spiritual size exceeds a certain limit, it turns him

practically into a stupid fellow. This, however, only provokes a

sharp retort from Chuang-tzu, who points out that Hui-tzu has

found the gourd to be of no use 'simply because he does not know

how to use big things properly'. And he adds:

Now that you had a gourd big enough to contain as much as five

piculs, why did it not occur to you that you might use it as a large

barrel? You could have enjoyed floating over rivers and lakes,

instead of worrying about its being too big and shallow to con tain any

liquid! Evidently, my dear friend, you still have a mind overgrown

with weeds! 16

Exactly the same kind of situation is found in another anecdote

which immediately follows the preceding one.

Hui-tzu once said to Chuang-tzu: 'I have (in my garden) a big tree,

which is popularly called shu ( useless, stinking tree). Its main stem is

gnarled as with tumors, and nobody can apply a measuring line to it.

Its branches are so curled and bent that no one can use upon them

compass and square. Even if 1 should make it stand by the thorough-

fare (in order to sell it), no carpenter would even cast a glance at it.

Now your words, too, are extremely big, but of no use. That is why

people desert them and nobody wants to listen to you'.

Chuang-tzu said: 'You must have observed a weasel, how it hides

itself crouching down, and watches for carelessly sauntering things

(i.e., chickens, rats, etc.) to pass by. Sometimes, again, it nimbly leaps

about east and west, jumping up and jumping down without any

hesitation. But finally it falls into a trap or dies in a net.

435

Now look at that black ox. It is as big as an enormous cloud hanging in

the sky. It is big, indeed! And it does not know how to catch a rat. (It

is useless in this sense, but it does not die in a trap or a net.)

You say you have a big tree, and you are worried because it is useless.

Weil, then, why do you not plant it in the Village of There-Is-

Absolutely-Nothing,11 or in the Wilderness of the Limitlessly-

Wide, 18 idly spend your days by its side without doing anything, and

lie down under it for an untroubled sleep?

The tree, then, will neversuffer a premature death by being eut down

by an axe. Nor will there be anything there to harm it. If it happens to

be of no use, why sbould it cause you to fret and worry?' 19

The passage just quoted, in which Chuang-tzü clarifies his attitude

against the kind of rationalism and utilitarianism represented by

Hui-tzu is of great importance for our purposes, containing as it

does in a symbolic form some of the basic ideas of Chuang-tzu.

These ideas are so closely interrelated with each other that it is

difficult to deal with them separately. Besides, some of them have

already been discussed in detail in connection with other problems,

and others are directly or indirectly related with those that have

been touched upon in the foregoing. Here for convenience 1 will

classify them under four heads, and discuss them briefly one by one

from the particular viewpoint of the present chapter. These four

are: (1) The image of a strange, fantastic region which is designated

by such expressions as the Village of There-Is-Absolutely-Nothing

and the Wilderness of the Limitlessly-Wide; (2) the idea of idling

away one's time; (3) 'abnormal bigness'; and ( 4) the idea of free

wandering.

(1) The two expressions: the Village of There-Is-Absolutely-

Nothing and the Wilderness of the Limitlessly-Wide, are very

characteristic of the philosophical anthropology of Chuang-tzu.

They describe symbolically the spiritual state in which the Perfect

Man finds his absolu te tranquillity and freedom. In another passage

Chuang-tzu gives us a hint - symbolically, again - through the

mouth of a fictitious Perfect Man20 as to what he means by these

terms.

1 am going to unify myself with the Creator Himself. But when 1

become bored with that, immediately 1 will mount on the Bird-of-

Pure-Emptiness and travel beyond the limits of the six directions

(i.e., the Universe).

There 1 shall wander to my heart's content in the Village of There-

Is-Absolutely-Nothing and live alone in the Wilderness of the

Limitlessly-Wide.21

In the light of what we already know about the major ideas of

Chuang-tzü, the 'Village of There-Is-Absolutely-Nothing' or the

436 

'Wilderness of the Limitlessly-Wide' evidently refer to the spiritual

state of Nothingness or Void in which the perfect Man finds himself

in the moments of his ecstatic experience. At the highest stage of

'sitting in oblivion' the mind of the Perfect Man is in a peculiar kind

of blankness. AU traces of phenomenal things have been erased

from his consciousness; even consciousness itself has been erased.

There is here no distinction between 'subject' and 'abject'. For both

mind and things have completely disappeared. He is now an

inhabitant of a strange metaphysical region which is 'limitlessly

wide' and where 'there is absolutely nothing'.

This, however, is but the first half of his being an inhabitant of the

Village of There-Is-Absolutely-Nothing or the Wilderness of the

Limitlessly-Wide. In the second half of this experience, the reality

of the phenomenal world begins to be disclosed to his spirituaUy

transformed eyes. AU the things that have once been wiped out

from his consciousness - including his own consciousness - corne

back to him in an entirely new form. Being reborn at a new level of

existence, he is now in a position to command an extensive and

unobstructed view of the whole world of Being as it pulsates with

eternal life, in which infinitely variegated things corne and go,

appear and disappear at every moment. We know already that this

aspect of the Perfect Man, namely, his being an inhabitant of the

region of Nothingness and Limitlessness, is discussed by Chuang-

tzu in a more philosophical way as the problem of the Transmuta-

tion of aU things.

Being perfectly familiar with that which has no falsehood (i.e., the

true Reality, the Way), he does not shift about driven by the shifting

things. 22 He regards the universal Transmutation of things as (the

direct manifestation of) the Heavenly Command, and holds fast to

(i.e., keeps his inner gaze inalterably focused upon) their Great

Source. 23

(2) The Idea of idling away one's time is closely related to the idea of

living in the region of Nothingness and Limitlessness. For the Per-

fect Man cannot be an inhabitant of such a country unless he is idling

away his time, doing nothing and enjoying from time to time an

untroubled sleep. 'To be idle' is a symbolic way of expressing the

basic idea of Non-Doing. The principle of Non-Doing which, as we

saw earlier, represents, for Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu, the highest

mode of human existence in this world, demands of the Perfect Man

'being natural' and leaving everything in its natural state and toits

natural course. He does not meddle with the fate of anything. This is.

the 'indifference' of the Perfect Man to the ten thousand things, of

which mention was made earlier.

But 'indifference' in this case does not imply ignorance or lack of

437

cognition. On the contrary, aU things, as they corne and go, are

faithfully reftected in the 'void' of the mind of the Perfect Man. His

mind in this respect is comparable to a spotless mirror. A weU-

polished mirror reftects every object, as long as the latter stands in

front of it. But if the abject goes away, the mirror does not show any

effort to detain it; nor does it particularly welcome a new abject

when it makes its appearance. Thus the mind of the Perfect Man

obtains the most lucid images of aU things, but is not perturbed

thereby.

(The Perfect Man) 24 does not become the sole possessor of fa me, (but

lets each thing possess its own fame). He does not become the

treasury of plans (but lets each thing make a plan for itself). He does

not undertake the responsibility for ail things, (but lets each thing

undertake the responsibility for itself). He does not become the sole

possessor of wisdom, (but lets each thing exercise its own wisdom).

He embodies completely what is inexhaustible (i.e., the 'limitless'

activity of the Way), and wanders to his heart's content in the

Land-of-No-Trace (i.e., the region of Nothingness).

He employs to the utmost what he has received from Heaven, and yet

he is not conscious of having acquired something. He is 'empty' -that

is what he is.

The 'ultimate man' makes his mind work as a (spotless) mirror. It

detains nothing. It welcomes nothing. It simply responds to, and

reftects, (whatever cornes toit). But it stores nothing. This is why he

can exercise mastery over ail things, and is not hurt by anything. 25

1 have heard that if a mirror is well-polished, dust cannot settle upon

its surface; (that is to say) if dust settles upon a mirror, (we can be

sure that) the mirror is not well-polished. 26

The image of the perfectly polished mirror as a symbol for the state

of the mind of the Perfect Man is found also in the Tao Tê Ching.

Purifying your Mysterious Mirror, can you make it spotless? 27

Thus the Perfect Man does not do anything - that is, with the

intention of doing something. The moment a man does something,

his very consciousness of doing it renders his action 'unnatural'.

Instead, the Perfect Man leaves all things, himself and all other

things, to their own natures. This is the meaning of the term Non-

Doing (wu wei). And sin ce he does not do anything, he leaves

nothing undone. By virtue of his Non-Doing, he ultimately does

everything. For in that state, his being is identical with Nature. And

Nature accomplishes everything without forcing anything.

(3) The 'abnormal bigness' of the Perfect Man has produced a

number of remarkable symbols in the Book of Chuang-tzu. We

have already seen some of them: the huge gourd which is too big to

438 

be of any use, the big useless shu-tree in the garden of Hui-tzii, the

black ox, lying in the meadow, doing nothing, being unable to catch

even a rat. These, however, are relatively homely symbols; they are

things of a moderate size compared with others which we find in the

same Book. As an example of such fantastic symbols, we may

mention the famous story of a huge mythical Bird, which we

encounter on the very first page of the Chuang-tzu.

In the dark mysterious ocean of the north (i.e., the northern Iimit of

the world) there lives a Fish whose name is K'un. Its size is so huge

that nobody knows how many thousand miles it is.

(When at last the time of Transmutation cornes) the Fish is trans-

muted into a Bird known as P' êng. The back of the P' êng is so large

that nobody knows how many thousand miles it is.

Now the Bird suddenly pulls itself together and fties off. Lo, its wings

are like huge clouds hanging in the sky. And as the ocean begins to be

turbulent (with raging storms of wind) the Bird intends to journey

towards the dark mysterious ocean of the south. The southern ocean

is the lake of Heaven.

In fact, in the Book entitled Ch'i Hsieh 28 which records strange events

and things, we find the following description (of this Bird). 'Wh en the

P' êng sets off for the dark mysterious ocean of the sou th, it begins by

beating with its wings the surface of the water for three thousand

miles. Then up it goes on a whirlwind to the height of ninety thousand

miles. Then it continues to fty for six months before it rests' .29

This is immediately followed by a masterly description of the impre-

ssion which the Bird is supposed to receive when it looks down upon

our earth from the height of ninety thousand miles. The Bird is

already wandering in a region which is far above the 'worldly' world

where all kinds of material interests and inordinate desires are

bubbling and foaming in an endless turmoil. It is not that the Bird

does not see the 'dirty' world of vulgarity. The 'dirty' world is still

there, under the Bird. The only difference is that the world looked

down from this vertiginous height strikes the Bird's eyes as some-

thing beautiful, infinitely beautiful - another symbolic expression

for the way the mind of the Perfect Man mirrors everything on its

spotless surface.

(Look at the world we live in. You will see there) ground vapor

stirring; dust and dirt ftying about; the living things blowing (fetid)

breaths upon each other!

The sky above, on the contrary, is an immense expanse of deep blue.

Is this azure the re.al color of the sky? Or does it look (so beautifully

blue) because it is at suèh a distance from us? (However this may be),

the Bird now, looking down from its height, will surely be perceiving

nothing but a similar thing, (i.e., our 'dirty' world must appear to the

eyes of the Bird as a beautiful blue expanse).30

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Chuang-tzii brings this description of the Bird's journey to an end

by going back again to the idea of the 'bigness' of the Bird and the

corresponding 'bigness' of its situation. By the force of his pen, the

Bird is now alive in our imagination as an apt symbol for the Perfect

Man who, transcending the pettiness and triviality of human exist-

ence is freely wandering in the 'void' of Infinity and Nothingness.

(Wh y does the Bird soar up to such a height?) If the accumulation of

water is not thick enough, it will not have the strength to bear a big

ship. If you pour a cup of water into a hollow on the ground, tiny

atoms of dust will easily ftoat on it as if they were ships. If, however,

you place a cup there, it will stick fast to the ground, because the

water is too shallow while the 'ship' is too large.

(Likewise) if the accumulation of wind is not thick enough, it will not

have the strength to support huge wings. But at the height of ninety

thousand miles, the (thick accumulation of) wind is under the Bird.

Only under such conditions can it mou nt on the back of the wind, and

carry the blue sky on its back, without there being anything to

obstruct its ftight. And now it is in a position to journey toward the

south.31

Here the Perfect Man is pictured as a colossal Bird, soaring along far

above the world of common sense. The Bird is 'big', and the whole

situation in which it moves is correspondingly 'big'. But this exces-

sive 'bigness' of the Perfect Man makes him utterly incomprehens-

ible, or even ridiculous, in the eyes of the common people who have

no other standard of judgment than common sense. We have

already seen above how Lao-tzu, in reference to the 'abnormality'

of the Way, makes the paradoxical remark that the Way, if it is not

laughed at by 'men of low grade', would not be worthy to be

considered the Way. In fact, the Bird P'êng is 'abnormally big'.

Chuang-tzu symbolizes the 'men of low grade' who laugh at the

'bigness' of the Perfect Man by a cicada and a little <love.

A cicada and a little dove laugh scornfully at the Bird and say, 'When

we pluck up all our energies to fty, we can reach an elm or sapanwood

tree. But (even in such ftights) we sometimes do not succeed, and are

thrown down on the ground. (Of small scale it may be, but our ftightis

also a ftight.) Why is it at all necessary that (the Bird) should rise

ninety thousand miles in order to journey towards the south?'

A man who goes on a picnic to a near-by field, will go out carrying

food sufficient only for three meals; and he will corne back (in the

evening) with his stomach still full. But he who makes a journey to a

distance of one hundred miles, will grind his grain in preparation the

night before. And he who travels a thousand miles, will begin to

gather provisions three months in advance.

What do these two creatures (i.e., the cicada and the dove) know

about (the real situation of the Bird)? Those who possess but petty

440 

wisdom are not able to understand the mind of those who possess

Great Wisdom.32

This description of the imaginery flight of the Bird P' êng across the

world is a very famous one. It is significant that the passage is placed

at the very outset of the whole Book of Chuang-tzu. The uninitiated

reader who approaches the Book for the first time will simply be

shocked by the un cou th symbols that constitute the story, and will

be driven into bewilderment not knowing how to interpret the

whole thing. But by this very bewilderment, be will be directly led

into the strange mythopoeic atmosphere which is typical of what we

might call the shamanic mode of thinking. Unlike the ordinary kind

of shamanic visions, however, there reigns over this image of the

Bird' s journey an unusual air of serenity, purity, and tranquillity.

And this is a reflection of the inner state of the Perfect Man who is

no longer a mere 'shaman', but rather a great 'philosopher' in the

original Greek sense of the word.

Be this as it may, the forceful, dynamic style of Chuang-tzu and

bis creative imagination has succeeded in producing an amazing

symbol for the spiritual 'greatness' of the Perfect Man.

( 4) As regards the idea of free wandering, there remains little to say.

For the foregoing description of the flight of the Bird is itself an

excellent description of the 'free wandering' as well as of the 'big-

ness' of the Perfect Man.

The 'free wandering' is a symbolic expression for the absolute

freedom which the Perfect Man enjoys at every moment of bis

existence. What is meant by 'absolute freedom' must be, by now,

too clear to need any further explanation. The Perfect Man is

absolutely free, because he is not dependent upon anything. And be

is not dependent upon anything because be is completely unified

with the Way, there being no discrepancy between what be does and

what Heaven-and-Earth does. In the following passage, Chuang-

tzu, from the viewpoint of 'dependence' and 'independence',

<livides men into four major categories. The first is the man of 'petty

wisdom'; the second is the man of middle wisdom, represented by

Sung Jung-tzu;33 the third is the man of 'great wisdom' who is still

somewhat defective in his spiritual perfection, represented by the

famous Taoist sage Lieh-tzu; and the fourth and the last is the man

of ultimate perfection, who is the real Perfect Man.

Here is a man whose wisdom is good enough to make him suitable for

occupying with success an official post, whose conduct is good

enough to produce harmony in one district, whose virtue is good

enough to please one sovereign, and whose ability is good enough to

make him conspicuous in the politics of one state. Such a man looks

441

upon himself with self-conceit just like (the above-mentioned small

creatures). 34

Sung Jung-tzü would surely laugh at such a man. Sung is the kind of

man who, even if the whole world should praise him, would not be

stimulated thereby to increase his usual (moral) exertion, and even if

the whole world should blame him, would not be affected thereby

and become disheartened.

This is due to the fact that he draws a clear line of demarcation

between the internai and the external. 35 He is; th us, clearly conscious

of the boundaries of real glory and real disgrace. This makes him

rather indifferent to petty interests in this world. However, he

is not yet firmly established (i.e., completely self-sufficient and

independent).

Next cornes Lieh-tzu. 36 He rides on the wind and goes wandering

about with amazing skilfulness. He usually cornes back to earth after

fifteen days (of continuous ftight). He is not at ail interested in

obtaining happiness. Besides, (his ability to fty) saves him the trouble

of walking. And yet, he has still to be dependent upon something

(i.e., the wind).

As for the man (of absolu te freedom and independence) who mounts

on the natural course of Heaven and Earth, controls at will the six

elemental forms of Nature, and freely wanders through the realm of

the Limitlessness - on what should he be dependent?

Therefore it is said: The Ultimate Man has no ego, (and having no

ego, he adapts himself to everything and every event with Iimitless

ftexibility). The Divine Man has no merit (because he does nothing

intentionally). The Sacred Man has no fame (because he transcends

ail worldly values). 37

The last of the four classes of men here described is the Perfect Man.

And the 'free wandering' is nothing other than a symbolic expres-

sion for the absolute spiritual independence which characterizes his

mode of existence in this world. It refers to his absolute Freedom,

his not being retained in one place, and his not being tied to any

particular thing. The expression is also interesting in that it is

evocative of the original form of the Taoist Perfect Man as a shaman

who, in his ecstatic state, used to make a mythopoeic journey

around the limitless uni verse freely, without being obstructed by the

shackles of his material body. The first chapter of the Book of

Chuang-tzu is entitled 'Free Wandering'. It is not, 1 think, a mere

coïncidence that one of the masterpieces of shamanic poetry, Yüan

Yu ('Traveling Afar'), which is found in the Elegies of Ch'u, pres-

ents striking similarities to the mythopoeic part of the world-view of

Taoism. Both the Taoist Perfect Man and the great Shaman of Ch'u

'mount on the clouds, ride a flying dragon, and wander far beyond

the four seas' . 38

442

Notes

1. l]JJ,.

2. Analects, VII, 25.

3. ibid., VII, 33.

4. The 'minutest thing' here means the Way as it manifests itself within the mind of

man. The shaman-mystic, by closing up ail the apertures of the senses and the

intelligence, turns back into the depth of himself, where he perceives the Way

working as a very 'small thing'.

5. For the idea that the 'sacred man' constantly maintains the flexibility of the mind

of an infant, see above, Chapter IX, p. 144. The point will be further elaborated in

the following chapter.

6. U:'ft. For an explanation of the meaning of this expression, see above, Chapter V.

Note 29.

7. Tao Tê Ching, LII.

8. Chi jên !15jA.

; 9. The ordinary text reads: r A.Z.ttr, xz1J,A-ti!.J which, as Wang Hsien Ch'ien

remarks, does nothing but repeat exactly the same thing as the first half of the

sentence in a reversed order: r;zz.,J,A., AZ.tir J. Following bis suggestion 1 read the

second half: l;RZ.tFf-, AZ'J'ÀJ (:r?t•: !Jl:Er!tMJ); Chuang-tzu, VI, p. 273.

10. Tao Tê Ching, XLI.

11. Chuang-tzu, VI, pp. 267-268.

12. Chih li tê, :it•ii.

13. op. cit., IV, p. 180.

14. See Chapter 1, Note 15.

15. op. cit., 1, p. 36.

16. ibid., p. 37.

17. 1!!1ifiiJfl"Z.MI.

18. /JiJtz!f.

19. op. cit., 1, pp. 39-40.

20. It is interesting that the name of that Perfect Man is 'Nameless-Man'.

21. op. cit., VII, p. 293. See also VII, p. 296: l.îz::P.ïf'mtl,

22. This does not simply mean that the Perfect Man remains rigidly fixed and devoid

of flexibility. On the contrary, he goes on shifting himself in accordance with the

r Absolute Reversai of Values 443

universal Transmutation of ail things. Since he is in this way completely unified with

ever-changing Nature, ail the 'shifts' he makes ultimately amount to bis being

change Jess.

23. op. cit., V, p. 189.

24. In this passage, the Perfect Man is designated by the term chi jên ?t.A, 'ultimate

man', one of the several terms which Chuang-tzu uses to express the concept of the

Perfect Man.

25. op. cit., VII, p. 307.

26. ibid., V, p. 197.

27. Tao Tê Ching, X.

28. J'f.m , 'Equalizing Harmony' or the ' ( Cosmic) Harmony in which all things are

equalized', a title very typical of Chuang-tzu's ontology (see Chapter III, Chapter

IV). Sorne scholars are of the opinion that this is not the title of the book, but the

name of its author. In any case, it is apparently an invention of Chuang-tzii.'s

imagination. He simply wants to imitate jokingly and sarcastically the habit of the

thinkers of his age who substantiate their assertions by making references to ancient

authorities.

29. Chuang-tzu, 1, pp. 2-4.

30. ibid., I, p. 4.

31. ibid., 1, p. 7.

32. ibid., 1, pp. 9-11.

33. Sung Jung-tzu ( = Sung Chien 5f(iif ), a man who was fa mous for his

teaching of pacifism and non-resistance. His thought is expounded in the last chapter

(XXXIII) ofthe Chuang-tzu. His name is mentioned also by Mencius, Hsün-tzu, and

Han Fei-tzu.

34. Like the cicada and the little dove who scornfully laugh at the 'big' project of the

big Bird.

35. He knows that what is really important is the inner judgment of himself, and

therefore, does not care about how other people judge him from outside.

36. Traditionally, Lieh-tzu is considered to have been a Perfect Man who, together

with Chuang-tzu, represented the school of Taoist philosophy that had been inaug-

urated by Lao-tzu. He is made to stand chronologically between Lao-tzu and

Chuang-tzti.

37. op. cit., I, pp. 16-17.

38. ibid., 1, p. 28.