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Karma - Wikipedia 업(業), 업보(業報), 카르마

Karma - Wikipedia


Karma

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This article is about the Indian religious concept. For other uses, see Karma (disambiguation).
Endless knot
Endless knot on Nepalese temple prayer wheel
Karma symbols such as the endless knot (above) are common cultural motifs in Asia. Endless knots symbolize interlinking of cause and effect, a karmic cycle that continues eternally. The endless knot is visible in the center of the prayer wheel.
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Karma (/ˈkɑːrmə/, from Sanskrit: कर्म, IPA: [ˈkɐɾmɐ] ⓘ; Pali: kamma) is a concept of action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences.[1] In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called the principle of karma, wherein individuals' intent and actions (cause) influence their future (effect):[2] Good intent and good deeds contribute to good karma and happier rebirths, while bad intent and bad deeds contribute to bad karma and bad rebirths. In some scriptures, however, there is no link between rebirth and karma.[3][4] Karma is often misunderstood as fate, destiny, or predetermination.[5]

The concept of karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Indian religions (particularly in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism),[6] as well as Taoism.[7] In these schools, karma in the present affects one's future in the current life as well as the nature and quality of future lives—one's saṃsāra.[8][9] This concept has also been adopted in Western popular culture, in which the events that happen after a person's actions may be considered natural consequences of those actions.

Definition

The term karma (Sanskrit: कर्म; Pali: kamma) refers to both the executed 'deed, work, action, act' and the 'object, intent'.[3]

Wilhelm Halbfass (2000) explains karma (karman) by contrasting it with the Sanskrit word kriya:[3] whereas kriya is the activity along with the steps and effort in action, karma is (1) the executed action as a consequence of that activity, as well as (2) the intention of the actor behind an executed action or a planned action (described by some scholars[10] as metaphysical residue left in the actor). A good action creates good karma, as does good intent. A bad action creates bad karma, as does bad intent.[3]

Difficulty in arriving at a definition of karma arises because of the diversity of views among the schools of Hinduism; some, for example, consider karma and rebirth linked and simultaneously essential, some consider karma but not rebirth to be essential, and a few discuss and conclude karma and rebirth to be flawed fiction.[11] Buddhism and Jainism have their own karma precepts. Thus, karma has not one, but multiple definitions and different meanings.[12] It is a concept whose meaning, importance, and scope varies between the various traditions that originated in India, and various schools in each of these traditions. Wendy O'Flaherty claims that, furthermore, there is an ongoing debate regarding whether karma is a theory, a model, a paradigm, a metaphor, or a metaphysical stance.[13]

Principle of karma

Karma also refers to a conceptual principle that originated in India, often descriptively called the principle of karma, and sometimes the karma-theory or the law of karma.[14]

In the context of theory, karma is complex and difficult to define.[13] Different schools of Indology derive different definitions for the concept from ancient Indian texts; their definition is some combination of (1) causality that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, i.e., good or bad actions have consequences; and (3) rebirth.[13][15] Other Indologists include in the definition that which explains the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in the past. These actions may be those in a person's current life, or, in some schools of Indian traditions, possibly actions in their past lives; furthermore, the consequences may result in the current life, or a person's future lives.[13][16] The law of karma operates independent of any deity or any process of divine judgment.[17]

Causality

Karma as action and reaction: if we show goodness, we will reap goodness

A common theme to theories of karma is its principle of causality.[14] This relationship between karma and causality is a central motif in all schools of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain thought.[18] One of the earliest associations of karma to causality occurs in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad verses 4.4.5–6:

Now as a man is like this or like that,
according as he acts and according as he behaves, so will he be;
a man of good acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad;
he becomes pure by pure deeds, bad by bad deeds;

And here they say that a person consists of desires,
and as is his desire, so is his will;
and as is his will, so is his deed;
and whatever deed he does, that he will reap.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, [19][note 1]

The theory of karma as causation holds that: (1) executed actions of an individual affects the individual and the life he or she lives, and (2) the intentions of an individual affects the individual and the life he or she lives. Disinterested actions, or unintentional actions do not have the same positive or negative karmic effect, as interested and intentional actions. In Buddhism, for example, actions that are performed, or arise, or originate without any bad intent, such as covetousness, are considered non-existent in karmic impact or neutral in influence to the individual.[21]

Another causality characteristic, shared by karmic theories, is that like deeds lead to like effects. Thus, good karma produces good effect on the actor, while bad karma produces bad effect. This effect may be material, moral, or emotional – that is, one's karma affects both one's happiness and unhappiness.[18] The effect of karma need not be immediate; the effect of karma can be later in one's current life, and in some schools it extends to future lives.[22]

The consequence or effects of one's karma can be described in two forms: phala and samskara. A phala (lit. 'fruit' or 'result') is the visible or invisible effect that is typically immediate or within the current life. In contrast, a samskara (Sanskrit: संस्कार) is an invisible effect, produced inside the actor because of the karma, transforming the agent and affecting his or her ability to be happy or unhappy in their current and future lives. The theory of karma is often presented in the context of samskaras.[18][23]

Karl Potter and Harold Coward suggest that karmic principle can also be understood as a principle of psychology and habit.[14][24][note 2] Karma seeds habits (vāsanā), and habits create the nature of man. Karma also seeds self perception, and perception influences how one experiences life-events. Both habits and self perception affect the course of one's life. Breaking bad habits is not easy: it requires conscious karmic effort.[14][26] Thus, psyche and habit, according to Potter and Coward, link karma to causality in ancient Indian literature.[14][24] The idea of karma may be compared to the notion of a person's 'character', as both are an assessment of the person and determined by that person's habitual thinking and acting.[9]

Ethicization

The second theme common to karma theories is ethicization. This begins with the premise that every action has a consequence,[8] which will come to fruition in either this life or a future life; thus, morally good acts will have positive consequences, whereas bad acts will produce negative results. An individual's present situation is thereby explained by reference to actions in his present or in previous lifetimes. Karma is not itself 'reward and punishment', but the law that produces consequence.[27] Wilhelm Halbfass notes that good karma is considered as dharma and leads to punya ('merit'), while bad karma is considered adharma and leads to pāp ('demerit, sin').[28]

Reichenbach (1988) suggests that the theories of karma are an ethical theory.[18] This is so because the ancient scholars of India linked intent and actual action to the merit, reward, demerit, and punishment. A theory without ethical premise would be a pure causal relation; the merit or reward or demerit or punishment would be same regardless of the actor's intention. In ethics, one's intentions, attitudes, and desires matter in the evaluation of one's action. Where the outcome is unintended, the moral responsibility for it is less on the actor, even though causal responsibility may be the same regardless.[18] A karma theory considers not only the action, but also the actor's intentions, attitude, and desires before and during the action. The karma concept thus encourages each person to seek and live a moral life, as well as avoid an immoral life. The meaning and significance of karma is thus as a building-block of an ethical theory.[29]

Rebirth

The third common theme of karma theories is the concept of reincarnation or the cycle of rebirths (saṃsāra).[8][30][31] Rebirth is a fundamental concept of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.[9] Rebirth, or saṃsāra, is the concept that all life forms go through a cycle of reincarnation, that is, a series of births and rebirths. The rebirths and consequent life may be in different realm, condition, or form. The karma theories suggest that the realm, condition, and form depends on the quality and quantity of karma.[32] In schools that believe in rebirth, every living being's soul transmigrates (recycles) after death, carrying the seeds of Karmic impulses from life just completed, into another life and lifetime of karmas.[8][12] This cycle continues indefinitely, except for those who consciously break this cycle by reaching moksha. Those who break the cycle reach the realm of gods, those who do not continue in the cycle.

The concept has been intensely debated in ancient literature of India; with different schools of Indian religions considering the relevance of rebirth as either essential, or secondary, or unnecessary fiction.[11] Hiriyanna (1949) suggests rebirth to be a necessary corollary of karma;[33] Yamunacharya (1966) asserts that karma is a fact, while reincarnation is a hypothesis;[34] and Creel (1986) suggests that karma is a basic concept, rebirth is a derivative concept.[35]

The theory of 'karma and rebirth' raises numerous questions – such as how, when, and why did the cycle start in the first place, what is the relative Karmic merit of one karma versus another and why, and what evidence is there that rebirth actually happens, among others. Various schools of Hinduism realized these difficulties, debated their own formulations – some reaching what they considered as internally consistent theories – while other schools modified and de-emphasized it; a few schools in Hinduism such as Charvakas (or Lokayata) abandoned the theory of 'karma and rebirth' altogether.[3][28][36][37] Schools of Buddhism consider karma-rebirth cycle as integral to their theories of soteriology.[38][39]

Early development

Lotus symbolically represents karma in many Asian traditions. A blooming lotus flower is one of the few flowers that simultaneously carries seeds inside itself while it blooms. Seed is symbolically seen as cause, the flower effect. Lotus is also considered as a reminder that one can grow, share good karma and remain unstained even in muddy circumstances[40]

The Vedic Sanskrit word kárman- (nominative kárma) means 'work' or 'deed',[41] often used in the context of Srauta rituals.[42] In the Rigveda, the word occurs some 40 times.[41] In Satapatha Brahmana 1.7.1.5, sacrifice is declared as the "greatest" of works; Satapatha Brahmana 10.1.4.1 associates the potential of becoming immortal (amara) with the karma of the agnicayana sacrifice.[41]

In the early Vedic literature, the concept of karma is also present beyond the realm of rituals or sacrifices. The Vedic language includes terms for sins and vices such as āgas, agha, enas, pāpa/pāpman, duṣkṛta, as well as for virtues and merit like sukṛta and puṇya, along with the neutral term karman.

Whatever good deed man does that is inside the Vedi; and whatever evil he does that is outside the Vedi.

— Shatapatha Brahmana 11.2.7.33

The verse refers to the evaluation of virtuous and sinful actions in the afterlife. Regardless of their application in rituals (whether within or outside the Vedi), the concepts of good and evil here broadly represent merits and sins.

What evil is done here by man, that it (i.e. speech = Brahman) makes manifest. Although he thinks that he does it secretly, as it were, still it makes it manifest. Verily, therefore one should not commit evil.

— Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana 2.13.5

This is the eternal greatness of the Brahmin. He does not increase by kárman, nor does he become less. His ātman knows the path. Knowing him (the ātman) one is not polluted by evil karman.

— Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 3.12.9, 7–8

The Vedic words for "action" and "merit" in pre-Upaniṣadic texts carry moral significance and are not solely linked to ritual practices. The word karman simply means "action," which can be either positive or negative, and is not always associated with religious ceremonies; its predominant association with ritual in the Brāhmaṇa texts is likely a reflection of their ritualistic nature. In the same vein, sukṛta (and subsequently, puṇya) denotes any form of "merit," whether it be ethical or ritualistic. In contrast, terms such as pāpa and duṣkṛta consistently represent morally wrong actions.[43]

The earliest clear discussion of the karma doctrine is in the Upanishads.[8][41] The doctrine occurs here in the context of a discussion of the fate of the individual after death.[44] For example, causality and ethicization is stated in Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.2.13:[45][46]

Truly, one becomes good through good deeds, and evil through evil deeds.

Some authors state that the samsara (transmigration) and karma doctrine may be non-Vedic, and the ideas may have developed in the "shramana" traditions that preceded Buddhism and Jainism.[47] Others state that some of the complex ideas of the ancient emerging theory of karma flowed from Vedic thinkers to Buddhist and Jain thinkers.[13][48] The mutual influences between the traditions is unclear, and likely co-developed.[49]

Many philosophical debates surrounding the concept are shared by the Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist traditions, and the early developments in each tradition incorporated different novel ideas.[50] For example, Buddhists allowed karma transfer from one person to another and sraddha rites, but had difficulty defending the rationale.[50][51] In contrast, Hindu schools and Jainism would not allow the possibility of karma transfer.[52][53]

In Hinduism

Main article: Karma in Hinduism

The concept of karma in Hinduism developed and evolved over centuries. The earliest Upanishads began with the questions about how and why man is born, and what happens after death. As answers to the latter, the early theories in these ancient Sanskrit documents include pancagni vidya (the five fire doctrine), pitryana (the cyclic path of fathers), and devayana (the cycle-transcending, path of the gods).[54] Those who perform superficial rituals and seek material gain, claimed these ancient scholars, travel the way of their fathers and recycle back into another life; those who renounce these, go into the forest and pursue spiritual knowledge, were claimed to climb into the higher path of the gods. It is these who break the cycle and are not reborn.[55] With the composition of the Epics – the common man's introduction to dharma in Hinduism – the ideas of causality and essential elements of the theory of karma were being recited in folk stories. For example:

As a man himself sows, so he himself reaps; no man inherits the good or evil act of another man. The fruit is of the same quality as the action.

— Mahabharata, xii.291.22[56]

The 6th chapter of the Anushasana Parva (the Teaching Book), the 13th book of the Mahabharata, opens with Yudhishthira asking Bhishma: "Is the course of a person's life already destined, or can human effort shape one's life?"[57] The future, replies Bhishma, is both a function of current human effort derived from free will and past human actions that set the circumstances.[58] Over and over again, the chapters of Mahabharata recite the key postulates of karma theory. That is: intent and action (karma) has consequences; karma lingers and doesn't disappear; and, all positive or negative experiences in life require effort and intent.[59] For example:

Happiness comes due to good actions, suffering results from evil actions,
by actions, all things are obtained, by inaction, nothing whatsoever is enjoyed.
If one's action bore no fruit, then everything would be of no avail,
if the world worked from fate alone, it would be neutralized.

— Mahabharata, xiii.6.10 & 19[60][61][note 3]

Over time, various schools of Hinduism developed many different definitions of karma, some making karma appear quite deterministic, while others make room for free will and moral agency.[12] Among the six most studied schools of Hinduism, the theory of karma evolved in different ways, as their respective scholars reasoned and attempted to address the internal inconsistencies, implications and issues of the karma doctrine. According to Professor Wilhelm Halbfass,[3]

  • The Nyaya school of Hinduism considers karma and rebirth as central, with some Nyaya scholars such as Udayana suggesting that the Karma doctrine implies that God exists.[63]
  • The Vaisesika school does not consider the karma from past lives doctrine very important.
  • The Samkhya school considers karma to be of secondary importance (second to prakrti).
  • The Mimamsa school gives a negligible role to karma from past lives, disregards samsara and moksa.[64]
  • The Yoga school considers karma from past lives to be secondary, one's behavior and psychology in the current life is what has consequences and leads to entanglements.[55]
  • The Vedanta schools (including Advaita) accept the doctrine of karma, and they hold that it does not function on its own power, instead they think that God (Isvara) is the dispenser of the fruit (phala) of karma. This idea is defended in the Brahmasutras (3.2.38).[65][66]

The above schools illustrate the diversity of views, but are not exhaustive. Each school has sub-schools in Hinduism, such as that of non-dualism and dualism under Vedanta. Furthermore, there are other schools of Indian philosophy such as Charvaka (or Lokayata; the materialists) who denied the theory of karma-rebirth as well as the existence of God; to this non-Vedic school, the properties of things come from the nature of things. Causality emerges from the interaction, actions and nature of things and people, determinative principles such as karma or God are unnecessary.[67][68]

In Buddhism

Main article: Karma in Buddhism

Karma and karmaphala are fundamental concepts in Buddhism,[69][70] which explain how our intentional actions keep us tied to rebirth in samsara, whereas the Buddhist path, as exemplified in the Noble Eightfold Path, shows us the way out of samsara.[71][72]

The cycle of rebirth is determined by karma, literally 'action'.[73][note 4] Karmaphala (wherein phala means 'fruit, result')[79][80][81] refers to the 'effect' or 'result' of karma.[82][69] The similar term karmavipaka (wherein vipāka means 'ripening') refers to the 'maturation, ripening' of karma.[80][83][84]

In the Buddhist tradition, karma refers to actions driven by intention (cetanā),[85][86][81][note 5] a deed done deliberately through body, speech or mind, which leads to future consequences.[89] The Nibbedhika Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya 6.63:

Intention (cetana) I tell you, is kamma. Intending, one does kamma by way of body, speech, & intellect.[90][note 6]

How these intentional actions lead to rebirth, and how the idea of rebirth is to be reconciled with the doctrines of impermanence and no-self,[92][note 7] is a matter of philosophical inquiry in the Buddhist traditions, for which several solutions have been proposed.[73] In early Buddhism no explicit theory of rebirth and karma is worked out,[76] and "the karma doctrine may have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology."[77][78] In early Buddhism, rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance. [74][75] Unlike that of Jains, Buddha's teaching of karma is not strictly deterministic, but incorporated circumstantial factors such as other Niyamas.[93][94][note 8] It is not a rigid and mechanical process, but a flexible, fluid and dynamic process.[95] There is no set linear relationship between a particular action and its results.[94] The karmic effect of a deed is not determined solely by the deed itself, but also by the nature of the person who commits the deed, and by the circumstances in which it is committed.[94][96] Karmaphala is not a "judgement" enforced by a God, Deity or other supernatural being that controls the affairs of the Cosmos. Rather, karmaphala is the outcome of a natural process of cause and effect.[note 9] Within Buddhism, the real importance of the doctrine of karma and its fruits lies in the recognition of the urgency to put a stop to the whole process.[98][99] The Acintita Sutta warns that "the results of kamma" is one of the four incomprehensible subjects (or acinteyya),[100][101] subjects that are beyond all conceptualization,[100] and cannot be understood with logical thought or reason.[note 10]

Nichiren Buddhism teaches that transformation and change through faith and practice changes adverse karma—negative causes made in the past that result in negative results in the present and future—to positive causes for benefits in the future.[105]

In Jainism

Main article: Karma in Jainism
See also: Causes of Karma (Jainism) and God in Jainism
Types of Karmas as per Jain philosophy

In Jainism, karma conveys a totally different meaning from that commonly understood in Hindu philosophy and western civilization.[106] Jain philosophy is one of the oldest Indian philosophy that completely separates body (matter) from the soul (pure consciousness).[107] In Jainism, karma is referred to as karmic dirt, as it consists of very subtle particles of matter that pervade the entire universe.[108] Karmas are attracted to the karmic field of a soul due to vibrations created by activities of mind, speech, and body as well as various mental dispositions. Hence the karmas are the subtle matter surrounding the consciousness of a soul. When these two components (consciousness and karma) interact, we experience the life we know at present. Jain texts expound that seven tattvas (truths or fundamentals) constitute reality. These are:[109]

  1. Jīva: the soul which is characterized by consciousness
  2. Ajīva: the non-soul
  3. Āsrava: inflow of auspicious and evil karmic matter into the soul.
  4. Bandha (bondage): mutual intermingling of the soul and karmas.
  5. Samvara (stoppage): obstruction of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul.
  6. Nirjara (gradual dissociation): separation or falling off of part of karmic matter from the soul.
  7. Mokṣha (liberation): complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with any particular soul).

According to Padmanabh Jaini,

This emphasis on reaping the fruits only of one's own karma was not restricted to the Jainas; both Hindus and Buddhist writers have produced doctrinal materials stressing the same point. Each of the latter traditions, however, developed practices in basic contradiction to such belief. In addition to shrardha (the ritual Hindu offerings by the son of deceased), we find among Hindus widespread adherence to the notion of divine intervention in ones fate, while Buddhists eventually came to propound such theories like boon-granting bodhisattvas, transfer of merit and like. Only Jainas have been absolutely unwilling to allow such ideas to penetrate their community, despite the fact that there must have been tremendous amount of social pressure on them to do so.[110]

Shrivatsa or the karmic knot depicted on the chest of the Tirthankara

The relationship between the soul and karma, states Padmanabh Jaini, can be explained with the analogy of gold. Like gold is always found mixed with impurities in its original state, Jainism holds that the soul is not pure at its origin but is always impure and defiled like natural gold. One can exert effort and purify gold, similarly, Jainism states that the defiled soul can be purified by proper refining methodology.[111] Karma either defiles the soul further, or refines it to a cleaner state, and this affects future rebirths.[112] Karma is thus an efficient cause (nimitta) in Jain philosophy, but not the material cause (upadana). The soul is believed to be the material cause.[113]

The key points where the theory of karma in Jainism can be stated as follows:

  • Karma operates as a self-sustaining mechanism as natural universal law, without any need of an external entity to manage them. (absence of the exogenous 'Divine entity' in Jainism)
  • Jainism advocates that a soul attracts karmic matter even with the thoughts, and not just the actions. Thus, to even think evil of someone would endure a karma-bandha or an increment in bad karma. For this reason, Jainism emphasise on developing Ratnatraya (The Three Jewels): samyaka darśana ('Right Faith'), samyaka jnāna ('Right Knowledge') and samyaka charitra ('Right Conduct').
  • In Jain theology, a soul is released of worldly affairs as soon as it is able to emancipate from the karma-bandha.[114] In Jainism, nirvana and moksha are used interchangeably. Nirvana represents annihilation of all karmas by an individual soul and moksha represents the perfect blissful state (free from all bondage). In the presence of a Tirthankara, a soul can attain Kevala Jnana ('omniscience') and subsequently nirvana, without any need of intervention by the Tirthankara.[114]
  • The karmic theory in Jainism operates endogenously. Even the Tirthankaras themselves have to go through the stages of emancipation, for attaining that state.
  • Jainism treats all souls equally, inasmuch as it advocates that all souls have the same potential of attaining nirvana. Only those who make effort, really attain it, but nonetheless, each soul is capable on its own to do so by gradually reducing its karma.[115]

Eight Karmas

There are eight types of Karma which attach a soul to Samsara (the cycle of birth and death):[116][117]

  1. Jnanavarniya (knowledge-obstructing): like a veil prevents a face and its features from being seen, this karma prevents the soul from knowing an object along with details about that object. This karma obstructs the soul from realizing its essential quality of knowledge. In its absence, a soul is omniscient. There are five sub-types of jnanavarniya karma which prevents the five types of knowledge: mati jnana (sensory knowledge), shruta jnana (articulate knowledge), avadhi jnana (clairvoyance), mana paryaya jnana (telepathy) and kevala jnana (omniscience).
  2. Darshanavarniya (perception-obstructing): like a gatekeeper prevents the sight of the king, this karma prevents an object from being perceived, hiding it. This karma obstructs the soul from realizing its essential quality of perception. In its absence, a soul completely perceives all substances in the universe. There are nine sub-types of this karma. Four of these prevent the four types of perception; visual perception, non-visual perception, clairvoyant perception and omniscient perception. The other five sub-types of darshanavarniya karma bondage induce five kinds of sleep causing reduction in consciousness: light sleep, deep sleep, drowsiness, heavy drowsiness, and sleep-walking.
  3. Vedaniya (sensation-producing): like licking honey from a sword gives a sweet taste but cuts the tongue, this karma makes a soul experience pleasure and pain. The soul's bliss is continuously disturbed by experiences of external sensual pleasure and pain. In the absence of the vedaniya karma, the soul experiences undisturbed bliss. There are two sub-types of this karma; pleasure-producing and pain-producing.
  4. Mohniya (deluding): like a bee becomes infatuated with the smell of a flower and is attracted to it, this karma attracts the soul to the objects that it considers favorable while repelling it from objects it considers unfavorable. It creates a delusion in the soul that external objects can affect it. This karma obstructs the soul's essential quality of happiness and prevents the soul from finding pure happiness in itself.
  5. Ayu (lifespan-determining): like a prisoner remains trapped by iron chains (around his legs, hands, etc.) this karma keeps a soul trapped in a particular life (or birth).
  6. Nama (body-producing): like a painter creates various pictures and gives them various names, this karma gives souls various types of bodies (that are classified based on various attributes). It is the namakarma which determines the body of living organism into which the soul must enter.
  7. Gotra (status-determining): like a potter makes short and tall pots, this karma bestows a low or high (societal) status on the body of soul. It creates social inequalities and in its absence, all souls are equal. There are two sub-types of gotra karma: high status and low status.
  8. Antaraya (power-obstructing): like a treasurer obstructs a king from spending his wealth, this karma prevents the soul from using its innate power for acts of charity, profit, enjoyment, repeated enjoyment and will-power. It obstructs and prevents the soul's essential quality of infinite power from manifesting. In its absence, a soul has infinite power.

Reception in other traditions

Sikhism

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Sikhism and other religions

In Sikhism, all living beings are described as being under the influence of the three qualities of maya. Always present together in varying mix and degrees, these three qualities of maya bind the soul to the body and to the earth plane. Above these three qualities is the eternal time. Due to the influence of three modes of maya's nature, jivas (individual beings) perform activities under the control and purview of the eternal time. These activities are called karma, wherein the underlying principle is that karma is the law that brings back the results of actions to the person performing them.

This life is likened to a field in which our karma is the seed. We harvest exactly what we sow; no less, no more. This infallible law of karma holds everyone responsible for what the person is or is going to be. Based on the total sum of past karma, some feel close to the Pure Being in this life and others feel separated. This is the law of karma in Gurbani (Sri Guru Granth Sahib). Like other Indian and oriental schools of thought, the Gurbani also accepts the doctrines of karma and reincarnation as the facts of nature.[118]

Falun Gong

David Ownby, a scholar of Chinese history at the University of Montreal,[119] asserts that Falun Gong differs from Buddhism in its definition of the term "karma" in that it is taken not as a process of award and punishment, but as an exclusively negative term. The Chinese term de, or 'virtue', is reserved for what might otherwise be termed 'good karma' in Buddhism. Karma is understood as the source of all suffering – what Buddhism might refer to as 'bad karma'. According to Li Hongzhi, the founder of Falun Gong: "A person has done bad things over his many lifetimes, and for people this results in misfortune, or for cultivators its karmic obstacles, so there's birth, aging, sickness, and death. This is ordinary karma."[120]

Falun Gong teaches that the spirit is locked in the cycle of rebirth, also known as samsara,[121] due to the accumulation of karma.[122] This is a negative, black substance that accumulates in other dimensions lifetime after lifetime, by doing bad deeds and thinking bad thoughts. Falun Gong states that karma is the reason for suffering, and what ultimately blocks people from the truth of the universe and attaining enlightenment. At the same time, karma is also the cause of one's continued rebirth and suffering.[122] Li says that due to accumulation of karma the human spirit upon death will reincarnate over and over again, until the karma is paid off or eliminated through cultivation, or the person is destroyed due to the bad deeds he has done.[122]

Ownby regards the concept of karma as a cornerstone to individual moral behaviour in Falun Gong, and also readily traceable to the Christian doctrine of "one reaps what one sows". Others say Matthew 5:44 means no unbeliever will not fully reap what they sow until they are judged by God after death in Hell. Ownby says Falun Gong is differentiated by a "system of transmigration", although, "in which each organism is the reincarnation of a previous life form, its current form having been determined by karmic calculation of the moral qualities of the previous lives lived." Ownby says the seeming unfairness of manifest inequities can then be explained, at the same time allowing a space for moral behaviour in spite of them.[123] In the same vein of Li's monism, matter and spirit are one, karma is identified as a black substance which must be purged in the process of cultivation.[120]

According to Li,

Human beings all fell here from the many dimensions of the universe. They no longer met the requirements of the Fa at their given levels in the universe, and thus had to drop down. Just as we have said before, the heavier one's mortal attachments, the further down one drops, with the descent continuing until one arrives at the state of ordinary human beings.[124]

He says that, in the eyes of higher beings, the purpose of human life is not merely to be human, but to awaken quickly on Earth, a "setting of delusion," and return. "That is what they really have in mind; they are opening a door for you. Those who fail to return will have no choice but to reincarnate, with this continuing until they amass a huge amount of karma and are destroyed."[124]

Ownby regards this as the basis for Falun Gong's apparent "opposition to practitioners' taking medicine when ill; they are missing an opportunity to work off karma by allowing an illness to run its course (suffering depletes karma) or to fight the illness through cultivation." Benjamin Penny shares this interpretation. Since Li believes that "karma is the primary factor that causes sickness in people," Penny asks: "if disease comes from karma and karma can be eradicated through cultivation of xinxing, then what good will medicine do?"[125] Li himself states that he is not forbidding practitioners from taking medicine, maintaining that "What I'm doing is telling people the relationship between practicing cultivation and medicine-taking." Li also states that "An everyday person needs to take medicine when he gets sick."[126] Danny Schechter (2001) quotes a Falun Gong student who says "It is always an individual choice whether one should take medicine or not."[127]

Taoism

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Karma is an important concept in Taoism. Every deed is tracked by deities and spirits. Appropriate rewards or retribution follow karma, just like a shadow follows a person.[7]

The karma doctrine of Taoism developed in three stages.[128] In the first stage, causality between actions and consequences was adopted, with supernatural beings keeping track of everyone's karma and assigning fate (ming). In the second phase, transferability of karma ideas from Chinese Buddhism were expanded, and a transfer or inheritance of Karmic fate from ancestors to one's current life was introduced. In the third stage of karma doctrine development, ideas of rebirth based on karma were added. One could be reborn either as another human being or another animal, according to this belief. In the third stage, additional ideas were introduced; for example, rituals, repentance and offerings at Taoist temples were encouraged as it could alleviate Karmic burden.[128][129]

Shinto

Interpreted as musubi, a view of karma is recognized in Shinto as a means of enriching, empowering, and affirming life.[130] Musubi has fundamental significance in Shinto, because creative development forms the basis of the Shinto worldview.[131]

Many deities are connected to musubi and have it in their names.

Discussion

Free will and destiny

One of the significant controversies with the karma doctrine is whether it always implies destiny, and its implications on free will. This controversy is also referred to as the moral agency problem;[132] the controversy is not unique to karma doctrine, but also found in some form in monotheistic religions.[133]

The free will controversy can be outlined in three parts:[132]

  1. A person who kills, rapes or commits any other unjust act, can claim all his bad actions were a product of his karma: he is devoid of free will, he can not make a choice, he is an agent of karma, and he merely delivers necessary punishments his "wicked" victims deserved for their own karma in past lives. Are crimes and unjust actions due to free will, or because of forces of karma?
  2. Does a person who suffers from the unnatural death of a loved one, or rape or any other unjust act, assume a moral agent is responsible, that the harm is gratuitous, and therefore seek justice? Or, should one blame oneself for bad karma over past lives, and assume that the unjust suffering is fate?
  3. Does the karma doctrine undermine the incentive for moral education—because all suffering is deserved and consequence of past lives, why learn anything when the balance sheet of karma from past lives will determine one's action and sufferings?[134]

The explanations and replies to the above free will problem vary by the specific school of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The schools of Hinduism, such as Yoga and Advaita Vedanta, that have emphasized current life over the dynamics of karma residue moving across past lives, allow free will.[12] Their argument, as well of other schools, are threefold:

  1. The theory of karma includes both the action and the intent behind that action. Not only is one affected by past karma, one creates new karma whenever one acts with intent – good or bad. If intent and act can be proven beyond reasonable doubt, new karma can be proven, and the process of justice can proceed against this new karma. The actor who kills, rapes or commits any other unjust act, must be considered as the moral agent for this new karma, and tried.
  2. Life forms not only receive and reap the consequence of their past karma, together they are the means to initiate, evaluate, judge, give and deliver consequence of karma to others.
  3. Karma is a theory that explains some evils, not all (cf. moral evil versus natural evil).[135][136]

Other schools of Hinduism, as well as Buddhism and Jainism that do consider cycle of rebirths central to their beliefs and that karma from past lives affects one's present, believe that both free will (cetanā) and karma can co-exist; however, their answers have not persuaded all scholars.[132][136]

Psychological indeterminacy

Another issue with the theory of karma is that it is psychologically indeterminate, suggests Obeyesekere (1968).[137] That is, if no one can know what their karma was in previous lives, and if the karma from past lives can determine one's future, then the individual is psychologically unclear what if anything he or she can do now to shape the future, be more happy, or reduce suffering. If something goes wrong, such as sickness or failure at work, the individual is unclear if karma from past lives was the cause, or the sickness was caused by curable infection and the failure was caused by something correctable.[137]

This psychological indeterminacy problem is also not unique to the theory of karma; it is found in every religion adopting the premise that God has a plan, or in some way influences human events. As with the karma-and-free-will problem above, schools that insist on primacy of rebirths face the most controversy. Their answers to the psychological indeterminacy issue are the same as those for addressing the free will problem.[136]

Transferability

Some schools of Asian religions, particularly popular Buddhism, allow transfer of karma merit and demerit from one person to another. This transfer is an exchange of non-physical quality just like an exchange of physical goods between two human beings. The practice of karma transfer, or even its possibility, is controversial.[36][138] Karma transfer raises questions similar to those with substitutionary atonement and vicarious punishment. It defeats the ethical foundations, and dissociates the causality and ethicization in the theory of karma from the moral agent. Proponents of some Buddhist schools suggest that the concept of karma merit transfer encourages religious giving, and such transfers are not a mechanism to transfer bad karma (i.e., demerit) from one person to another.

In Hinduism, Sraddha rites during funerals have been labelled as karma merit transfer ceremonies by a few scholars, a claim disputed by others.[139] Other schools in Hinduism, such as the Yoga and Advaita Vedantic philosophies, and Jainism hold that karma can not be transferred.[13][15]

The problem of evil

There has been an ongoing debate about karma theory and how it answers the problem of evil and related problem of theodicy. The problem of evil is a significant question debated in monotheistic religions with two beliefs:[140]

  1. There is one God who is absolutely good and compassionate (omnibenevolent); and
  2. That one God knows absolutely everything (omniscient) and is all powerful (omnipotent).

The problem of evil is then stated in formulations such as, "why does the omnibenevolent, omniscient and omnipotent God allow any evil and suffering to exist in the world?" Sociologist Max Weber extended the problem of evil to Eastern traditions.[141]

The problem of evil, in the context of karma, has been long discussed in Eastern traditions, both in theistic and non-theistic schools; for example, in Uttara Mīmāṃsā Sutras Book 2 Chapter 1;[142][143] the 8th century arguments by Adi Sankara in Brahma Sutra bhasya where he posits that God cannot reasonably be the cause of the world because there exists moral evil, inequality, cruelty and suffering in the world;[144][145] and the 11th century theodicy discussion by Ramanuja in Sri Bhasya.[146] Epics such as the Mahabharata, for example, suggest three prevailing theories in ancient India as to why good and evil exist – one being that everything is ordained by God, another being karma, and a third citing chance events (yadrccha, यदृच्छा).[147][148] The Mahabharata, which includes Hindu deity Vishnu in the avatar of Krishna as one of the central characters, debates the nature and existence of suffering from these three perspectives, and includes a theory of suffering as arising from an interplay of chance events (such as floods and other events of nature), circumstances created by past human actions, and the current desires, volitions, dharma, adharma and current actions (purusakara) of people.[147][149][150] However, while karma theory in the Mahabharata presents alternative perspectives on the problem of evil and suffering, it offers no conclusive answer.[147][151]

Other scholars[152] suggest that nontheistic Indian religious traditions do not assume an omnibenevolent creator, and some[153] theistic schools do not define or characterize their God(s) as monotheistic Western religions do and the deities have colorful, complex personalities; the Indian deities are personal and cosmic facilitators, and in some schools conceptualized like Plato's Demiurge.[146] Therefore, the problem of theodicy in many schools of major Indian religions is not significant, or at least is of a different nature than in Western religions.[154] Many Indian religions place greater emphasis on developing the karma principle for first cause and innate justice with Man as focus, rather than developing religious principles with the nature and powers of God and divine judgment as focus.[155] Some scholars, particularly of the Nyaya school of Hinduism and Sankara in Brahma Sutra bhasya, have posited that karma doctrine implies existence of god, who administers and affects the person's environment given that person's karma, but then acknowledge that it makes karma as violable, contingent and unable to address the problem of evil.[156] Arthur Herman states that karma-transmigration theory solves all three historical formulations to the problem of evil while acknowledging the theodicy insights of Sankara and Ramanuja.[157]

Some theistic Indian religions, such as Sikhism, suggest evil and suffering are a human phenomenon and arises from the karma of individuals.[158] In other theistic schools such as those in Hinduism, particularly its Nyaya school, karma is combined with dharma and evil is explained as arising from human actions and intent that is in conflict with dharma.[146] In nontheistic religions such as Buddhism, Jainism and the Mimamsa school of Hinduism, karma theory is used to explain the cause of evil as well as to offer distinct ways to avoid or be unaffected by evil in the world.[144]

Those schools of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism that rely on karma-rebirth theory have been critiqued for their theological explanation of suffering in children by birth, as the result of his or her sins in a past life.[159] Others disagree, and consider the critique as flawed and a misunderstanding of the karma theory.[160]

Comparable concepts

Further information: Poetic justice and Mills of God
It Shoots Further Than He Dreams by John F. Knott, March 1918

Western culture, influenced by Christianity,[6] holds a notion similar to karma, as demonstrated in the phrase "what goes around comes around".

Christianity

Mary Jo Meadow suggests karma is akin to "Christian notions of sin and its effects."[161] She states that the Christian teaching on a Last Judgment according to one's charity is a teaching on karma.[161] Christianity also teaches morals such as one reaps what one sows (Galatians 6:7) and live by the sword, die by the sword (Matthew 26:52).[162] Most scholars, however, consider the concept of Last Judgment as different from karma, with karma as an ongoing process that occurs every day in one's life, while Last Judgment, by contrast, is a one-time review at the end of life.[163]

Judaism

There is a concept in Judaism called in Hebrew midah k'neged midah, which is often translated as "measure for measure".[164] The concept is used not so much in matters of law, but rather in matters of divine retribution for a person's actions. David Wolpe compared midah k'neged midah to karma.[165]

Psychoanalysis

Carl Jung once opined on unresolved emotions and the synchronicity of karma;

When an inner situation is not made conscious, it appears outside as fate.[166]

Popular methods for negating cognitive dissonance include meditation, metacognition, counselling, psychoanalysis, etc., whose aim is to enhance emotional self-awareness and thus avoid negative karma. This results in better emotional hygiene and reduced karmic impacts.[167] Permanent neuronal changes within the amygdala and left prefrontal cortex of the human brain attributed to long-term meditation and metacognition techniques have been proven scientifically.[168] This process of emotional maturation aspires to a goal of Individuation or self-actualisation. Such peak experiences are hypothetically devoid of any karma (nirvana or moksha).

Theosophy

The idea of karma was popularized in the Western world through the work of the Theosophical Society. In this conception, karma was a precursor to the Neopagan law of return or Threefold Law, the idea that the beneficial or harmful effects one has on the world will return to oneself. Colloquially this may be summed up as 'what goes around comes around.'

Theosophist I. K. Taimni wrote, "Karma is nothing but the Law of Cause and Effect operating in the realm of human life and bringing about adjustments between an individual and other individuals whom he has affected by his thoughts, emotions and actions."[169] Theosophy also teaches that when humans reincarnate they come back as humans only, not as animals or other organisms.[170]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The words "deed", "acts" above are rendered from karma.[20]
  2. ^ Karl Potter's suggestion is supported by the Bhagavad-Gita, which links good bondage and bad bondage to good habits and bad habits respectively. It also lists various types of habits – such as good (sattva), passion (rajas) and indifferent (tamas) – while explaining karma.[14] In Yoga Sutras, the role of karma to creating habits is explained with Vāsanās.[25]
  3. ^ There is extensive debate in the Epic Mahabharata about karma, free will and destiny across different chapters and books. Different characters in the Epic take sides, some claiming destiny is supreme, some claiming free will is.[62]
  4. ^ In early Buddhism rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance,[74][75] and the theory of karma may have been of minor importance in early Buddhist soteriology.[76][77][78]
  5. ^ Rupert Gethin: "[Karma is] a being's intentional 'actions' of body, speech, and mind—whatever is done, said, or even just thought with definite intention or volition";[87] "[a]t root karma or 'action' is considered a mental act or intention; it is an aspect of our mental life: 'It is "intention" that I call karma; having formed the intention, one performs acts (karma) by body, speech and mind.'"[88]
  6. ^ There are many different translation of the above quote into English. For example, Peter Harvey translates the quote as follows: "It is will (cetana), O monks, that I call karma; having willed, one acts through body, speech, and mind." (A.III.415).[91]
  7. ^ Dargray: "When [the Buddhist] understanding of karma is correlated to the Buddhist doctrine of universal impermanence and No-Self, a serious problem arises as to where this trace is stored and what the trace left is. The problem is aggravated when the trace remains latent over a long period, perhaps over a period of many existences. The crucial problem presented to all schools of Buddhist philosophy was where the trace is stored and how it can remain in the ever-changing stream of phenomena which build up the individual and what the nature of this trace is."[92]
  8. ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu: "Unlike the theory of linear causality — which led the Vedists and Jains to see the relationship between an act and its result as predictable and tit-for-tat — the principle of this/that conditionality makes that relationship inherently complex. The results of kamma ("kamma" is the Pali spelling for the word "karma") experienced at any one point in time come not only from past kamma, but also from present kamma. This means that, although there are general patterns relating habitual acts to corresponding results [MN 135], there is no set one-for-one, tit-for-tat, relationship between a particular action and its results. Instead, the results are determined by the context of the act, both in terms of actions that preceded or followed it [MN 136] and in terms one's state of mind at the time of acting or experiencing the result [AN 3:99]. [...] The feedback loops inherent in this/that conditionality mean that the working out of any particular cause-effect relationship can be very complex indeed. This explains why the Buddha says in AN 4:77 that the results of kamma are imponderable. Only a person who has developed the mental range of a Buddha—another imponderable itself—would be able to trace the intricacies of the kammic network. The basic premise of kamma is simple—that skillful intentions lead to favorable results, and unskillful ones to unfavorable results—but the process by which those results work themselves out is so intricate that it cannot be fully mapped. We can compare this with the Mandelbrot set, a mathematical set generated by a simple equation, but whose graph is so complex that it will probably never be completely explored."[94]
  9. ^ Khandro Rinpoche: "Buddhism is a nontheistic philosophy. We do not believe in a creator but in the causes and conditions that create certain circumstances that then come to fruition. This is called karma. It has nothing to do with judgement; there is no one keeping track of our karma and sending us up above or down below. Karma is simply the wholeness of a cause, or first action, and its effect, or fruition, which then becomes another cause. In fact, one karmic cause can have many fruitions, all of which can cause thousands more creations. Just as a handful of seed can ripen into a full field of grain, a small amount of karma can generate limitless effects."[97]
  10. ^ Dasgupta explains that in Indian philosophy, acintya is "that which is to be unavoidably accepted for explaining facts, but which cannot stand the scrutiny of logic."[102] See also the Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta "Discourse to Vatsagotra on the [Simile of] Fire," Majjhima Nikaya 72,[103][104] in which the Buddha is questioned by Vatsagotra on the "ten indeterminate question,"[103] and the Buddha explains that a Tathagata is like a fire that has been extinguished, and is "deep, boundless, hard to fathom, like the sea".[104]

References

Citations

  1. ^ See:
    • Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, New York, pp 679–680, Article on Karma; Quote – "Karma meaning deed or action; in addition, it also has philosophical and technical meaning, denoting a person's deeds as determining his future lot."
    • The Encyclopedia of World Religions, Robert Ellwood & Gregory Alles, ISBN 978-0-8160-6141-9, pp 253; Quote – "Karma: Sanskrit word meaning action and the consequences of action."
    • Hans Torwesten (1994), Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0-8021-3262-8, Grove Press New York, pp 97; Quote – "In the Vedas the word karma (work, deed or action, and its resulting effect) referred mainly to..."
  2. ^ Olivelle, Patrick (2012). "Karma". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Halbfass, Wilhelm (2000). Karma und Wiedergeburt im indischen Denken (in German). Munich, Germany: Diederichs. ISBN 978-3-89631-385-0.
  4. ^ Lawrence C. Becker & Charlotte B. Becker, Encyclopedia of Ethics, 2nd edition (2001), ISBN 0-415-93672-1, Hindu Ethics, pp 678
  5. ^ Wasserman, Danuta (8 January 2021). Oxford Textbook of Suicidology and Suicide Prevention. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-883444-1.
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b Parvesh Singla. The Manual of Life – Karma. Parvesh singla. pp. 5–7. GGKEY:0XFSARN29ZZ. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
  7. ^ Jump up to:a b Eva Wong, Taoism, Shambhala Publications, ISBN 978-1-59030-882-0, pp. 193
  8. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e "Karma" in: John Bowker (1997), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press.
  9. ^ Jump up to:a b c James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp 351–352
  10. ^ Julius Lipner (2010), Hindus: Their religious beliefs and practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, pp 261–262
  11. ^ Jump up to:a b see:
    • Kaufman, W. R. (2005), Karma, rebirth, and the problem of evil, Philosophy East and West, pp 15–32;
    • Sharma, A. (1996), On the distinction between Karma and Rebirth in Hinduism, Asian Philosophy, 6(1), pp 29–35;
    • Bhattacharya, R. (2012), Svabhāvavāda and the Cārvāka/Lokāyata: A Historical Overview, Journal of Indian Philosophy, 40(6), pp 593–614
  12. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Harold Coward (2003). "Karma". Encyclopedia of Science of Religion. MacMillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865704-2.
  13. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Wendy D. O'Flaherty. Introduction. In O'Flaherty (1980), pp. xi–xxv..
  14. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Karl Potter (1964), The Naturalistic Principle of Karma, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Apr. 1964), pp. 39–49
  15. ^ Jump up to:a b Wendy D. O'Flaherty. "Karma and rebirth in the Vedas and Purāṇas". In O'Flaherty (1980), pp. 3–37..
  16. ^ Karl Potter. "The karma theory and its interpretation in some Indian philosophical systems". In O'Flaherty (1980), pp. 241–267..
  17. ^ See:
    • For Hinduism view: Jeffrey Brodd (2009), World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery, Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0-88489-997-6, pp. 47;
    • For Buddhism view: Khandro Rinpoche (2003), This Precious Life, Shambhala, pp. 95
  18. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Bruce R. Reichenbach, The Law of Karma and the Principle of Causation, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Oct. 1988), pp. 399–410
  19. ^ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5-6, translated by Max Müller, Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs, 2013 [1879], archived from the original on 13 April 2013, retrieved 14 January 2023
  20. ^ Black, James (2011). "Brihadaranyaka Original Sanskrit & Müller Oxford English Translations". University of Wisconsin. Archived from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
  21. ^ Anguttara-Nikaya 3.4.33, Translator: Henry Warren (1962), Buddhism in Translations, Atheneum Publications, New York, pp 216–217
  22. ^ see:
    • James McDermott. "Karma and Rebirth in Early Buddhism". In O'Flaherty (1980), pp. 165–192.
    • Padmanabh Jaini. "Karma and the problem of rebirth in Jainism". In O'Flaherty (1980), pp. 217–239.
    • Ludo Rocher. "Karma and Rebirth in the Dharmasastras". In O'Flaherty (1980), pp. 61–89.
  23. ^ Damien Keown (1996), Karma, character, and consequentialism, The Journal of Religious Ethics, pp 329–350.
  24. ^ Jump up to:a b Harold Coward (1983), "Psychology and Karma", Philosophy East and West 33 (Jan): 49–60.
  25. ^ Whicher, Ian (13 November 1998). "Chapter 3". The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga. State University of New York. pp. 102–105. ISBN 0-7914-3816-3.
  26. ^ Whicher, Ian (1998). "The final stages of purification in classical yoga". Asian Philosophy. 8 (2): 85–102. doi:10.1080/09552369808575474.
  27. ^ Francis X. Clooney, Evil, Divine Omnipotence, and Human Freedom: Vedānta's Theology of Karma, The Journal of Religion, Vol. 69, No. 4 (Oct. 1989), pp. 530–548
  28. ^ Jump up to:a b Wilhelm Halbfass (1998), "Karma and Rebirth (Indian Conceptions)", Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, London.
  29. ^ see:
    • James Hastings et al. (1915), Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (Hymns-Liberty), Volume VII, Article on Jainism, pp 469–471;
    • Chapple, Christopher (1975), Karma and the path of purification, in Virginia Hanson et al. (Editors) – Karma: Rhythmic Return to Harmony, ISBN 978-0-8356-0663-9, Chapter 23;
    • Krishan, Y. (1988), The Vedic origins of the doctrine of karma, South Asian Studies, 4(1), pp 51–55
  30. ^ Obeyesekere 2005, pp. 1–2, 108, 126–128.
  31. ^ Juergensmeyer & Roof 2011, pp. 272–273, 652–654.
  32. ^ James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 2, Rosen Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp 589
  33. ^ M. Hiriyana (1949), Essentials of Indian Philosophy, George Allen Unwin, London, pp 47
  34. ^ M Yamunacharya (1966), Karma and Rebirth, Indian Philo. Annual, 1, pp 66
  35. ^ Austin Creel (1986), in Editor: Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-87395-990-2, Chapter 1
  36. ^ Jump up to:a b Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-87395-990-2
  37. ^ A. Javadekar (1965), Karma and Rebirth, Indian Philosophical Annual, 1, 78
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    • Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press: UK ISBN 0-521-43878-0, page 86, Quote – "The origin and doctrine of Karma and Saṃsāra are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating amongst sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions."
    • Bimala Law (1952, Reprint 2005), The Buddhist Conception of Spirits, ISBN 81-206-1933-1, Asian Educational Services; in particular, see Chapter II
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External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to Karma.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Karma".
Karma – Encyclopedia Britannica


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기본개념
믿음과 수행
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관련 항목
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역사와 문화

업(業), 업보(業報), 업력(業力), 응보(應報), 카르마(산스크리트어: कर्म 카르마)는 인도계 종교에서의 인과율 개념이다. 본디 행위를 뜻하는 말로서 인과(因果)의 연쇄관계에 놓이는 것이며 단독적으로 존재하지 않는다. 현재의 행위는 그 이전의 행위의 결과로 생기는 것이며, 그것은 또한 미래의 행위에 대한 원인으로 작용한다. 거기에는 과거 · 현재 · 미래와 같이 잠재적으로 지속하는 일종의 브라만교 사회에서는 어떤 특정의 카스트에 태어난다는 것도 그에 상응하는 전생의 행위가 있었기 때문이라고 한다. 업 사상은 광범위하게 인도 제종교의 전체 속에 들어 있어서 불교 및 자이나교에서도 특색 있는 업설(業說)을 전개하였으나, 인도사상의 정통(正統)인 브라만교나 힌두교에서 가장 강조되었다. 초월적인 힘이 감득(感得)되어 있으며 흔히 시간(時間: Kala) · 천명(天命: Daiva) · 천성(天性: Svalhava) 등의 말로 표현되고 있다.

각 종교별 윤회[편집]

힌두교[편집]

힌두교에서 카르마는 그 자신의 행위의 결과에 따른 것으로 '윤회'를 낳는다. 이러한 잠재적 세력으로서의 카르마는 현재와 미래의 인간의 행동을 결정하는 사고에 큰 영향을 미친다. 그리하여 모든 카르마는 미래의 카르마의 씨앗이 되어 행위의 결과에 따른 그 열매로서의 결실은 기쁨과 슬픔의 형태로 나타난다. 그리하여 카르마는 도덕적 세계의 행위와 반작용의 법칙, 즉 뿌린대로 거두는 업의 법칙을 보여주고 있다. 모든 인간이 이 카르마의 법칙에서 벗어나지 못하지만, 인간은 이 카르마의 속박에서 벗어날 것인가 아닌가 하는 문제를 스스로 자기의 의식 속에서 선택할 수 있다. 인간이 스스로의 내면에 참 자아인 아트만을 지니고 있기 때문이다. 그리하여 신에게 복종하고 선한 카르마를 낳고 나쁜 카르마를 소멸시킴으로써 카르마의 속박에서 벗어나게 된다. 그렇게 하여 일단 깨달음의 해탈에 이르게 되면 새로운 카르마는 형성되지 않는다.[1] 그러므로 《마하바라타》에서는 "업은 어떤 사람도 피할 수가 없으며 그림자가 형체에 따라다니듯이 업은 서 있는 자의 곁에 서 있고 가는 자의 뒤를 따라가며, 행위하는 자에게 작용을 미친다"고 말하고 있다. 이러한 인과관계에 입각한 행위론은 당연히 선업선과(善業善果) · 악업악과(惡業惡果)와 같은 윤리적인 인과의 법칙을 낳게 하였다.

불교[편집]

자이나교[편집]

같이 보기[편집]

위키미디어 공용에 관련된
미디어 분류가 있습니다.


각주[편집]

  1. ↑ https://sootax.co.kr/3613

참고 문헌[편집]



===

業

曖昧さ回避この項目では、インド発祥の宗教における業（ごう、カルマ）について説明しています。その他の用法については「業 (曖昧さ回避)」をご覧ください。
曖昧さ回避「カルマ」、「共業」はこの項目へ転送されています。「カルマ」のその他の用法については「カルマ (曖昧さ回避)」を、協力して働くことについては「協働」をご覧ください。

業（ごう）、業報（ごうほう）、業力（ごうりき）、応報（おうほう）、[要出典]カルマ（梵: कर्मन् karman[注釈 1]）に由来し、行為、所作、意志による身心の活動、意志による身心の生活を意味する語[2]。原義においては単なる行為（action）という意味であり、「良い」「悪い」といった色はなく、暗いニュアンスもない[3]。

インド哲学正統派、および異端派の一部（仏教など）の説では、善または悪の業を作ると、因果の道理によってそれ相応の楽または苦の報い（果報）が生じるとされる[2][4]。業は果報と対になる語だが、業の果報そのものを業という場合もある[4]。

業の思想はインド発祥の宗教（とりわけヒンドゥー教、仏教、ジャイナ教、シーク教）と道教において、輪廻と強く結びつく概念である[5] これらの多くの説では、善意と善行は良いカルマと幸福な転生をもたらし、悪意と悪行は悪いカルマと悪い再生をもたらすとされる[6]（善因善果、悪因悪果）[7]。

インド哲学[編集]

インド哲学 - インド発祥の宗教
ヒンドゥー教
基本教義
神々
聖典
法典・律法経
学派
宗派
人物
修行・礼拝
関連用語
一覧

業はインドにおいて、古い時代から重要視された。ヴェーダ時代からウパニシャッド時代にかけて輪廻思想と結びついて展開し、紀元前10世紀から4世紀位までの間にしだいに固定化してきた。

善をなすものは善生をうけ、悪をなすものは悪生をうくべし。浄行によって浄たるべく。汚れたる行によって、汚れをうくべし
善人は天国に至って妙楽をうくれども、悪人は奈落に到って諸の苦患をうく。死後、霊魂は秤にかけられ、善悪の業をはかられ、それに応じて賞罰せられる

— 『百道梵書』 (Śatapathā-brāhmana)

あたかも金細工人が一つの黄金の小部分を資料とし、さらに新しくかつ美しい他の形像を造るように、この我も身体と無明とを脱して、新しく美しい他の形像を造る。それは、あるいは祖先であり、あるいは乾闥婆（けんだつば）であり、あるいは諸神であり、生生であり、梵天であり、もしくは他の有情である。……人は言動するによって、いろいろの地位をうる。そのように言動によって未来の生をうる。まことに善業の人は善となり、悪業の人は悪となり、福業によって福人となり、罪業によって罪人となる。故に、世の人はいう。人は欲よりなる。欲にしたがって意志を形成し、意志の向かうところにしたがって業を実現する。その業にしたがって、その相応する結果がある

— 『ブリハッド・アーラニヤカ・ウパニシャッド』

インド哲学の正統派では、業は輪廻転生の思想とセットとして展開する。この輪廻と密着する業の思想は、因果論として決定論や宿命論のような立場で理解される。

異端派と沙門たち[編集]

「インド哲学#比較」も参照

この正統派の説に反発する人々は、異端派として、決定的な厭世の圧力からのがれようとした。従来のバラモン教に所属しない、様々な自由思想家たちがあらわれていた。かれらは高度な瞑想技術を持っており、瞑想によって得られた体験から、様々な思想哲学を生み出し、業、輪廻、宿命、解脱、認識論などの思想が体系化されていった。この中に業の思想も含まれていた。

それが沙門とよばれ、釈迦と同時代の哲学者として知られた六師外道と仏教側に呼ばれる人々であった。

ある人は、霊魂と肉体とを相即するものと考え、肉体の滅びる事実から、霊魂もまた滅びるとして無因無業の主張をなし（順世派）、また他の人は霊魂と肉体とを別であるとし、しかも両者ともに永遠不滅の実在と考え、そのような立場から、造るものも、造られるものもないと、全く業を認めないと主張した（アージーヴィカ教）。

なおバラモン教における輪廻思想の発生を、従来考えられているよりも後の時代であるとする見解もある。例えば上座仏教では、釈迦在世時に存在したバラモン経典を、三つのヴェーダまでしか認めておらず[注釈 2]、釈迦以前のバラモン教に輪廻思想は存在しなかったとする。もちろん、当時の自由思想家たちが輪廻思想を説いていたことは明白であるが、彼らはバラモン教徒ではなかったことに注意すべきである。

仏教[編集]

仏教用語
業 , カルマ
パーリ語kamma
サンスクリット語karma
(Dev: कर्मन्)
チベット語ལས།
(Wylie: las;
THL: lé;)
日本語業 or ごう
英語karma
テンプレートを表示

仏教はすべての結果について「偶然による事物の発生」「（原因なく）事物が突然、生じること」「神による創造」などを否定し、その原因を説く[8][9]。業は果報（報い、果熟）を生じる因となるので、業のことを業因や因業ともいう[2][注釈 3]。釈迦は業に基づいた理論にて、バラモン教が説く生まれによるカースト制を否定した[10]。

Na jaccā brāhmaṇo hoti na jaccā hoti abrāhmaṇo Kammanā brāhmaṇo hoti kammanā hoti abrāhmaṇo.

人は生まれによってバラモンとなるのではなく、生まれによって非バラモンとなるのではない。
業によってバラモンとなるのであり、業によって非バラモンとなるのである[11]。

—パーリ仏典, スッタニパータ 653, Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project

業による報いを業果（Karmaphala）や業報という[2]。業によって報いを受けることを業感といい、業による苦である報いを業苦という[2][注釈 4]。過去世に造った業を宿業または前業といい、宿業による災いを業厄という[2]。宿業による脱れることのできない重い病気を業病という[2]。自分の造った業の報いは自分が受けなければならないことを自業自得という[2]。

Kammasakkā māṇava, sattā kammadāyādā kammayoni kammabandhu kammapaṭisaraṇā. Kammaṃ satte vibhajati yadidaṃ hīnappaṇītatāyāti.

青年（スバ）よ、衆生は、業を自分のものとし、業を相続し、業を胎とし、業を親族とし、業をよりどころとする。業が衆生を分類し、優劣をつける[12]。

—パーリ仏典, 中部134, 小業分別経, Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project
  • 自分のもの（sakkā）- 死によって失われるものではなく、来世についてくる所有物[12]。
  • 相続する（dāyādā）- 身・口・意の三業から引き継がれる[12]。
  • 生まれる（yoni）- 生命を生み出すのは、自ら行った行為からで、すべて業より生まれる[12]。
  • 切り離せない（bandhu）- 生命は業との繋がりを切ることはできない[12]。
  • よりどころとする（paṭisaraṇā）- 生命のよりどころである[12]。
  • 優劣をつける（satte vibhajati yadidaṃ hīnappaṇītatāyāti） - 生命に優劣をつける要素の一つである[12]。

分類[編集]

仏教における業は、様々に分類される。ここでは主に部派仏教ないし上座部仏教の諸経典に基づいて記す。中観派、密教等の大乗諸宗派では教義における比重、意味合いが異なる可能性に注意すること。[要出典]

三業[編集]

Cetanāhaṃ bhikkhave kammaṃ vadāmi, cetayitvā kammaṃ karoti kāyena vācāya manasā,

比丘たちよ、意思（cetanā）が業（kamma）である、と私は説く。
思って（cetanā）から、身体（kāya）・言語（vāk）・意（manas）によって業をなす[13]。

—パーリ仏典, 増支部六集 63.洞察経, Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project

業は一般に、身（しん）・口（く、もしくは語）・意（い）の三業（さんごう）に分けられる[2]。戒においても十悪業として、三業に分類して説かれる。

  • 身業（しんごう, 梵: kāya-karman[14]、カーヤ・カルマン） - 身体に関わる行為[15]。身体的行為[14]。
    • 説一切有部においては、身業とは、その行為・動作をする瞬間瞬間に身体が示す形状であるとする[16]。たとえば、人を打つという行為は、映画のフィルムの１こま１こまの画面の変化のように、こぶしを振り上げてそれを相手の頭上に振り下ろすという過程の瞬間瞬間に、身体の形状が少しずつ変化していくことによって完遂される[16]。その各瞬間の身体の形状、すなわち色法（眼識の対象）こそが身業であるとする[16]。
    • 十悪業においては、身の三業は殺生（せっしょう）・偸盗（ちゅうとう;盗み）・邪淫（じゃいん;不倫、道に外れた性行為[17]）となる[18]。
  • 口業（くごう, 梵: vāk-karman[14]、ヴァーク・カルマン） - 言語に関わる行為[15]。言語表現[14]。語業（ごごう, 梵: vāk-karman[19]、ヴァーク・カルマン）ともいう[20]。
    • 説一切有部においては、一瞬一瞬に発音される声音の積み重なりが言語をなすのだから、声法（耳識の対象）こそが口業であるとする[16]。
    • 十悪業においては、口の四業は妄語（もうご; 嘘をつく）・両舌（りょうぜつ; 二枚舌を使う）・悪口（あっく; 悪口を言う）・綺語（きご; 無益なおしゃべり）となる[18]。
  • 意業（いごう, 梵: manas-karman[14]、マナス・カルマン） - 意志に関わる行為[15]。心意作用[14]。
    • 十悪業においては、意の三業は貪欲（貪り）・瞋恚（怒り）・愚痴（愚かさ）となる[18]。

思業と思已業[編集]

Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā manoseṭṭhā manomayā
Manasā ce paduṭṭhena bhāsati vā karoti vā Tato naṃ dukkhamanveti cakkaṃ'va vahato padaṃ.

ものごと（諸法）は、意（manas）が先行し、意が最大の原因であり、意をもとに作りだされる（＝意業）。
もしも、けがれた意によって、話したり（＝語業）、行動するならば（＝身業）、苦しみがついてくる。 荷を運ぶ牛の足跡に車輪が従うように。

—パーリ仏典, 法句経 第一章 1, Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project

業は、意志の活動である思業（しごう, cetana kamma）と、思業が終わってからなされる思已業（しいごう, cetayitva kamma）との2つに分けられる[21][2]。

説一切有部の阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論では、第一段階を意業（思業）とし、第二段階は身業・口業のみ（思已業）とした[22][21]。

一方で阿含経では、行為が行われる場合は、第一段階：思（cetanā; 意志の発動）の心作用、第二段階：実際の行為（身業・口業・意業）があるとしている[16]。ここでは、（第二段階の意業だけでなく）、第一段階の思をも業のなかに含めて理解している[16]。そればかりでなく、第一段階こそが業の本質的なものだとして重要視している[23]。

なお、経量部や大乗仏教は、三業すべての本体を思（意志）であるとする[2][21]。

表業と無表業[編集]

説一切有部は、身業と語業には表（ひょう）と無表（むひょう; 梵: avijñapti[24]、アヴィジュニャプティ）とがあるとし、これらは表業（ひょうごう; 梵: vijñapti-karman[25]、ヴィジュニャプティ・カルマン）と無表業（むひょうごう; 梵: avijñapti-karman[24]、アヴィジュニャプティ・カルマン）ともいわれる[2]。表業は、「知らしめる行為」[26]、外に表現されて他人に示すことができるもの[2]、行為者の外面に現われ他から認知されるような行為[26]を意味する。無表業は、他人に示すことのできないもの[2]、善悪の業によって発得される悪と善を防止する功能（習性）[27]、行為者の内面に潜み他から認知されないような行為[26]を意味する。また、無表業は無表色（むひょうしき、梵: avijñapti-rūpa）[28]ともいう。

阿毘達磨倶舎論において、業を起こした時の心が善心ならそれと異なる不善あるいは無記の心を乱心といい、業を起こした時の心が不善心ならそれと異なる善あるいは無記の心を乱心という[29]。また、無想定や滅尽定に入って心の生起が全くなくなった状態を無心という[29]。この上で無表色は、 阿毘達磨倶舎論 の分別界品第一においては、これらの「乱心と無心等（この2つに不乱心および有心を含めた4つを四心という[30]。著者の世親はこれによって全ての心の状態を示し得たと考えている[31]。）の者にも随流(法が連続生起して絶えない流れをなすこと[29]。なお、随流は相続(梵: pravāha)ともいう[32]。)であって、浄や不浄にして、大種(四大種)によってあるもの」と定義されている[33]。分別界品第一の定義は四分随流ともいう[27]。なお、無表色は四大種の所造であるが極微の所成ではない[34]。また、法処、法界に属しながら色法であり[34]、五根の対象とはならず、ただ意根の対象である[34]。

無表業とは、説一切有部の伝統的解釈によれば「悪もしくは善の行為を妨げる習性」で、具体的には律儀、不律儀、非律儀不律儀の三種であり(これは阿毘達磨倶舎論の分別業品第四の所説であり、この所説が無表業全体を解明しているという考え方がある[27] 。)、いわゆる「戒体」と同じものである[27]。 また、無表色は身無表と語無表の二種に分けられ、殺生、偸盗、邪淫の三つの身業と妄語、綺語、離間語、悪口の四つの語業を合わせた七支に関わるものである[30]。明治大正期より、近代仏教学者によって経部の種子説との混同や[35]、大乗仏教の立場から有部の無表業を誤謬として規定したり[36]、「仏教元来の無表」を想定することによって、無表色を「業の結果を生ぜしめるもの」とする理解が流行したが、文献学的に論証されたものではなく、根拠に乏しい[36]。

身表と身無表、語表と語無表の四つに意業を加えて五業という[2]。

引業と満業[編集]

総体としての一生の果報を引く業を引業（牽引業、総報業、引因とも）という[2]。これは人間界とか畜生界などに生まれさせる強い力のある業のことを指す[2]。他方、人間界などに生まれたものに対して個々の区別を与えて個体を完成させる業を満業という[2]。引業と満業の2つを総別二業という[2]。

共業と不共業[編集]

山河大地（器世間）のような、多くの生物に共通する果報をひきおこす業を共業（ぐうごう）といい、個々の生物に固有な果報をひきおこす業を不共業（ふぐうごう）という[2]。無著「大乗阿毘達磨集論」においては、共業による影響は、これを結果に対する増上縁 (adhipati-pratyaya) と考え、直接的な結果、すなわち異熟 (vipāka) とは考えない[37]。

三性業[編集]

善心によって起こる善業（安穏業）と、悪心によって起こる不善業（悪業、不安穏業とも）と、善悪のいずれでもない無記心によって起こる無記業の3つがあり、この3つを三性業という[2]。

三時業[編集]

業によって果報を受ける時期に異なりがあるので、業を下記の3つに分ける[2]。この3つを三時業という[2]。三時業の各々は、この世で造った業の報いを受ける時期がそれぞれ異なる[2]。

  • 順現業（順現法受業、じゅんげんぽうじゅごう[要出典]、dṛṣṭadharma-vedanīya-karman[38]） - この世で造った業の報いを、この世で受ける[2]。
  • 順生業（順次生受業、じゅんじしょうじゅごう[要出典]、upapadya-vedanīya-karman[39]） - この世で造った業の報いを、次に生まれかわった世で受ける[2]。
  • 順後業（順後次受業、じゅんごじじゅごう[要出典]、aparaparyāya-vedanīya-karman[40]） - この世で造った業の報いを、次の来世より先の世で受ける[2]。

三時業は報いを受ける時期が定まっているので定業といい、報いを受ける時期が定まらないものを不定業（順不定業、梵: aniyata-karman[41]）という[2]。三時業に不定業を加えて四業という[2]。

業因と業果との関係[編集]

「因果#因果応報」も参照

善悪の業を造ると、それによって楽や苦の報い（果報、果熟）が生じることを、業因によって業果（Karmaphala）が生じるという[2][注釈 5]。この業因と業果との関係について諸説がある[2]。

説一切有部は、業そのものは三世に実在するとし、業が現在あるときにはそれが因となっていかなる未来の果を引くかが決定し、業が過去に落ちていってから果に力を与えて果を現在に引き出すとする[2]。

経量部は、業は瞬間に滅び去るとするが、その業は果を生じる種子（しゅうじ）を識の上にうえつけ、その種子が果をひきおこすことになるとする[2]。

業道[編集]

業がそこにおいてはたらくよりどころとなるもの、あるいは、有情を苦楽の果報に導く通路となるものを業道という[2][注釈 6]。業道には十善業道と十悪業道の2つがある[2]。

業識、業障[編集]

業識（ごっしき）とは、業を縁として生じた識、または無明のために動かされた識のこと[42]。業障（ごっしょう）とは、業の障りのことを指し、業識障（ごっしきしょう）ともいう。善業および悪業を含む前世からの宿業により様々に生まれつくこと[43]。また、業識性（ごっしきしょう）は、惜しい・欲しい・憎い・可愛いという煩悩妄想を指す[44]。

仏典や宗派ごとの扱い[編集]

パーリ経典[編集]

大四十経においては釈迦は八正道を説き、十事正見として、果報の否定を「邪見」と断じている。阿毘達磨発智論においても五悪見のひとつとして排している。

阿毘達磨[編集]

『総合仏教大辞典(1988)』によれば、阿毘達磨では[どこ?]、十二支縁起の第十支の「有」は業を意味するものと解釈されている[2]。これを業有という[2]。

浄土教[編集]

一般に、念仏して阿弥陀仏の浄土に往生しようと願うことを浄業という[2]。

密教[編集]

ジャイナ教[編集]

詳細は「業 (ジャイナ教)」を参照

西洋[編集]

西洋では、ドイツの思想家ゴットホルト・エフライム・レッシング（1729年 - 1781年）の時代から、生の繰り返しによる学びを通した個人の段階的な完成として、東洋よりはるかに楽観的な転生思想が唱えられてきた[45]。

心霊主義[編集]

フランス人アラン・カルデック19世紀に創始した心霊主義のキリスト教スピリティズム(カルデシズム）では、転生が信じられており、神から与えられた自由意思によって、転生する間に過ちを起こしてカルマを形成し、この負債であるカルマによって、その人に災いが起こると考えられた[46][47]。人間の苦しみの原因は自らが過去生で蓄積した負債であり、地上の生はこの負債の返済のためにある[46]。また人生の苦しみは神の恩寵でもあり、苦しみを通じて負債が軽減されることは神の期待に沿うことであり、苦しみを乗り越えることは大きな栄光であると考えられている[46]。スピリティズムにおいて、自由意思は負債の原因であると同時に救いを可能にするものであり、個人が救済されるか否かは全て個人の自由意思次第であり、救いは慈善活動、他者救済のみによって可能となる[46]。

エドガー・ケイシー(後述）と同時代には、心霊主義の霊媒モーリス・バーバネルがおり、彼に憑依した霊であるという「シルバー・バーチ」という人格によると、転生とは償いや罰が問題ではなく、進化のためにあり、「業という借金」は「教訓を学ぶための大切な手段」であるとされ、懲罰的な意味合いは中心から外されているか、完全になくなっている[48]。

神智学[編集]

19世紀に近代神智学を創始したロシア人オカルティストのヘレナ・P・ブラヴァツキーは、身体的な進化のベースに霊的な進化があると主張し、人間は転生の繰り返しを通して神性の輝きに向かって進化するもので、連続する生はカルマの法則によって統括されていると考えた[49]。

ニューエイジ[編集]

近代神智学から直接生まれ変わりの思想を受け継いだニューエイジでは、転生やカルマが信じられている[50][51]。津城寛文によると、ニューエイジを一般に広めた女優のシャーリー・マクレーンなどの「スピリチュアルな」重要人物たちは、心霊診断家のエドガー・ケイシーを最大の権威として参照しており、ケイシーは現代アメリカの転生思想に最も大きな影響がある[52]。催眠状態のケイシーが語る「リーディング」で伝えた原則的な教訓は、「蒔いたものは刈り取らねばならない」という新約聖書の言葉を標語にするもので、死後も存在が続くと意識することによって生じる内面の正義を目的とする倫理である[52]。リーディングでは、カルマという用語で説明された[52]。ヒンドゥー教から用語を借りつつも、キリスト教内部に元々あった教えであることが暗に示されている[52]。ケイシーの教えには、カルマを活用することで生まれ変わりの機会を改善するという志向がある[52]。リーディングには、割り当てられた問題を今生で解決し、もう地球に転生しないかもしれないというごく少数の事例もあり、彼らは死後より高次の惑星に移行するとされている[52]。ケイシーはアトランティス大陸滅亡を歴史的事実として語り、その時のカルマにより現代社会の滅亡が近いという終末論を唱えた[53]。

ニューエイジの「カルマの法則」は、原因と結果に関する宇宙の法則、互いに結びつき道徳的な均衡へと向かう宇宙の傾向の一部であり、しばしば道徳的な意味で宇宙の進化と同じと考えられた[50][51]。悪や苦しみは幻影であるとされ、カルマは悪や苦しみとは無関係の概念になっている[50]。今の人生の課題は前世のカルマによって決められているという考え方は、生きる指針を見失い喪失感に苦しむ現代アメリカ人たちから、広い支持を得た[54]。

脚注[編集]

[脚注の使い方]

注釈[編集]

  1. ^ 原語の karman は、サンスクリットの動詞語根「クリ」(√kṛ)、為す） より派生した[1]。羯磨（かつま）と音写する[2]。
  2. ^ 原始仏典である阿含経典(二カーヤ)において、ウパニシャッドは言及すらされておらず、まったく存在していなかったと考えるからである[要出典]。登場するヴェーダも三つまでである[要出典]。
  3. ^ ただし、業因には、煩悩などの「業を起こさせる原因」という意味もあり、因業には「因と業」すなわち「主因と助縁」という意味もある[2]。
  4. ^ 業とその苦である報いのことを業苦という場合もある[2]。
  5. ^ 非善非悪の無記業は業果を引く力がない[2]。
  6. ^ 経量部や大乗仏教では、身・語を動初（どうほつ）する思（意志）の種子（しゅうじ）のことを指して業道という場合もある[2]。

出典[編集]

  1. ^ 宮元啓一「インドにおける唯名論の基本構造」『RINDAS ワーキングペーパー伝統思想シリーズ19』、龍谷大学現代インド研究センター、2014年、6-8頁。}
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq 総合仏教大辞典 1988, p. 363-365.
  3. ^ スマナサーラ 2014, 11%.
  4. ^ a b 広辞苑 1986, p. 789.
  5. ^ Parvesh Singla. The Manual of Life – Karma. Parvesh singla. pp. 5–7. GGKEY:0XFSARN29ZZ 2011年6月4日閲覧。
  6. ^ Halbfass, Wilhelm (2000), Karma und Wiedergeburt im indischen Denken, Diederichs, München, Germany
  7. ^ スマナサーラ 2014, No.91/359.
  8. ^ スマナサーラ 2014, 16%.
  9. ^ スマナサーラ 2012, No.893/1930.
  10. ^ 志賀浄邦「インド仏教復興運動の軌跡とその現況」『京都産業大学世界問題研究所紀要』第25巻、2010年、23-46頁、NAID 110007523445。
  11. ^ 長友泰潤「原始仏典に見る人間観 : チャラカ・サンヒターの人間観との比較研究」『南九州大学研究報告. 人文社会科学編』第44巻、2014年、21-28頁、NAID 40020099536。
  12. ^ a b c d e f g チャンディマ・ガンゴダウィラ『新しい生き方を切り拓く７つの実践 『小業分別経』』Sukhi Hotu、2020年、22%。ASIN B0852RN3Q3。
  13. ^ 馬場 2018, pp. 121–122.
  14. ^ a b c d e f 岩波仏教辞典 1989, p. 314.
  15. ^ a b c 岩波仏教辞典 1989, p. 246.
  16. ^ a b c d e f 櫻部・上山 2006, p. 117～118.
  17. ^ 精選版 日本国語大辞典、小学館『邪淫・邪婬』 - コトバンク
  18. ^ a b c 松久保 2001, p. 77.
  19. ^ 櫻部・上山 2006, p. 索引頁「仏教基本語彙(3)」.
  20. ^ 櫻部・上山 2006, p. 117.
  21. ^ a b c 池田練太郎「思業と思已業」『印度學佛教學研究』第30巻第1号、1981年、298-302頁、doi:10.4259/ibk.30.298。
  22. ^ 櫻部・上山 2006, p. 120.
  23. ^ 櫻部・上山 2006, p. 117-18.
  24. ^ a b 岩波仏教辞典 1989, p. 788.
  25. ^ 櫻部・上山 2006, p. 索引頁「仏教基本語彙(7)」.
  26. ^ a b c 櫻部・上山 2006, p. 121.
  27. ^ a b c d 青原 2017, p. 847.
  28. ^ 櫻部・上山 2006, p. 索引頁「仏教基本語彙(9)」.
  29. ^ a b c 櫻部 1989, p. 63.
  30. ^ a b 青原 2017, p. 846.
  31. ^ 加藤 1967, p. 120.
  32. ^ 工藤 1981, p. 130.
  33. ^ 阿部 1995, p. 35.
  34. ^ a b c 櫻部 1989, p. 66.
  35. ^ 青原 2017, p. 844-846.
  36. ^ a b 青原 2017, p. 844-843.
  37. ^ 干潟龍祥「業(ごう)の社会性-共業(ぐうごう)-について (昭和五十年二月十二日提出)]」『日本學士院紀要』第33巻第1号、1975年、1-7頁、doi:10.2183/tja1948.33.1。
  38. ^ 「順現法受業」 - 佛光大辭典 (慈怡法師主編)
  39. ^ 「順次生受業」 - 佛光大辭典 (慈怡法師主編)
  40. ^ 「順後次受業」 - 佛光大辭典 (慈怡法師主編)
  41. ^ 清水 2011, p. 17.
  42. ^ 精選版　日本国語大辞典『業識』 - コトバンク
  43. ^ 山本 1960, p. 16.
  44. ^ 秋月 2002, p. 33.
  45. ^ 教皇庁 2007, pp. 36–37.
  46. ^ a b c d 山田政信 「新宗教のブラジル伝道（14）キリスト教の変容 ⑪」天理大学
  47. ^ 山田政信 「改宗を正当化する語りの論理」 ラテンアメリカ研究年報No.19(1999年)
  48. ^ 津城 2005, p. 76.
  49. ^ Tingay, 宮坂清訳 2009, pp. 428–434.
  50. ^ a b c 教皇庁 2007, p. 119.
  51. ^ a b York, 井上監訳 2009, pp. 428–434.
  52. ^ a b c d e f 津城 2005, pp. 71–73.
  53. ^ 大田 2013. 位置No.1173/2698
  54. ^ 大田 2013. 位置No.1165/2698

参考文献[編集]

関連項目[編集]


===

산업

모호함 회피이 항목에서는 인도 발상 종교 에서의 사업 (고우, 카르마)에 대해 설명합니다. 그 외의 용법에 대해서는 「업(모호함 회피)」을 봐 주세요.
모호함 회피「카르마」, 「공업」은 이 항목에 전송 되고 있습니다. '카르마'의 기타 용법에 대해서는 ' 카르마(애매함 회피) '를, 협력하여 일하는 것에 대해서는 ' 협동 '을 참조하십시오.

업 (고), 업보 (고호), 업력 (고우리키), 응보 (우호), [ 요 출전 ] 카르마 ( 범 : कर्मन् karman [주석 1] )에서 유래해, 행위 , 소작, 의지 에 의한 신념 의 활동, 의지에 의한 신심의 생활을 의미하는 단어 [2] . 원의에서는 단순한 행위(action)라는 의미이며, 「좋다」 「나쁘다」라고 하는 색은 없고, 어두운 뉘앙스도 없다 [3] .

인도 철학 정통파 및 이단파의 일부( 불교 등 ) 의 설에서는, 선 또는 악의 일을 만들면 인과의 도리에 의해 그 상응의 편 이나 고의 보상(과보)이 생긴다고 한다 [2 ] [4] . 업은 과보와 쌍을 이루는 말이지만, 업의 과보 그 자체를 업이라고 하는 경우도 있다 [4] .

업의 사상은 인도 발상의 종교 (특히 힌두교 , 불교 , 자이나교 , 시크교 )와 도교 에서 윤회 와 강하게 연결되는 개념이다 [ 5] . 환생 을 가져오고, 악의와 악행은 나쁜 카르마와 나쁜 재생을 가져온다고 여겨진다 [6] (선인선과, 악인악과) [7] .

인도 철학 [ 편집 ]

인도 철학 - 인도 발상 종교
힌두교
기본 교리
신
경전
법전·율법경
학교
종파
수치
수행·예배
관련 용어
목록

사업은 인도 에서 오래된 시대부터 중요시되었다. 베다 시대부터 우파니샤드 시대에 걸쳐 윤회 사상과 연결되어 전개해, 기원전 10세기부터 4세기위까지의 사이에 확실히 고정화해 왔다.

선을 이루는 것은 선생을 얻고, 악을 이루는 것은 악생을 부양한다. 정행에 의해 정화할 수 있도록. 더러운 행에 의해, 더러움을 풀어
선인은 천국에 이르고 묘악을 받지만, 악인은 나락에 도달해 여러 가지 고환을 받는다. 죽은 후, 영혼은 칭찬을 받고, 선악의 일을 제거하고, 그에 따라 처벌받는다.

— Śatapathā-brāhmana

마치 금세공인이 하나의 황금의 작은 부분을 자료로 하고, 더욱 새롭고 아름다운 다른 형상을 만들듯이, 이 우리도 몸과 무명을 벗고, 새롭고 아름다운 다른 형상을 만들었다. 그것은, 또는 조상, 혹은 건해파, 혹은 제신, 생생, 범천, 또는 다른 유정이다. … … 사람은 언동함으로써, 여러 가지 지위를 받는다. 그렇게 언동에 의해 미래의 삶을 얻는다. 진정으로 선업의 사람은 선이 되고, 악업의 사람은 악이 되고, 복업에 의해 복인이 되고, 죄업에 의해 죄인이 된다. 그러므로 세상의 사람은 말한다. 사람은 욕심보다 된다. 욕심에 따라 의지를 형성하고 의지의 향하는 곳에 따라 사업을 실현한다. 그 사업에 따라 그에 상응하는 결과가 있습니다.

— '브리하드 알라냐야카 우파니샤드'

인도 철학의 정통파에서는, 업은 윤회전생의 사상 과 세트로서 전개한다. 이 윤회와 밀착하는 업의 사상은 인과론 으로서 결정론 이나 숙명론과 같은 입장에서 이해된다.

이단파와 사문들 [ 편집 ]

인도 철학 # 비교 참조

이 정통파의 설에 반발하는 사람들은 이단파로서 결정적인 왕세의 압력으로부터 벗어나려고 했다. 기존의 바라몬교 에 소속되지 않은 다양한 자유사상가들이 나타났다. 이들은 고도의 명상 기술을 가지고 있어 명상에 의해 얻은 체험에서 다양한 사상철학을 만들어내고, 업, 윤회, 숙명, 해탈, 인식론 등 의 사상 이 체계화 되어 갔다 . 이 중에 업의 사상도 포함되어 있었다.

그것이 사문 이라 불리며 석가와 동시대의 철학자로 알려진 육사 외도 와 불교 측에 불리는 사람들이었다.

어떤 사람은 영혼과 육체를 상속한다고 생각하고, 육체의 멸망 사실로부터, 영혼도 또 멸망한다고 무인무업의 주장을 하고(순세파), 또 다른 사람은 영혼과 육체 를 따로 라고 하고, 게다가 양자 모두 영원 불멸의 실재라고 생각해, 그러한 입장으로부터, 건설하는 것도, 건설될 것도 없으면, 전혀 업을 인정하지 않는다고 주장했다(아지비카교 ) .

덧붙여 바라몬교에 있어서의 윤회 사상의 발생을, 종래 생각되고 있는 것보다 후의 시대라고 하는 견해도 있다. 예를 들어 상좌불교 에서는 석가재세시에 존재했던 바라몬 경전을 세 개의 베다까지 밖에 인정하지 않고 [주석 2] 석가 이전의 바라몬교에 윤회사상은 존재하지 않았다고 한다. 물론 당시의 자유사상가들이 윤회사상을 설고 있던 것은 분명하지만, 그들은 바라몬교도가 아니었음에 주의해야 한다.

불교 [ 편집 ]

불교 용어 산업
, 카르마
파리어업
산스크리트어카르마
( 개발자 :karman)
티베트어ལས།
( 와일리 : 라스;
THL : 르; )
일본어업 or 고우
영어업
템플릿 보기

불교 는 모든 결과에 대해 「우연에 의한 사물의 발생」 「(원인 없이) 사물이 갑자기 생기는 것」 「하나님에 의한 창조」등을 부정하고 그 원인을 설명한다 [8] [9] . 업은 과보(보상, 과숙)를 일으키는 원인이 되므로, 업을 업인이나 인업이라고도 한다 [2] [주석 3] . 석가는 사업에 근거한 이론에서 바라몬교가 설교하는 태생에 의한 카스트제를 부정했다 [10] .

Na jaccā brāhmaṇo hoti na jaccā hoti abrāhmaṇo Kammanā brāhmaṇo hoti kammanā hoti abrāhmaṇo.

사람은 태어나서 바라몬이 되는 것이 아니라 태어나서 비바라몬이 되는 것은 아니다.
업에 의해서 바라몬이 되는 것이고, 업에 의해 비바라몬이 되는 것이다 [11] .

— 파리 불전 , 스타니파타 653, Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project

업에 의한 보상을 업과(Karmaphala)나 업보라고 한다 [2] . 업에 의해 보상을 받는 것을 업감이라고 하며, 업에 의한 괴로운 보상을 업고라고 한다 [2] [주석 4] . 과거세 에 만든 사업을 숙업 또는 전업이라고 하며, 숙업에 의한 재앙을 업액이라고 한다 [2] . 숙업에 의해 벗어날 수 없는 무거운 질병을 업병이라고 한다 [2] . 자신이 만든 사업의 보상은 자신이 받아야 하는 것을 자업자득이라고 한다 [2] .

Kammasakkā māṇava, sattā kammadāyādā kammayoni kammabandhu kammapaṭisaraṇā. Kammaṃ satte vibhajati yadidaṃ hīnappaṇītāyāti.

청년(수바)여, 중생은 , 업을 자신의 것으로, 업을 상속하고, 업을 태로 하고, 업을 친족으로 하고, 업을 보다 커지로 한다. 사업이 중생을 분류하고 우열을 붙인다 [12] .

— 파리 불전 , 중부 134, 소업분별경 , Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project
  • 자신의 것 (sakkā) - 죽음에 의해 잃는 것이 아니라 내세에 오는 소유물 [12] .
  • 상속한다 (dāyādā) - 몸, 입, 의의 삼업 으로부터 계승된다 [12] .
  • 태어나는(yoni)-생명을 낳는 것은, 스스로 행한 행위로부터로, 모두 업보다 태어난다 [12] .
  • 분리할 수 없다(bandhu)-생명은 사업과의 연결을 끊을 수 없다 [12] .
  • 더 어려운 (paṭisaraṇā) - 생활의 보다는 커다란 것이다 [12] .
  • 우열을 붙인다(satte vibhajati yadidaṃ hīnappaṇītatāyāti) - 생명에 우열을 주는 요소의 하나이다 [12] .

분류 [ 편집 ]

불교의 사업은 다양하게 분류됩니다. 여기에서는 주로 부파불교 내지 상좌부불교 의 여러 경전에 근거하여 적는다. 중관파 , 밀교 등의 대승 제 종파 에서는 교리의 비중, 의미가 다를 가능성에 주의할 것. [ 요출전 ]

삼업 [ 편집 ]

Cetanāhaṃ bhikkhave kammaṃ vadāmi, cetayitvā kammaṃ karoti kāyena vācāya manasā,

히오카들아, 의사 (cetanā)가 업(kamma)이라고, 나는 말한다.
생각하고(cetanā)부터, 신체(kāya)·언어(vāk)· 의 (manas)에 의해 업을 이룬다 [13] .

— 파리 불전 , 증지부 6집 63. 통찰경 , Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project

업은 일반적으로, 몸(신)·입(쿠, 혹은 말)·의(이)의 삼업(산고)으로 나뉜다 [2] . 계명 에 있어서도 십악업 으로서 삼업으로 분류하여 설명된다.

  • 신업 (신고,梵: kāya-karman [14] , 카야 칼만) - 신체에 관련된 행위 [15] . 신체적 행위 [14] .
    • 설 일절 유부 에 있어서는, 신업이란, 그 행위·동작을 하는 순간 순간에 신체가 나타내는 형상이라고 한다 [16] . 예를 들어, 사람을 치는 행위는 영화 필름의 1코마 1코마의 화면 변화와 같이 주먹을 휘두르고 그것을 상대의 머리 위로 내려간다는 과정의 순간 순간에 신체의 형상이 조금씩 변화해 나가는 것에 의해 완수된다 [16] . 그 각 순간의 신체의 형상, 즉 색법 ( 안식 의 대상)이야말로 신업이라고 한다 [16] .
    • 십악업 에 있어서는, 몸의 삼업은 살생(せしょょう)·정도(츄토;도둑질)·사음(쟝; 불륜, 길에 빠진 성행위 [17] )가 된다 [18] .
  • 구업 (쿠고, 룽 : vāk-karman [14] , 버크 칼만) - 언어 관련 행위 [15] . 언어 표현 [14] . 어업(고우,梵: vāk-karman [19] , 버크 칼만)이라고도 한다 [20] .
    • 설 일절 유부에 있어서는, 일순간 한순간에 발음되는 성음의 겹침이 언어를 이루기 때문에, 성법(이식의 대상)야말로 구업이라고 한다 [ 16 ] .
    • 십악업에 있어서는, 입의 4업은 망어(벌써; 거짓말을 한다)・양혀(료제트; [ 18 ] .
  • 의업 (이고, 룽 : manas-karman [14] , 마나스 칼만) - 의지에 관련된 행위 [15] . 심의작용 [14] .

사업과 사교업 [ 편집 ]

Manopubbaṅgamā dhamma manoseṭṭhā manomayā
Manasā ce paduṭṭhena bhasati vā karoti vā Tato naṃ dukkhamanveti cakkaṃ'va vahato padaṃ.

모든 것( 제법 )은 의 (manas)가 선행하고, 의가 최대의 원인이며, 의를 바탕으로 만들어진다(=의업).
만약, 부상당한 뜻에 의해, 이야기하거나(=어업), 행동한다면(=신업), 고통이 따라온다. 적재하는 소의 발자국에 바퀴가 따르도록.

— 파리 불전 , 법구경 제1장 1, Sri Lanka Tripitaka Project

사업은 의지의 활동인 사업(시고, cetana kamma)과 사업이 끝난 후 이루어지는 사교업(시고, cetayitva kamma)의 2가지로 나누어진다 [21] [2] .

설 일절 유부의 아비 타츠마 오오비타노 사론 에서는, 제1 단계를 의업(사업)으로 하고, 제2 단계는 신업·구업만(사교업)으로 했다 [22] [21] .

한편 아함경 에서는, 행위가 행해지는 경우는, 제1단계: 사 (cetanā; 의지의 발동)의 심작용, 제2단계:실제의 행위(신업·구업·의업)가 있다고 하고 있다 [16] . 여기에서는 (제2단계의 의업뿐만 아니라), 제1단계의 생각도 업 속에 포함하여 이해하고 있다 [16] . 그뿐만 아니라, 제1단계야말로 업의 본질적인 것으로 중요시하고 있다 [23] .

또한, 경량부나 대승 불교 는 삼업 모든 본체를 생각(의지)이라고 한다 [2] [21] .

표업과 무표업 [ 편집 ]

설 일절 유부 는 , 신업과 어업 에는 표(효) ; 무표 ( 무효 ; vijñapti-karman [25] , 비쥬냐푸티 칼만 ) 과 무표 업 ( 무효 고 ; 표업은 「알리는 행위」[26] , 밖에 표현되어 타인에게 나타낼 수 있는 것 [2] , 행위자의 외면에 나타나서 다른 사람으로부터 인지되는 행위 [26] 를 의미한다. 무표업은 타인에게 보여줄 수 없는 것 [2] , 선악의 일에 의해 발득되는 악과 선을 방지하는 공능(습성) [27] , 행위자의 내면에 숨어 다른 사람으로부터 인지되지 않는 것 같은 행위 [26] 를 의미한다. 또한, 무표업은 무표색(무효시키,梵: avijñapti-rūpa ) [28] 이라고도 한다.

아비 타츠 마이 샤론에서 사업을 일으켰을 때의 마음이 선심 이라면 그것 과 다른 불선 또는 무기의 마음 을 난심이라고하며, 일을 일으켰을 때의 마음이 불 선심 이라면 그것 과 다른 선 또는 무기의 마음 을 난심이라고 [29] . 또한 무상정 이나 멸종정 에 들어가 마음의 생기가 전혀 없어진 상태를 무심이라고 한다 [29] . 이 가운데 무표색은, 아비타리 마야사론 의 분별 계품 제1에 있어서는, 이러한 「난심과 무심등(이 2개에 불란심 및 유심을 포함한 4개를 4심이라고 한다. ] 저자의 어머니 는 이것이 모든 마음의 상태를 나타낼 수 있다고 생각 한다 [ 31 ] . 유동은 상속(梵: pravāha )이라고도 하는 [32] .)이며, 정이나 부정하게 하고, 대종( 4대종 )에 의해 있는 것”이라고 정의되고 있다 [33] . 분별계품 제1의 정의는 사분수류라고도 한다 [27] . 또한, 무표색은 4대종 의 소조이지만 극미한 소성은 아니다 [34] . 또한, 법처 , 법계 에 속하면서 색법 이며 [34] , 오근 의 대상 이 되지 않고, 단지 의근 의 대상이다 [34] .

무표업이란, 설 일절 유부의 전통적 해석에 의하면 「악 또는 선의 행위를 방해하는 습성」으로, 구체적으로는 율의, 불율의, 비율의 불율의의 3종이며(이것은 아이다毘達磨倶舎論의 분별업품 제4의 소설이며, 이 소설이 무표업 전체를 해명하고 있다는 생각이 있다[27].), 이른바 「계명」과 같은 것이다 [ 27 ] . 또, 무표색은 신무표와 어무표의 2종으로 나누어져 살생, 뱃사람, 사음의 3개의 신업과 망어, 철어, 이간어, 욕의 4개의 어업을 합친 칠지에 관련된 것이다 [30] . 메이지 다이쇼기부터 근대불교학자에 의해 경부의 종자설과의 혼동이나 [ 35] , 대승불교의 입장에서 유부의 무표업을 오모로 규정하거나 '를 상정함으로써, 무표색을 '업의 결과를 만들어내는 것'이라고 하는 이해가 유행했지만, 문헌학적으로 논증된 것이 아니라 근거가 부족하다[36 ] .

신표와 신무표, 어표와 어무표의 네 가지에 의업 을 더해 오업이라고 한다 [2] .

인업과 만업 [ 편집 ]

총체로서의 일생의 과보를 당기는 업을 인업(견인업, 총보업, 인인 모두)이라고 한다 [2] . 이것은 인간계 나 축생계 등에 태어나게 하는 강한 힘이 있는 업을 가리킨다 [2] . 한편, 인간계 등에 태어난 것에 대하여 개별의 구별을 주어 개체 를 완성시키는 업을 만업이라고 한다 [2] . 인업과 만업의 2개를 총별 2업이라고 한다 [2] .

공업과 불공업 [ 편집 ]

야마가와 대지( 기세간 )와 같은, 많은 생물 에 공통되는 과보를 끌어내는 사업을 공업(구우고)이라고 하며, 개별 생물에 고유한 과보를 끌어내는 사업을 불공업(후구우고)이라고 한다 [2] . 무저 "대승 아비 다리마 집론"에서는 공업의 영향은 이것을 결과에 대한 증상 가장자리 (adhipati-pratyaya)로 생각하고 직접적인 결과, 즉 이숙 (vipāka)이라고는 생각하지 않는다 [ 37 ] .

삼성업 [ 편집 ]

선심에 의해 일어나는 선업(안온업)과, 악심에 의해 일어나는 불선업(악업, 불안온업 모두)과, 선악의 어느 것도 아닌 무기심에 의해 일어나는 무기업의 3개가 있으며, 이 3개를 삼성 사업이라는 [2] .

삼시업 [ 편집 ]

업에 의해 과보를 받는 시기에 차이가 있으므로, 업을 아래의 3개로 나눈다 [2] . 이 3개를 3시업이라고 한다 [2] . 3시업의 각각은, 이 세상에서 만든 업의 보상을 받는 시기가 각각 다르다 [2] .

  • 순현업(순현법 수업 , 준겐포주고 [ 요출전 ] , dṛṣṭadharma-vedanīya-karman [38] ) - 이 세상에서 만든 사업의 보상을 이 세상에서 받는다 [2] .
  • 순생업(순차생수업 , 준지쇼쥬고 [ 요출전 ] , upapadya-vedanīya-karman [39] ) - 이 세상에서 만든 업의 보상을, 다음으로 태어난 세상에서 받는 [2] .
  • 순후업(순후차 수업 , 준고지쥬고 [ 요 출전 ] , aparaparyāya - vedanīya-karman [40] ) ] .

3시업은 보상을 받는 시기가 정해져 있기 때문에 정업이라고 하며, 보상을 받는 시기가 정해지지 않는 것을 부정업(순부정업, 梵: aniyata - karman [41] )이라고 한다 [2] . 3시업에 부정업을 더해 4업이라고 한다 [2] .

실업과 실적 간의 관계 [ 편집 ]

인과 # 인과 응보 도 참조

선악의 업을 만들면 그에 의해 편의 와 고통 의 보상(과보, 과숙)이 생기는 것을, 업인에 의해 업과(Karmaphala)가 생긴다 [2] [주석 5] . 이 업인과 업과의 관계에 대해 여러 설이 있다 [2] .

설 일절 유부는, 업 그 자체는 3세 에 실재 한다고 하고, 업이 현재 있을 때에는 그것이 원인이 되어 어떠한 미래의 과일을 끌어낼지가 결정해, 업이 과거에 떨어지고 가고 나서 과에 힘을 주어서 과를 현재로 끌어낸다고 한다 [2] .

경량부는, 업은 순간에 멸망한다고 하지만, 그 업은 과일을 생기는 종자( 슈지 )를 식 의 위에 붙이고, 그 씨앗이 과일을 끌어내게 된다고 한다 [2] .

도로 [ 편집 ]

업이 거기에 있어서는 일보다 더 커지는 것, 혹은, 유정을 고락의 과보로 이끄는 통로가 되는 것을 업도라고 한다 [2] [주석 6] . 업도에는 십선업도와 십악업도의 2개가 있다 [2] .

업식, 사업 [ 편집 ]

업식이란 업을 인연 으로 생긴 식 , 또는 무명을 위하여 움직인 식이다 [42] . 업장(고시쇼)이란, 업의 장애를 가리키고, 업식장(고시시쇼)이라고도 한다. 선업 및 악업을 포함한 전세계 숙업에 의해 다양하게 태어날 것 [43] . 또, 업식성(고시키쇼)은, 아쉽다·원한다·미워·귀엽다고 하는 번뇌 망상 을 가리킨다 [44] .

불전과 종파별 취급 [ 편집 ]

파리 경전 [ 편집 ]

대사십경 에 있어서는 석가는 팔정도를 설해, 십사 정견으로서, 과보의 부정을 「사견」이라고 단절하고 있다. 아오타쓰마 발지론 에서도 오악견의 하나로 배제하고 있다.

아오 타츠마 [ 편집 ]

『종합불교대사전(1988)』에 의하면, 아비타츠마 에서는 [ 어디? ] , 십이지연기 의 제십지의 「유」는 업을 의미하는 것으로 해석되고 있다 [2] . 이것을 사업이라고 한다 [2] .

정토교 [ 편집 ]

일반적으로 염불 하여 아미타불 의 정토 에 왕생 하려고 하는 것을 정업이라고 한다 [2] .

밀교 [ 편집 ]

자이나교 [ 편집 ]

자세한 내용은 " 업 (자이나교) "을 참조하십시오.

서양 [ 편집 ]

서양에서는 독일의 사상가 고트 홀트 에브라임 레싱 (1729년 - 1781년)의 시대부터 원시 반복에 의한 배움을 통한 개인의 단계적인 완성으로서 동양보다 훨씬 낙관적인 환생 사상이 주창 된다 온 [45] .

심령주의 [ 편집 ]

프랑스인 앨런 칼덱 19세기에 창시한 심령주의 기독교 스피리티즘 (칼데시즘)에서는 환생이 믿어지고 하나님으로부터 주어진 자유 의사에 의해 환생하는 동안 잘못을 일으켜 갈마를 형성하고, 이 부채인 카르마에 의해, 그 사람에게 재앙이 일어난다고 생각되었다 [46] [47] . 인간의 고통의 원인은 스스로가 과거생에서 축적한 부채이며, 지상의 생은 이 부채의 상환을 위함이다 [46] . 또 인생의 고통은 하나님의 은총이기도 하며, 고통을 통해 부채가 경감되는 것은 하나님의 기대에 따르는 것이며, 고통을 극복하는 것은 큰 영광이라고 생각되고 있다[46 ] . 스피리티즘에서 자유 의사는 부채의 원인인 동시에 구원을 가능하게 하는 것이며, 개인이 구제되는지 여부는 모두 개인의 자유 의사에 달려 있으며, 구원은 자선 활동, 타자 구제만으로 가능하다 [46] .

에드거 케이시 (후술)와 동시대에는, 심령주의의 영매 모리스 버버넬이 있어 , 그에게 빙의 한 영이라고 하는 「실버 버치」라는 인격에 의하면, 전생과는 보상이나 벌이 문제가 아니고 , 진화를 위해 있고, 「업이라는 빚」은 「교훈을 배우기 위한 소중한 수단」이라고 여겨지고, 징벌적인 의미는 중심에서 벗어나거나 완전히 없어지고 있다[48 ] .

신지학 [ 편집 ]

19세기에 근대 신지학을 창시한 러시아인 오컬티스트의 헬레나 P. 브라바츠키 는 신체적인 진화의 베이스에 영적인 진화가 있다고 주장하고 인간은 환생의 반복을 통해 신성의 빛을 향해 진화하는 것으로, 연속하는 생은 카르마의 법칙에 의해 통괄되고 있다고 생각했다 [49] .

뉴에이지 [ 편집 ]

근대 신지학 으로부터 직접 환생의 사상을 계승한 뉴에이지 에서는, 환생이나 카르마가 믿어지고 있다 [50] [51] . 쓰시로 관문에 따르면, 뉴 에이지를 일반적으로 전파한 여배우 셜리 맥클레인 등의 "영적"중요한 인물들은 심령 진단가의 에드거 케이시를 최대의 권위로 참조하고 있으며, 케이시 는 현대 미국 의 환생 사상에 가장 큰 영향이 있다 [52] . 최면 상태의 케이시가 말하는 '리딩'으로 전한 원칙적인 교훈은 '뿌린 것은 깎아야 한다'는 신약성경의 말을 표어로 하는 것으로, 사후에도 존재가 계속된다고 의식함으로써 생긴다 내면의 정의를 목적으로 하는 윤리이다 [52] . 독서에서는 카르마라는 용어로 설명되었다 [52] . 힌두교에서 용어를 빌리면서도 기독교 내부에 원래 있던 가르침임이 암묵적으로 나타났다 [52] . 케이시의 가르침에는 카르마를 활용하여 환생의 기회를 개선한다는 지향이 있다 [52] . 리딩은 할당된 문제를 지금 생으로 해결하고 더 이상 지구로 환생하지 않을지도 모른다는 극소수의 사례도 있고, 그들은 사후보다 고차 행성으로 이행한다고 되어 있다[52 ] . 케이시는 아틀란티스 대륙 멸망을 역사적 사실로 말했고, 그 때의 카르마에 의해 현대사회의 멸망이 가깝다는 종말론을 주창했다 [53] .

뉴에이지의 "카르마의 법칙"은 원인과 결과에 관한 우주의 법칙, 서로 연결되어 도덕적 균형으로 향하는 우주의 추세의 일부이며, 종종 도덕적 의미에서 우주의 진화와 동일하다고 생각됩니다. [50] [ 51] . 악이나 고통은 환영이라고 여겨지며, 카르마는 악이나 고통과는 무관한 개념이 되고 있다 [50] . 지금의 인생의 과제는 전세의 카르마에 의해 정해져 있다는 생각은, 살아가는 지침을 잃고 상실감에 시달리는 현대 미국인들로부터, 넓은 지지를 얻었다[54 ] .

각주 [ 편집 ]

[ 각주 사용법 ]

주석 [ 편집 ]

  1. ^ 원어의 karman는, 산스크리트 의 동사 어근 「쿠리」(√kṛ), 위스)보다 파생했다 [1] . 연마 (가다랭이)와 음사한다 [2] .
  2. ^ 원시불전인 아함경전(二カヤ)에 있어서, 우파니샤드는 언급조차 되지 않고, 전혀 존재하지 않았다고 생각하기 때문이다[ 요 출전 ] . 등장하는 베다도 3개까지이다 [ 요출전 ] .
  3. 다만 , 업인에는 번뇌 등의 「업을 일으키는 원인」이라고 하는 의미도 있고, 인업에는 「인과 업」 즉 「 주인 [ 2 ] .
  4. ^ 업과 그 고통인 보상을 업고라고 하는 경우도 있다 [2] .
  5. ^ 비선 비악의 무기업 은 업과를 당기는 힘이 없다 [2] .
  6. ^ 경량부나 대승 불교 에서는, 몸·어를 동초(무호) 하는 생각 (의지)의 종자 (슈지)를 가리키고 업도라고 하는 경우도 있다 [2] .

출처 [ 편집 ]

  1. ^ 미야모토 케이이치「인도에 있어서의 유명론의 기본 구조」 「RINDAS 워킹 페이퍼 전통 사상 시리즈 19」, 류야 대학 현대 인도 연구 센터, 2014년, 6-8페이지. }
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq 종합 불교 대사전 1988 , 363-365 페이지.
  3. ↑ Sumana Salla 2014 , 11 %.
  4. ^ a b 광사원 1986 , p. 789.
  5. ^ 파르베시 싱글라. 인생의 매뉴얼 - 카르마 . 파르베시 싱글라. pp. 5~7. GGKEY:0XFSARN29ZZ 2011년 6월 4일 더 보기.
  6. ↑ Halbfass, Wilhelm (2000), 인도 사상의 카르마와 재생, Diederichs, 독일 뮌헨
  7. ↑ Sumana Salla 2014 , No.91/359.
  8. ↑ Sumana Salla 2014 , 16 %.
  9. ↑ Sumanasara 2012 , No.893/1930.
  10. ↑ 시가 정방 “인도 불교 부흥 운동의 궤적과 그 현황” “교토 산업 대학 세계 문제 연구소 기요” 제25권, 2010년, 23-46페이지, NAID  110007523445。
  11. ^ 나가토모 타이준 “원시 불전에 보는 인간관 : 차라카·산히터의 인간관과의 비교 연구” “남규슈 대학 연구 보고. 인문 사회 과학편” 제44권, 2014년, 21-28페이지, NAID 40020099536 . 
  12. ^ a b c d e f g 찬디마 간고다우이라 『새로운 삶의 방식을 개척하는 7개의 실천 『소업분별경』』 Sukhi Hotu, 2020년, 22%. ASIN  B0852RN3Q3 .
  13. ^ 경마장 2018 , pp. 121–122.
  14. ^ a b c d e f 암파 불교 사전 1989 , p. 314.
  15. ^ a b c 이와나미 불교 사전 1989 , p. 246.
  16. ^ a b c d e f 사쿠라베・카미야마 2006 , p.117~118.
  17. ↑ 정선판 일본국어대사전, 쇼가쿠칸 『사음・사위』 - 코트뱅크
  18. ^ a b cMatsukubo 2001 , p. 77.
  19. ↑ 사쿠라 부, 우에야마 2006 , p. 색인 페이지 "불교 기본 어휘 (3)".
  20. ↑ 사쿠라베・카미야마 2006년 , 117페이지.
  21. ^ a b c 이케다 렌타로, "인도의 불교 가르침에 관한 연구" "인도의 불교 연구에 관한 연구", 30권, No. 1, 1981, pp. 298-302, doi : 10.4259/ibk.30.298 .
  22. ↑ 사쿠라베・카미야마 2006년 , 120페이지.
  23. ^ 사쿠라베・카미야마 2006 , p.117-18.
  24. ↑ a b 이와나미 불교 사전 1989 , p. 788.
  25. ↑ 사쿠라 부, 우에야마 2006 , p. 색인 페이지 "불교 기본 어휘 (7)".
  26. ↑ a b c 사쿠라베·카미야마 2006년 , 121페이지.
  27. ^ a b c d Qingyuan 2017 , p. 847.
  28. ^ 사쿠라 부, 우에야마 2006 , p. 색인 페이지 "불교 기본 어휘 (9)".
  29. ^ a b c 사쿠라베 1989 , p.63.
  30. ^ a bQingyuan 2017 , p. 846.
  31. ↑ Kato 1967 , p. 120.
  32. ↑ 구도 1981년 , 130쪽.
  33. ^ 아베 1995 , 35쪽.
  34. ^ a b c 사쿠라베 1989 , p. 66.
  35. ^ 칭위안 2017 , p. 844-846.
  36. ^ a bQingyuan 2017 , p. 844-843.
  37. ↑ 갯벌 용상 「업(고우)의 사회성-공업(구우고)-에 대해서(1975년)」 , 1-7 페이지, doi : 10.2183/tja1948.33.1 .
  38. ^ "현법에 따라 카르마를 받아들이는 것" - 포광사전(자이대사 편집)
  39. ^ "연속 탄생과 카르마" - Fo Guang Dictionary(Master Ciyi 편집)
  40. ^ "카르마를 하나씩 받아들이기" - Fo Guang Dictionary(Master Ciyi 편집)
  41. ^ Qingshui 2011 , 17페이지.
  42. ↑ 정선판 일본국어대사전 「업식」 - 코트뱅크
  43. ↑ 야마모토 1960년 , 16페이지.
  44. ^ Qiuyue 2002 , 33페이지.
  45. ↑ 교황청 2007 , pp. 36–37.
  46. ↑ a b c d 야마다 마사노부 「신종교의 브라질 전도(14) 기독교의 변용 ⑪」천리대학
  47. ↑ 야마다 마사노부 「개종을 정당화하는 이야기의 논리」 라틴 아메리카 연구 연보 No.19(1999년)
  48. ^ 진청(Jincheng) 2005년 , 76페이지.
  49. ↑ Tingay, 미야자카 청역 2009 , pp. 428–434.
  50. ↑ a b c 교황청 2007 , p. 119.
  51. ↑ a b York, 이노우에 감역 2009 , pp. 428–434.
  52. ↑ a b c def Journal 2005 , pp. 107-1 71-73.
  53. ↑ 대전 2013. 위치 No.1173/2698
  54. ↑ 대전 2013. 위치 No.1165/2698

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** Karma | Indian Philosophy | Britannica

Karma | Indian Philosophy & Its Impact on Life | Britannica

karma

Indian philosophy
Also known as: kamma, karman
Written by Patrick Olivelle
Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated:  • Article History
Category: History & Society
Sanskrit:
 
karman (“act”)
Pali:
 
kamma
Key People:
 
Yajnavalkya
Related Topics:
 
Indian philosophy
 
reincarnation
 
action
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Karma, in Indian religion and philosophy, the universal causal law by which good or bad actions determine the future modes of an individual’s existence. 

Karma represents the ethical dimension of the process of rebirth (samsara), 

belief in which is generally shared among the religious traditions of India. 

Indian soteriologies (theories of salvation) posit that future births and life situations will be conditioned by actions performed during one’s present life—which itself has been conditioned by the accumulated effects of actions performed in previous lives.

 The doctrine of karma thus directs adherents of Indian religions toward their common goal: release (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death. 

Karma thus serves two main functions within Indian moral philosophy: it provides the major motivation to live a moral life, and it serves as the primary explanation of the existence of evil.

Derived from the Sanskrit word karman, meaning “act,” the term karma carried no ethical significance in its earliest specialized usage.

In ancient texts (1000–700 BCE) of the Vedic religion, karma referred simply to ritual and sacrificial action. As the priestly theology of sacrifice was articulated by Brahman priests over the following centuries, however, ritual action came to be regarded as effective by itself, independent of the gods. 

Karma as ritual functioned autonomously and according to a cosmic ritual law.

Ravana
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Hinduism: Karma, samsara, and moksha

The earliest evidence of the term’s expansion into an ethical domain is provided in the Upanishads, a genre of the Vedas (sacred scriptures) concerned with ontology, or the philosophical study of being. 

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