재세례파 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전

재세례파 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전



재세례파
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교파
성공회 · 루터교
장로교 · 감리교
침례교 · 오순절주의
성결 운동 · 구세군 · 회중교회
재침례파 · 퀘이커 · 개혁교회
역사
종교개혁 · 정통주의
경건주의 · 대각성
옥스퍼드 운동
은사주의 운동
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성공회 기도서
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주요 신학 개념
삼위일체 · 복음주의
다섯솔라 · 예정설
구원 · 자유의지
신정통주의 · 자유주의 신학
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재침례파(再浸禮派, Anabaptist, 그리스어: Αναβαπτιστές)[1]는 16세기 종교개혁 당시 급진적 개혁을 따른 기독교 종파를 가리킨다. 그 사상을 이어받고 있는 현대의 개신교 교파들로는 아미시파, 후터라이트, 메노나이트 등이 있다. 전 세계적으로 120여만 명의 교인들이 있으며, 대한민국에도 재세례파(재침례파) 교회가 한 곳 있다.[2] 이 문서에서 재세례파라 함은 주로 16세기 급진적 종교개혁자들을 가리킨다. 크리스트교 종교개혁 초기에 등장하여 유아세례를 부인하고 오직 성인의 세례만 유효하다고 주장하였다. 이들은 유아세례뿐만 아니라 로마 가톨릭교회에서 받은 세례도 무효이기 때문에 그런 사람들은 다시 세례를 받아야 한다고 주장했고, 여기서 그 이름이 유래한다. 유아 세례를 반대하는 교파들은 침례교도 역시 마찬가지이나 그렇다고 해서 그것을 무효라고 주장하지 않는다. 대다수 기독교 교파에서는 세례가 죄의 용서[3]와 구원[4]의 의미가 있기 때문에 사람이 일생 한 번만 받는 것이라고 가르친다. 그러나 재세례파는 이에 반대한 것이다.


목차
1발생 배경
2탄압
3교리
4학자
5문학작품 속의 재침례교도
6외부 링크
7각주와 참고 자료

발생 배경[편집]

재침례파의 역사는 그 사상을 반대하는 사람들과 옹호하는 사람들에 의해 왜곡되어 있는 것이 현실이다. 그 근원이 일원이냐 다원이냐에 대해서도 이견이 있다. 소수이기는 하나 재침례파야 말로 초대교회의 사도적 전통을 계승하였다고 주장하는 사람들도 있다.

지역적으로 구분하면 '스위스 형제단' (Grebel, Manz), 네덜란드 및 프리시안 재침례파 (Menno Simons, Dirk Philips), 그리고 남부 독일 재침례파 (Hübmaier, Marpeck)로 구분할 수 있다.

역사학자와 사회학자들은 더 나아가 급진적 재침례파와 평화주의 재침례파로 나눈다. 급진적 재침례파는 "새 예루살렘"을 땅 위에 건설하기 위해 폭력 동원을 인정했다. 급진적 재침례파로 인해 발생한 사건이 뮌스터 반란이다. 그에 반해 신약성서에 근거한 비폭력주의를 주장하는 평화주의자들은 메노나이트(Mennonites)의 기원이 된다. 다시 말해, 원래 메노나이트의 기원은 네덜란드 로마 가톨릭 신부인 메노 시몬스(Menno Simons)가 두 부류의 전통적인 재세례파인 평화적인 오비파(Obbenites)와 급진적인 호프만파(Melchio Hoffman)사이에서 고민하다가 "어떻게 그리스도인이라 자부하는 자가 영적인 무기는 내려두고 세속적인 것을 취하는 것에 하나님의 말씀이 부합하겠는가?"라고 반문하며 평화주의자인 오비파 쪽으로 가입한 것이 계기가 되었고, 이후에 그곳의 지도자가 되었는데, 그의 추종자들을 그의 이름을 따서 메노나이트라 부르게 되었다.[5]메노는 신약성서의 가르침에 따라, 폭력에 반대하는 비폭력주의를 주장하였다.[6]

탄압[편집]

스페인 종교재판소에의해 이단으로 화형당하는 16세기 네덜란드의 재세례파, Anneken Hendriks

한 번 받은 세례(특히 유아세례)를 무효라고 주장하는 교리로 로마 가톨릭교회 및 다른 개신교로부터 이단으로 배척되어 수많은 순교자들이 생겼다. 1525년 스위스의 가톨릭 지역과 그 다음 해에는 취리히의 의회정부가 재세례파를 이단과 반역죄로 사형에 처하기 시작했다. 이에 따라 수천에 달하는 순교자가 발생했는데 처형 방법도 잔인하였다. 이들의 침례를 희화하여 산채로 물에 빠드리기도 했으며, 그밖에 화형에 처하거나 사지를 절단하는 예도 흔히 있었다. 1523~66년 사이 네덜란드에서 1만3000여명이 희생 되었다는 조사도 있다. 이런 극심한 박해속에 재세례파는 극단적 종말론을 믿는 사람들이 생겨나고, 종교적 극단주의가 활개를 치기에 이르렀다.[7] 1930년에는 나치의 탄압을 피해 후터라이트(재세례파의 일파)공동체인 부르더호프 공동체가 영국으로 건너가기도 했다.

교리[편집]

• 전쟁, 다툼, 폭력을 반대하는 비폭력주의, 기독교 평화주의
• 종교와 국가의 분리
• 평등과 사랑의 실천을 통한 제자도(그리스도의 제자로서의 삶)의 실천
• 유아세례반대
• 거룩한 삶과 형제애의 실천
• 믿음을 통한 구원의 강조

학자[편집]
존 하워드 요더(John Howard Yoder, 1927년 12월 29일~1997년 12월 30일)는 미국 재세례파의 대표적인 신학자, 윤리학자이다. 메노나이트 교단 출신으로 평화주의를 표방한다. 20세기 초반이 칼 바르트의 시대라면 20세기 후반은 요더의 시대라는 말이 있다. 대표적인 저서로 1972년 출판된 예수의 정치학(IVP, 2007)이 있다. 성추행과 권력남용 문제가 있었고, 이와 관련해 야수의 송곳니를 뽑다(대장간, 2018)라는 책이 출판되고 번역되었다.

문학작품 속의 재침례교도[편집]

볼테르의 대표 소설인 캉디드에는 주인공 캉디드를 도와주는 착한 재침례교도 이야기가 나온다. 캉디드가 전쟁터에서 목숨을 구해 네덜란드에 갔을 때 사람들은 캉디드에게 이렇게 묻는다 "당신은 교황이 적그리스도라고 생각하오?" 라고 질문한다. 캉디드가 이에 우물쭈물 대답하지 않자 그들은 욕을 하며 캉디드를 쫓아내는데 이때 캉디드를 도와주고 빵과 돈을 준 사람이 재침례교도 자크다.[8] 볼테르는 이 작품에서 가톨릭교회 신부들을 타락하고 부패한 인물로 묘사하지만 재침례교도는 착하고 선한 인물로 묘사했다.

외부 링크[편집]
재세례파 공동체인 브루더호프 공동체 홈페이지
한국 아나뱁티스트센터

각주와 참고 자료[편집]

↑ ανα(/아나/, again) + βαπτιζω(/밥티조/, baptize) = re-baptizers
↑ 한겨레 2005년 11월 16일자, 자생적인 재세례파(재침례파) 교회인 춘천 예수촌 교회 기사.
↑
“

베드로가 이렇게 대답하였다. “회개하시오. 그리고 여러분은 한 사람도 빠짐없이 예수 그리스도의 이름으로 세례를 받고 여러분의 죄를 용서받으시오. 그리하면 성령을 선물로 받게 될 것입니다.” ”

— 사도행전, 2:38

↑
“

믿고 세례를 받는 사람은 구원을 받겠지만 믿지 않는 사람은 단죄를 받을 것이다. ”
— 마르코 복음서(마가 복음서), 16:16

↑ Justo L. Gonzalez, A history of Christian, Vol. III, Abingdon Press, 1975, p.86
↑ 유재덕 지음. 《《5시간만에 읽는 쉽고 재미있는 교회사》》. 작은행복.
↑ 최강희《박해의 역사 속에서 형성된 재세례파 신앙의 본질》(영남신학대 신학대학원)
↑ 볼테르《캉디드》(한울,P18)

야수의 송곳니를 뽑다 - 존 하워드 요더의 성추행과 권력남용에 대한 메노나이트의 반응 - 도서출판 대장간

야수의 송곳니를 뽑다 - 존 하워드 요더의 성추행과 권력남용에 대한 메노나이트의 반응 - 도서출판 대장간



야수의 송곳니를 뽑다 - 존 하워드 요더의 성추행과 권력남용에 대한 메노나이트의 반응

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성추행에 대한 집단의 은폐와 침묵이라는 범죄에 대해
올바른 기억 행동을 실행하기로 선택한 집단지성의 여정과 기록


이 책은 먼저 요더의 성추행 사건의 전말에 대한 “사실”을 알리고, 그의 성추행에 대한 정확한 정보를 제공함으로써 사실과 사건을 올바로 이해할 수 있는 토대를 제공한다. 또한 이러한 성추행이 일어났을 때, 건강한 공동체가 대처해야 할 방안들과 예방에 대한 깊은 이해를 제공한다.

메노나이트 교단의 기나긴 치리과정을 지켜보면서, 종교와 거룩이라는 이름으로 포장하고 자행하는 성폭력이라는 야수의송곳니를 뽑아내겠다는용기가 우리 한국 교회에서도 예외 없이 일어나길 바란다.
성직자들의 성추행 소식이 수시로 신문의 사회면을 장식하곤 한다. 지금 한국교회의 현실은 어떤가? 한국교회는 어떤 변화를 원하는가? 진정으로 변화할 생각은 있는가? 교회의 권력 중심에 있는 사람에 대한 치리는 어디까지 가능할 것인가?

평화신학의 탁월한 학자, 배움의 폭, 신념의 깊이, 언어적 천재성, 심오한 통찰력 … 요더는 종파에 매이지 않고 경계를 넘어 상상하기 힘들 만큼 폭넓은 신학적 궤도와 관계성을 가진 천재였다. 20년 간 그와 관계한 수많은 개인, 그가 몸 담았던 다양한 그룹, 다양한 교회와 기관들은 요더의 행동에 대한 비밀보장 유지에 동의하였다. 그들은 정보를 통제했고 피해자들을 무력화하는데 앞장섰다. 상처는 곪아서 피해자 및 생존자는 물론 수많은 사람들을 힘들게 했다.
--------
… 이 주제에 대해 엄청난 고통과 논쟁이 빚어지고 있다는 점은 이미 잘 알려져 있다. … 교회에 속한 많은 사람들은 이 주제가 계속 반복해서 언급하는 것에 지쳐버렸다. 어떤 사람들은 죄를 지은 형제가 이미 교회의 교제 안으로 회복되었으니 더 이상 이 주제로 왈가왈부하지 않을 때가 되었다고 말하면서 이미 충분히 언급된 주제라고 믿기도 한다. 그러나 어떤 사람들은 특별히 최근 몇 십 년에 걸쳐 무엇이 적절한 행동인지 정의하는 기준 자체가 변했기 때문에 현재의 표준으로 과거의 행동을 심판하려는 것은 불공평하다고 주장하기도 한다. 또 어떤 사람들은 여전히 이 사건과 우리의 관계가 너무 가깝기 때문에 양극화된 사건의 맥락을 공정하게 판단하는 것이 거의 불가능하다고 주장한다. 그리고 대화에서 서로 다른 입장에 서있는 모든 사람들은 성추행에 직접 관련된 친구들과 가족 구성원들, 그리고 그 외 여러 사람들이 겪고 있는 끊임없는 고통에 대해 함께 슬퍼하고 있다. …
이 쉽지 않은 문제를 투명하고 끈질기게 다루는 가장 중요한 이유는 성추행이 메노나이트 회중에 실재한다는 뼈아픈 사실과 교회가 신중을 기해 규율, 상호책임, 치유와 같은 주제들에 대해 적극적으로 관여하고, 공개적으로 논의할 필요가 있기 때문이다.…
< 존 D.로스>





존 D. 로스 John D. Roth

미국 인디아나 고센대학의 역사학 교수이다. 고센에 있는 메노나이트 역사 도서관장과 학술 메노나이트 계간지 “Mennonite Quarterly Review”의 편집장이다. 아내 루스와의 사이에 네 명의 딸들이 있으며 버키 애비뉴 메노나이트 교회 (Berkey Avenue Mennonite Fellowship)의 멤버이다.
존 로스는 『13인의 기독교 지성 아나뱁티즘을 말하다』(2015, 대장간)를 편집했고 『맛보아 알지어다』(2013, 대장간), 『전쟁을 반대하여 선택하라』(2002) 외 『메노나이트 믿음, 실천,이야기』(3권, 대장간 ) 등을 저술하였다.





김복기

강원대학교 조경학과와 캐나다 메노나이트 성경대학을 졸업하고, 미국 메노나이트 연합신학 대학원에서 목회학 석사학위를 받았다. 캐나다 온타리오주 런던의 샬롬 아도나이 교회에서 회중을 섬겼으며, 현재 캐나다 메노나이트교회 소속 선교사로 춘천에서 KAC 총무로 섬기고 있다.
『다른 터는 없나니』, 『아나뱁티즘』, 『동성애』, 『교리적 상상력』, 『어떻게 용서할 것인가?』, 『재세례신앙의 씨앗으로부터』 , 『반석 위에 세우리라』 , 『일과 쉼』 , 『재세례신앙의 비전』 , 『아나뱁티스트 역사』 , 『아나뱁티스트 크리스천』, 『교회, 그 몸의 정치』 , 『그리스도의 충만함』 , 『열 두 사람이야기』 , 『아이들과 절대 흥정하지 마라』외 여러 권을 번역했다.

• 역자 서 문
• 메노나이트 계간지 특집호를 발행하며
• “야수의 송곳니를 뽑다” -존 하워드 요더의 성추행과 권력남용에 대한 메노나이트의 반응
• 교회 리더들에 의한 성폭력과 피해자들을 위한 치유
• 샬롬의 끈덕진 희망-성추행과 트라우마에 대한 회중의 반응
• 고통에 이름을 붙이고, 빛을 추구하라-성추행에 대한 메노나이트 교회의 반응
• 일흔 번씩 일곱 번-성폭력과 터무니없는 용서에 대한 부르심
• 아나뱁티스트 비전 쇄신-존 하워드 요더의 잘못 인식된 성의 정치학
• 왜 “화려하고 고상한 실험”이 실패했다 하는가?-이 사건이 메노나이트 교회에 대해 폭로하는 것은 무엇인가?

서평글 -존 럼펠 

Mennonite Central Committee (International) - GAMEO

Mennonite Central Committee (International) - GAMEO

Mennonite Central Committee (International)

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Contents
11957 Article
21987 Update
3Bibliography
4Additional Information
5Cite This Article




1957 Article

Mennonite Central Committee, the joint relief and service agency of nearly all North American Mennonites, was composed in 1957 of representatives of the following seventeen distinct Mennonite bodies or agencies (with years of adherence); viz., Mennonite Church (MC) 1920, General Conference Mennonite 1920, Mennonite Brethren1920, Lancaster Conference (MC) 1920, Krimmer Mennonite Brethren 1920, Evangelical Mennonite (Defenceless) 1930, Church of God in Christ, Mennonite 1940, Brethren in Christ 1940, Conservative (Amish) Mennonite 1941, Old Order Amish Mennonite 1942, Evangelical Mennonite Brethren 1944, Nonresistant Relief Organization of Ontario 1944, Conference of Historic Peace Churches (Ontario) 1944, Mennonite Central Relief Committee of Western Canada 1944, Canadian Mennonite Relief Committee of Manitoba1944, Canadian Mennonite Board of Colonization 1944, Beachy Amish Mennonite 1956. 



Since conferences were entitled to one representative for each 25,000 members or fraction thereof, the first two groups have two representatives each, and since there were two members-at-large, the total MCC membership in 1957 was 20. In addition there were three associate members, United Missionary Church (Indiana Conference) since 1930, the Missionary Church Association since 1940, and the Emmanuel Mennonite Church at Meade, Kansas, since 1952. At the beginning, in 1920, two additional groups were represented, the Central Conference (merged in 1947 with the General Conference Mennonite group) and the Pacific Branch of the Relief Committee for the Suffering Mennonites of Russia (discontinued about 1925). The MCC was incorporated at Lancaster, Pennsylvania on 27 August 1937; before this it had no constitution or bylaws, operating solely on the basis of the authorizing resolution of 27 July 1920, which date may be considered as its date of origin at Elkhart.

Mennonite Central Committee Executive Committee, 1951. Back row (L-R): H. A. Fast, C. F. Klassen, H. S. Bender, and C. N. Hostetter. Front row (L-R): O. O. Miller, P. C. Hiebert, and J. J. Thiessen.
Scan courtesy Mennonite Church USA Archives-Goshen IX-13-2-3 Box 2/2

The committee, which met annually, operated through an executive committee elected by its annual meeting, at first composed of the three officers, enlarged in 1930 to four, in 1944 to five, in 1948 to six, which met as frequently as necessary, averaging six meetings per year. The direct administration of all MCC work was through an executive secretary, who was Levi Mumaw at Scottdale, 1920-1935, and then Orie O. Miller at Akron, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1935-1957. Since 1935 the executive headquarters has been at Akron, where the MCC in 1957 owned six office and residential buildings and employed an average staff of fifty. In addition the following regional offices were maintained with a total staff of ten: Waterloo, Ontario, Newton, Kansas, Reedley, California, each with a clothing and food center, besides the clothing and food center at Ephrata, Pennsylvania. Foreign centers, with owned or leased buildings, were maintained at Sao Paulo, Brazil; Montevideo, Uruguay (owned); Asuncion, Paraguay (owned); Kaiserslautern, Germany (owned); Frankfurt, Germany; Amsterdam, Holland; and Basel, Switzerland. The Ailsa Craig (Ontario) Boys Home was also owned property (since 1955). Three mental hospitals were owned and operated through an incorporated agency (Mennonite Mental Health Services): Brook Lane Farm near Hagerstown, MD, Kings View Homes at Reedley, California and Prairie View Mental Hospital at Newton, Kansas. The MCC also still owned considerable holdings (some 200,000 acres) near the Mennonite settlements in the Paraguayan Chaco through its purchase of Corporación Paraguaya in 1937. The total net dollar assets of the MCC in 1957 were $1,900,000. Long-time office members and staff workers of the MCC have been P. C. Hiebert, chairman 1920-1954, chairman emeritus 1954- ; O. O. Miller, member 1921- , executive secretary 1935-1957; Levi Mumaw, executive secretary 1920-1935; M. H. Kratz, vice-chairman 1920-1939; H. S. Bender, assistant secretary 1930- ; H. A. Fast, vice-chairman 1943- ; C. F. Klassen, executive committee member 1944-1954; J. J. Thiessen, executive committee member 1948- ; Allen Yoder, executive committee member 1920-1930, 1934-1944; D. M. Hofer, member 1920-44; John H. Mellinger, member 1920-36; H. F. Garber, member 1936-56; J. B. Martin, member 1944- ; J. N. Byler, director of relief 1945- ; William T. Snyder, director of Mennonite Aid 1945- , executive committee member 1954- ; J. Harold Sherk, executive secretary of the Peace Section 1949- ; Delmar Stahly, director of Mental Health Services 1949- .

In 1957 the MCC had worker teams in Holland, Germany, France, Austria, Switzerland, Greece, Jordan, Indonesia, India and Nepal, South Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil. The Latin America projects were all in connection with the Mennonite refugee settlements made there in 1930 and since. Discontinued fields of service were England, Egypt, Italy, Hungary, Poland, Denmark, China, Formosa, Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Mexico.

Two departments of MCC service were organized as sections with membership bodies: the Peace Section (1947), successor to the Mennonite Central Peace Committee (1939), of which H. S. Bender had been the continuous chairman, and the Mennonite Aid Section (1943), of which J. Winfield Fretz had been the continuous chairman. Other important departments were Mennonite Mental Health Services, Inc. (1946 first form of organization), of which H. A. Fast was chairman to 1957; the Voluntary Service Office (1946) and the I-W Services Office (1952). The latter two were merged into one department in 1955. The Mennonite Resettlement Finance, Inc., a holding agency for certain Paraguay financing, was in existence 1948-1955. Menno Travel Service, Inc., was set up as a subsidiary travel agency in 1947. It maintained a main office at Akron, subsidiary offices at Goshen, Newton, and in Europe at Amsterdam.

The MCC was originally created in July 1920 to operate a joint Mennonite famine relief program in Russia, requested by the several Mennonite relief committees of North America at that time engaged in sending aid to Mennonites in Russia. The Mennonite Studienkommission of four delegates from Russia, who were at that time visiting the United States and Canada, had strongly urged such a united organization. Upon completion of the active program in Russia (1920-1925) the Committee intended to disband but did not formally do so. It was reactivated by the emergency of 1929-1930 when the call came to aid several thousand Mennonite refugees who had come out of Russia into Germany October to November 1929. Its second task therefore was the resettlement of many of these refugees in Paraguay in 1930, since when it continuously aided the colonies there, especially the Fernheim, Neuland, and Volendam colonies, which it originally sponsored. The third field of service was War Sufferers Relief during and following World War II, beginning in Poland in September 1939. The total program finally included work in twelve western and central European countries, including Egypt. This program was chiefly the distribution of food and clothing, and included community services and peace testimony. At the peak of the work (summer of 1947) 317 workers were simultaneously in service in Europe. The program in Jordan for Arab refugees was begun in 1950. The work in the Far East, with programs in eight countries, was begun with war emergency relief services in Bengal, India (creation of the inter-Mission organization Mennonite Relief Committee in India, MRCI), and entrance into China in 1945. Puerto Ricowork began in 1943 in connection with Civilian Public Service.

In all areas where Mennonite churches were located, especially in Europe, the MCC work led to close and fruitful interaction between North American and local Mennonites. Out of this interaction came among other things a monthly publication, Der Mennonit, published by the MCC at Basel in 1948-1956 and later at Frankfurt (continued by a European Board), the European Mennonite Bible School at Basel (est. 1950) under an international Mennonite board, Mennonite Voluntary Service in Europe (1950) under a European Mennonite committee, the International Mennonite Peace Committee (1947), and the Christian Education Materials Project (CEMO) at Basel (1952).

The war emergency relief needs in Europe had almost disappeared by 1957, so that the continuing MCC program in Europe was greatly reduced though still continuing in certain special services and in contact with European Mennonites. The relief program in the Far East (Korea, Indonesia, and South Vietnam in particular) was also reduced, but not so greatly as in Europe.

In the course of its relief effort the MCC became a member of the following inter-group relief organizations sponsored by the United States State Department: American Council of Voluntary Agencies (1944), Council of Relief Agencies Licensed for Operation in Germany (CRALOG, 1946), Licensed Agency for Relief in Asia (LARA, 1947), and Co-operative for American Remittances to Europe (CARE, 1945).

The fourth major field of MCC service was the operation of Civilian Public Serviceassumed in 1941. At this time the MCC also became a member of the National Service Board for Religious Objectors (NSBRO). The fifth field of service was the resettlement of Russian and Danzig Mennonite refugees after World War II, the former in Paraguay (4,849 persons in 1947-1952) and the latter in Uruguay (1,184 persons 1948-1952). Voluntary Service for young Mennonite in North America was begun in 1945 as the sixth field of service. The seventh field was that of Mental Health Service, begun in 1949 with the establishment of the mental hospital Brook Lane Farm at Leitersburg, MD. The eighth program was one of aid to the Old Colony Mennonites in Mexico (1950-1956). The ninth and last new field was the I-W Service Program begun in 1952 with the renewal of the United States draft of conscientious objectors in that year, which had been suspended 1947-1952.

In the course of its various activities the MCC has issued numerous publications—periodicals, books, and pamphlets. Some of the periodicals have been the monthly MCC Services Bulletin (1945- ), the monthly I-W Mirror 1953- ), and various area relief newsletters such as monthly European Relief Notes 1945- ), the monthly Der Mennonit(1948-56), and the biweekly Unser Blatt (1947-50) at Gronau, Germany.

Books issued have been:


P. C. Hiebert and Orie O. Miller, Feeding the Hungry. Russia Famine 1919-25 (1929);
Melvin Gingerich, Service for Peace, A History of Mennonite Civilian Public Service (1949);
Emily Brunk, Espelkamp (1951);
John D. Unruh, In the Name of Christ, A History of the Mennonite Central Committee and Its Service 1920-1951 (1953);
J. Winfield Fretz, Pilgrims in Paraguay, The Story of Mennonite Colonization in South America (1953);
Proceedings of the Fourth Mennonite World Conference 3-10 August, 1948 (1949).]

The pamphlets and booklets issued have included a group of titles published by the Peace Section, another group by the Mennonite Aid Section, and the CPS "Core Course Booklets," and some individual titles.

Peace Section:
Edward Yoder, Must Christians Fight (1943, German translation, Sollen Christen sich an der Kriegsführung beteiligen, 1949);
Peace Section Handbook with Draft Manual (1942, later called Manual of Draft Information);
Edward Yoder, Compromise with War (1944);
Edward Yoder and Don. E. Smucker, The Christian and Conscription (1945);
Howard Charles, Before You Decide (1948);
Melvin Gingerich, What of Noncombatant Service (1949).

Mennonite Aid Section:
J. W. Fretz, Mennonite Colonization (1944);
J. W. Fretz, Mennonite Colonization in Mexico (1945);
J. W. Fretz, Christian Mutual Aid (1947).

Core Course Booklets:
Mennonites and Their Heritage.
A Series of Six Studies Designed for Use in Civilian Service Camps (1942)
No. 1, H. S. Bender, Mennonite Origin in Europe;
No. 2, C. Henry Smith, Mennonites in America;
No. 3, Edward Yoder, Our Mennonite Heritage;
No. 4, Ed. G. Kaufman, Our Mission as a Church of Christ;
No. 5, G. F. Hershberger, Christian Relationships to State and Community;
No. 6, P. C. Hiebert, Life and Service in the Kingdom of God.

Other Titles:
Twenty-five Years, the Story of the MCC 1920-1945; M. C. Lehman,
The History and Principles of Mennonite Relief Work (1945); Esko Loewen, Editor,
Mennonite Community Sourcebook (1946); Irvin B. Horst,
A Ministry of Goodwill, An Account of Mennonite Relief Work Following World War II (1950).

The official MCC handbook appeared first in 1943 and 1945 as Handbook of Information on the Mennonite Central Committee, then under the title Handbook of the Mennonite Central Committee in editions of 1950 and 1954.

The size of MCC operations at the heights of its program may be indicated in part by a summary of the income during the five years 1 December 1947, to 30 November 1952: total income $9,239,601.73; War Sufferers Relief cash $2,008,276.24; War Sufferers Material Aid $5,242,153.33; Mennonite Aid $1,472,636.39; Mental Health $207,588.92; Voluntary Service $136,303.29; Peace Section $79,305.24.

The following statements taken from the MCC Handbook (pp. 7-8, and 27-29) and prepared by Irvin Horst upon the basis of statements adopted at various times by the MCC and constituent bodies indicate the foundation of faith and commitment upon which the work of the MCC was established and continued.

"In a very real sense the MCC is an organization which spontaneously grew out of the desire of the Mennonite brotherhood to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, and to testify by loving service to the Gospel of peace and love. This desire to respond with a witness of Christian peace and love grew in vision and compulsion as various emergencies were faced both within and without the brotherhood. Relief and peace services were an integral part of the Mennonite witness and way of life in the world. Where the various Mennonite and Brethren in Christ bodies retained their faith and ideals they were moved to remain firm in the position of nonresistance and to be energetic in showing mercy and love toward enemies as well as toward all mankind. To implement these compulsions they desired an organization to provide a channel for sharing their gifts and services 'In the Name of Christ.' "

"The experiences of relief and peace work during the past thirty-six years have indicated the wisdom of organizing a common agency to meet common emergencies and tasks, particularly when such emergencies were greater than any one group could have well performed alone. Through a common witness the various groups were able to speak as one voice against war and militarism; through a common representation the various bodies were able to reach and assist, as in no other way, the Mennonites in Russia, Holland, France, Germany, Switzerland, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay. What little the Mennonites of North America with their slender resources have been able to do for a suffering world was multiplied in effectiveness by co-operative administration of these resources, whether it was in Russia, France, India, China, or any of the other countries in which relief and peace services were expended.

"The Mennonite position regarding relief and service is a part of the particular Christian faith and way of life which has its background and origin in the Anabaptist movement of Reformation times. This movement, as others before and after, under the providence of God was a fresh and vital discovery of the living truth and spirit of the New Testament. The experience was so compellingly real that it sought an uncompromising fulfillment of the Gospel in life; it was so powerful that it survived the most obliterating persecution, to persist down to our own times. This heritage, in so far as it still lives in the Mennonite bodies of North America, motivates and guides the service program of the Mennonite Central Committee. Its principles, if accepted and put into practice, become for us in our own time, we believe, a unique experience of fellowship with Christ in loving discipleship and service to others.
The Central Position and Authority of Christ and the Bible. While recognizing the hand of God in history and the voice of the Holy Spirit in the experiences of the church and individual Christians, we accept the Bible, particularly the New Testament, as the final authority for faith and action. Relief and service have validity for us only as the motivation, spirit, and methods of work are in keeping with the Bible. We advocate voluntary and sacrificial service because it is enjoined by Christ and the apostles. We have confidence in the Bible as a guide to a realistic understanding of the place and work of the Christian in the world. While recognizing the tools of human training and learning, we believe the Bible is a reference to eternal truth which transcends all indefiniteness and obscurity of human thinking. 'If you seek God with all your heart and would not be deceived, do not depend upon men and the doctrine of men, however old, holy and excellent they may be esteemed, for one theologian is against the other, both in ancient and modern times; but build upon Christ and His Word alone, upon the sure teaching and practice of His holy apostles . . (Menno Simons).
The Christian Life as Discipleship. The Christian life is a transformed life, separated from sin and the world and consecrated to good works in imitation of Christ. `And he that taketh not his cross, and followeth after me, is not worthy of me. He that findeth his life shall lose it; and he that loseth his life for my sake shall find it' (Matthew 10:38, 39). The inner experience will result in outward expression. Christians not only hear but are also 'doers of the word.' Christian discipleship signifies the total devotion of one's life and possessions to kingdom service. We believe that discipleship includes the welfare of the brotherhood, but more especially an unlimited response and continual outreach to the needs of all mankind, both spiritual and material. 'Even as the Son of man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many' (Matthew 20:28). As disciples of Christ we desire to be more conscious of His leading than the number of persons helped, the total tons of clothing distributed, and whether or not our services are recognized and commended by the world. We are convinced that God leads us forth into the needs of the world at all times with all our resources, but at the same time we know that evil will continue in the world and that we dare not be frustrated or relinquish our services when at times it seems to triumph.
Relief and Service, A Christian Witness. As a part of the life and outreach of the Christian brotherhood, relief and service can be a testimony to the redemptive and reconciling power of the Gospel. Because of this conviction, we are concerned about the Christian faith and character of worker personnel. We are equally concerned that the spirit and methods of service and distribution be Christian, that is, that they are spiritual, sympathetic, merciful, without discrimination and without prejudice. This concern also causes us to use Christian insignia and to speak frequently of the motto, 'In the Name of Christ.' In contrast to some other types of relief, we believe it is important that our own workers be present on the field and represented at distributions. Mennonite relief seeks to be humanitarian plus a Christian witness. Mennonite relief, however, is not mission work in the sense of organized, direct evangelistic appeal to man's spiritual need, but rather in the sense that all of the Christian's life and action is a witness to the Gospel. 'Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father which is in heaven' (Matthew 5:16).
The Emphasis on Christian Love and Nonresistance. In common with various other Christian groups, Mennonites share the conviction that Christian love and nonresistance are applicable to all human relationships. This conviction finds its basis in the teaching and example of Christ and the apostles (Matthew 5:38-48; Romans 12:17-21). Hate and violence, whether on the personal or national level, are the antithesis of Christ and the Gospel Relief and service are ways of affirming our good faith in the doctrine of nonresistance in that they provide positive, creative expression of peace and good will. Relief and service are not only a witness to the way of Christian love but they can become a method of overcoming evil, of reconciling an enemy. 'Therefore if thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink; for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head. Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good' (Romans 12:20, 21). Real nonresistance, however, is far more than an intellectual concept or even a doctrinal belief to be proved by Scriptural texts; it is part of a way of life which spontaneously reflects the presence of the indwelling Christ. On the relief field and in service projects love and nonresistance often lead to a special concern for despised minorities, neglected persons, prisoners, political outcasts. 'Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me' (Matthew 25:40).
The Christian Brotherhood and Mutual Aid. The Mennonite concept of the church is that of a true brotherhood, a community of believers, as contrasted to that of an organization or institution. In the Christian brotherhood no degrees of position exist and there is mutual concern and responsibility for the spiritual and material welfare of each member. The community of believers is necessary to sustain the spiritual life and strength of the believers, to nurture the oncoming generation, to teach new disciples, and to give a corporate witness. We recognize that the brotherhood in itself has no validity except as an instrument of God toward these ends. We believe that we have a primary responsibility, when necessary, to bring relief and service to the brotherhood. 'Bear ye one another's burdens, and so fulfill the law of Christ . . . . As we have therefore opportunity, let us do good unto all men, especially unto them who are of the household of faith (Galatians 6:2, 10)." -- Harold S. Bender
1987 Update

In August 1985 Robert Burkholder, who was living and working with his wife Jill and their four boys in southern Lebanon, was picked up one morning at their home in Nabatiya by a group of armed men. He was taken to Beirut for interrogation to find out what he was doing as a foreigner in war-torn southern Lebanon. Late that same evening he was released, too late to return home. When he did return to his wife and children in Nabatiya the next day, representatives from all the local fighting factions were there to greet him and welcome him back.

At the annual MCC meeting in January 1985, there was intense discussion about MCC personnel in El Salvador who worked in contested areas as well as in areas controlled by the government. In May of that year Blake Ortman and Susan Klassen, along with a Salvadoran Catholic health worker, were picked up by the military in Cacaopera, a town in the northern transitional area periodically visited by both the army and the "guerrillas." They were taken to the regional army headquarters and eventually to the capital city, San Salvador, for interrogation. They were accused of teaching Marxism and of associating with the "guerrillas." Eventually they were released.

In July 1987 residents of the coastal town of Homoine in northeast Mozambique were massacred by anti-government bandits who killed 424 people in their attack and took another 298 persons, including some infants, as captives. The massacre was witnessed by MCC worker Mark Van Koevering, an agronomist working with the Christian Council of Mozambique, who was in Homoine during the attack. Van Koevering reported that the farmers he worked with were often too terrorized to sleep in their homes, but rather took refuge in fields and irrigation ditches. The massacre created uncertainties about Van Koevering's own return to Homoine, but after consultation and prayer with his African and MCC colleagues, it was decided to support Mark in his return to Homoine. "As a member of the Christian Council of Mozambique," he said, "I represent the Christian church of Mozambique, and in a very concrete way the Christian church worldwide. I am returning to Homoine for only one reason, because we are Christians called by God to serve him and his people. Our action in Homoine is being watched by the government and I believe it will be a powerful witness in the community."

The Mennonite Central Committee is known as the cooperative relief, service, and development agency of North American Mennonite and Brethren in Christ churches. The MCC is a Christian resource for meeting human need.

In his article on the MCC above, Harold S. Bender, longtime MCC assistant secretary, traced the development of the Mennonite Central Committee from its origins in 1920, noting the following nine program developments: (1) the original joint Mennonite Famine Relief Program in Russia; (2) the resettlement of Russian Mennonite refugees from Europe to Paraguay in 1930; (3) the War Sufferer's Relief Program during and following World War II in Europe beginning in 1939; (4) the operation of the Civilian Public Service Program in the United States, 1941ff.; (5) the resettlement of Russian and Danzig Mennonite refugees after World War II in Paraguay and Uruguay; (6) development of the °Voluntary Service program for young Mennonites in North America beginning in 1945; (7) development of the Mennonite Mental Health Services Program with establishment of the first mental hospital at Brooklane Farm in Maryland; (8) aid to the Old Colony Mennonitesin Mexico from 1950 to 1956; and (9) development of the I-W alternative service programas a military service alternative beginning in 1952.

Since those earlier beginnings the Mennonite Central Committee has grown into the largest inter-Mennonite organization in the world with a vast variety of organizational relationships and program involvements, from shipping grain provided by the Canadian Food Bank to famine areas in Ethiopia to assistance with the translation and production of Bible commentaries for Christians in the Soviet Union. For many persons in the Mennonite constituencies the worldwide programs of the Mennonite Central Committee have come to symbolize what it means to be an Anabaptist Christian in today's world.

In 1987 the Mennonite Central Committee had more than 1,000 workers serving two- to three-year assignments in some 50 countries, including volunteers and staff in North America. Many times that number served as short or long-term local volunteers —an estimated 5,000 served as volunteers in the 130 MCC SELFHELP Crafts and Thrift Shops (now Ten Thousand Villages) in Canada and the United States. Roughly three-fourths of the long-term staff and two- to three-year volunteers were from MCC constituent groups (Mennonite and Brethren in Christ), and the other one-fourth from a variety of non-Mennonite groups. The largest number of volunteers were in the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and in Canada and the United States. Assignments included agricultural development, water conservation, health education, participation in village health teams, formal and informal education, economic and technical projects, church-related programs, social services, East-West dialogue, and peacemaking. The majority of MCCers worked in long-range development activities. Strengthening the work of local churches and community groups was a priority. Wherever possible volunteers worked closely with local churches as well as with Mennonite and other mission agencies.

Volunteers also provided food and other emergency services to people caught in drought, famine, and warfare. The supporting churches in North America provided the MCC with material aid to help meet the immediate needs of people throughout the world. Mennonites and Brethren in Christ, along with those from other church families, contributed meat (canned in MCC's portable canner), corn, wheat, and beans. They also contributed other gifts in kind, e.g., bedding, clothing, soap, bandages, and school supplies.

The MCC (international) budget in the 1980s totaled nearly 30 million dollars annually, roughly 20 million dollars in cash and 10 million dollars in material aid. Of the cash budget, approximately two-thirds came from the constituency. Other sources of support included the contributed earnings of volunteers, SELFHELP crafts, grants from private or Canadian government agencies, and contributions from Mennonite churches abroad.

MCC programs included SELFHELP crafts, a job creation program that enabled approximately 30,000 artisans in many developing countries to earn at least part of their own living; the International Visitor Exchange program, which brought international young people to North America for a year to promote better understanding; the Child Sponsorship program which made it possible for North Americans to provide assistance for students to attend schools in various locations around the world; and the MCC Peace Office which served as a resource to the international ministries of the MCC.

The Mennonite Central Committee, though involved in a worldwide program, in 1987 was essentially a North American or bi-national organization of Mennonite and Brethren in Christ groups in Canada and the United States. In the United States the MCC representatives were for the most part appointed by the respective Mennonite conferences—Beachy Amish Mennonite, Brethren in Christ, Conservative Mennonite Conference, Emmanuel Mennonite Church (Meade, Kansas, USA), Evangelical Mennonite Conference, General Conference Mennonite Church, Lancaster Conference (MC), Mennonite Brethren, and Mennonite Church (MC). MCC (International) representatives from Canada are selected from the MCC provincial and MCC Canada organizations. The MCC board, which meets annually in January for program review and policy decisions, had 39 members in 1987. The executive committee, which meets four times a year, had six members from Canada and six from the United States. The overseas program administration was centered in the international headquarters offices in Akron, PA, supplemented by overseas services of the MCC Canada. The Mennonite Central Committee Canada offices in Winnipeg, MB, and the Mennonite Central Committee United States offices in Akron, PA, administered North American programs and represented the MCC to its respective constituencies. The provincial and regional offices also served as links from the constituency to the MCC.

As the Mennonite Central Committee has grown in scope and complexity, so have the questions and issues related to its identity, its organization, and its programs in the world. As a bi-national organization that does not presume to represent Mennonites and Brethren in Christ from all parts of the world, the MCC nevertheless seeks in a variety of ways to internationalize its staff and program. Examples are the cooperation with the International Mennonite Organization of European Mennonites, cooperation with the mission and service organizations of the Paraguayan Mennonites, and cooperation with various service and development organizations of Mennonites in countries such as India, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Colombia.

As the introductory stories from Lebanon, El Salvador, and Mozambique suggest, the workers of the Mennonite Central Committee, seeking faithfulness in meeting human need, have also become more involved in complex issues of war and peace, and of international economics and politics. Throughout its history the MCC has had programs in 84 countries. The development from war sufferers' relief, to a variety of service ministries, to long-range agricultural and economic development, has involved the MCC in issues of oppression and injustice. This has also led to considerable disagreement within the constituency and to some groups distancing themselves from especially those program activities which seem to have political entanglements.

Further is the larger and broader emission issue of how Christians, especially Christians from wealthy and politically dominant countries in North America and Europe, should best be present in the world today—in relationships with the poorer peoples of the world and especially also peoples of other cultures, religions, and political commitments. Economic development programs in many parts of the world, especially when unilaterally administered, have fallen into considerable disrepute. Even the traditional Mennonite service stance, when suggesting a paternalistic relationship, is being seriously questioned. In many parts of the world, MCC workers have been emphasizing a "Christian presence" relationship with a strong emphasis on a listening and learning stance, out of which a mutual giving and receiving relationship may develop.

The executive secretaries of the Mennonite Central Committee have been Levi Mumaw, 1920-1935; Orie O. Miller, 1935-1957; William T. Snyder, 1958-1981; Reg Toews, 1982-1984; John A. Lapp, 1985-1996, Ron J. R. Mathies, 1996-2005; Robb Davis, 2005-. The MCC board has been chaired by P. C. Hiebert, 1920-1954; C. N. Hostetter, 1954-68; Ernest Bennett, 1968-1977; Newton Gingrich, 1977-1979; Elmer Neufeld, 1979-1989; Ron J. R. Mathies, 1989-1995; Phil Rich, 1995-1999; Karen Klassen Harder, 1999-. -- Elmer Neufeld

See also Disaster Services; Indian Ministries; Mennonite Christian Service Fellowship of India; Relief Sales; Stichting voor Bijzondere Noden.
Bibliography

The major MCC newsletters in 1987 were Contact, Intercom, Peace Section Newsletter, Washington Memo, and Food and Hunger Notes.

Publications providing additional MCC information are Mennonite Central Committee Workbook, prepared each year for the annual meeting.

See also:

Erb, Paul. Orie O. Miller: The Story of a Man and an Era. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1969.

Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. Mennonitisches Lexikon, 4 vols. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe: Schneider, 1913-1967: v. III, 97-99.

Hiebert, P. C. and Orie O. Miller. Feeding the Hungry: Russian Famine, 1919-1925: American Mennonite Relief Operations under the auspices of Mennonite Centre Committee . Scottdale, PA: Mennonite Central Committee, 1929.

Horst, Irvin B. A Ministry of Goodwill—A Short Account of Mennonite Relief 1939-1949. Akron, PA: MCC, 1950.

The Mennonite Central Committee Story, vols. 1-5. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1980-1988.

Mennonite Quarterly Review 44, no. 3 (July 1970): special Issue.

Unruh, J. D. In the Name of Christ: A History of the Mennonite Central Committee and Its Service 1920-1951. Akron, PA: Mennonite Central Committee, 1952.
Additional Information

Mennonite Central Committee website




Author(s) Harold S. Bender
Elmer Neufeld
Date Published 1987

Society of Jesus - Wikipedia

Society of Jesus - Wikipedia



Society of Jesus
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This article is about the Society of Jesus, also known as Jesuit Order. For philosophy concerning the teachings of Jesus, see Jesuism.
"Jesuit" redirects here. For the band, see Jesuit (band).
Society of Jesus
Official Christogram
Abbreviation SJ, Jesuits
Formation 27 September 1540; 478 years ago
Founders Ignatius of Loyola
Francis Xavier
Peter Faber
Alfonso Salmeron
Diego Laínez
Nicholas Bobadilla
Simão Rodrigues
Founded at Paris, France
officialized in Rome
Type Order of clerics regular of pontifical right (for Men)
Headquarters Borgo S. Spirito 4, C.P. 6139, 00195 Roma-Prati, Italy


Members 16,378[1]

Superior General Rev. Fr. Arturo Sosa, SJ
Website www.sjweb.info
Remarks Church of the Gesù is the Mother Church of the Jesuits, next to which Ignatius had his office

Part of a series on the
Society of Jesus

Christogram of the Jesuits
History

Regimini militantis
Suppression
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Superior General
Arturo Sosa
Spirituality

Spiritual Exercises
Ad maiorem Dei gloriam
Magis
Works

List of Jesuit educational institutions
List of Jesuit development centres

Notable Jesuits

Ignatius of Loyola
Francis Xavier
Peter Faber
Aloysius Gonzaga
John Berchmans
Robert Bellarmine
Peter Canisius
Edmund Campion
Pope Francis
Jesuit saints
Jesuit theologians
Jesuit philosophers
Catholicism portal


v
t
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The Church of the Gesù, located in Rome, is the mother church of the Jesuits.

The Society of Jesus (SJ; Latin: Societas Iesu) is a religious order of the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome. It was founded by Ignatius of Loyola with the approval of Pope Paul III in 1540. The members are called Jesuits (Latin: Iesuitæ).[2] The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations. Jesuits work in education, research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social ministries, and promote ecumenical dialogue.

Saint Ignatius of Loyola, a Basque nobleman from the Pyrenees area of northern Spain, founded the society after discerning his spiritual vocation while recovering from a wound sustained in the Battle of Pamplona. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. In 1534, Ignatius and six other young men, including Francis Xavier and Peter Faber, gathered and professed vows of poverty, chastity, and later obedience, including a special vow of obedience to the Pope in matters of mission direction and assignment. Ignatius's plan of the order's organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the "Formula of the Institute".

Ignatius was a nobleman who had a military background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world, where they might be required to live in extreme conditions. Accordingly, the opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God[a] to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine."[4] Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's soldiers",[5]"God's marines",[6] or "the Company", which evolved from references to Ignatius' history as a soldier and the society's commitment to accepting orders anywhere and to endure any conditions.[7] The society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council.

The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General.[8][9] The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome.[10] The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesùattached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit mother church.

In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit to be elected Pope, taking the name Pope Francis.


Contents
1Statistics
2Formula of the Institute
3History
3.1Foundation
3.2Early works
3.3Expansion
3.3.1China
3.3.2Canada
3.3.3United States
3.3.4Mexico
3.3.5Northern Spanish America
3.3.6Paraguay
3.3.7Colonial Brazil
3.4Suppression and restoration
3.5Early 20th century
3.6Post–Vatican II
4Ignatian spirituality
5Formation
6Government of the society
7Habit and dress
8Controversies
8.1Power-seeking
8.2Political intrigue
8.3Casuistic justification
8.4Anti-Semitism
8.5Theological debates
8.6Child sexual abuse
9Nazi persecution
9.1Rescue efforts during the Holocaust
10In science
11Notable members
12Institutions
12.1Educational institutions
12.2Social and development institutions
13Publications
14In popular culture
15See also
16Notes
17References
17.1Citations
17.2Sources
18Further reading
18.1Surveys
18.2Specialized studies
18.3United States
18.4Primary sources
18.5In German
19External links
19.1Catholic Church documents
19.2Jesuit documents
19.3Other links
Statistics[edit]
Jesuits in the world — January 2013[11]RegionJesuitsPercentageAfrica 1,509 9%
South Latin America 1,221 7%
North Latin America 1,226 7%
South Asia 4,016 23%
Asia-Pacific 1,639 9%
Central and East Europe 1,641 10%
South Europe 2,027 12%
West Europe 1,541 9%
North America 2,467 14%


As of 2012, the Jesuits formed the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church[12](although they are surpassed by the Franciscan family of orders of Friars Minor, Capuchins, and Conventuals). The Jesuits have experienced a decline in numbers in recent decades. As of 2018 the society had 15,842 members, 11,389 priests and 4,453 Jesuits in formation, which includes brothers and scholastics. This represents a 43.4 percent decline since 1977, when the society had a total membership of 28,038, of which 20,205 were priests.[13] This decline is most pronounced in Europe and the Americas, with relatively modest membership gains occurring in Asia and Africa.[14][15] There seems to be no "Pope Francis effect" in counteracting the fall of vocations among the Jesuits.[16]

The society is divided into 83 provinces along with six independent regions and ten dependent regions.[11] On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and the US. Their average age was 57.3 years: 63.4 years for priests, 29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers.[17]

The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa. The society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in various countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines and India. In the United States the Jesuits have historical ties to 28 colleges and universities and 61 high schools. The degree to which the Jesuits are involved in the administration of each institution varies. As of September 2018, 15 of the 28 Jesuit universities in the US had non-Jesuit lay presidents.[18] According to a 2014 article in The Atlantic, "the number of Jesuit priests who are active in everyday operations at the schools isn’t nearly as high as it once was".[19] Worldwide it runs 322 secondary schools and 172 colleges and universities. A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning, lifelong spiritual and intellectual growth,[20] and training men and women for others.[21]
Formula of the Institute[edit]

Ignatius of Loyola

Ignatius receiving papal bull

Ignatius laid out his original vision for the new order in the "Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus",[22] which is "the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent official documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform."[23] He ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550.[22] The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life, and apostolate of the new religious order. Its famous opening statement echoed Ignatius' military background:


Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the Cross in our Society, which we desire to be designated by the Name of Jesus, and to serve the Lord alone and the Church, his spouse, under the Roman Pontiff, the Vicar of Christ on earth, should, after a solemn vow of perpetual chastity, poverty and obedience, keep what follows in mind. He is a member of a Society founded chiefly for this purpose: to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine, by means of public preaching, lectures and any other ministration whatsoever of the Word of God, and further by means of retreats, the education of children and unlettered persons in Christianity, and the spiritual consolation of Christ's faithful through hearing confessions and administering the other sacraments. Moreover, he should show himself ready to reconcile the estranged, compassionately assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals, and indeed, to perform any other works of charity, according to what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the common good.[17]

A fresco depicting Ignatius of Loyola receiving the papal bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiaefrom Pope Paul III was created after 1743 by Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in Olomouc.
History[edit]
Foundation[edit]

Church of Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris

Francis Xavier

On 15 August 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard from the Basque city of Loyola, and six others mostly of Castilian origin, all students at the University of Paris,[24] met in Montmartre outside Paris, in a crypt beneath the church of Saint Denis, now Saint Pierre de Montmartre, to pronounce the religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.[25] Ignatius' six companions were: Francisco Xavier from Navarre(modern Spain), Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laínez, Nicolás Bobadilla from Castile (modern Spain), Peter Faber from Savoy, and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal.[26] The meeting has been commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre. They called themselves the Compañía de Jesús, and also Amigos en El Señor or "Friends in the Lord", because they felt "they were placed together by Christ." The name "company" had echoes of the military (reflecting perhaps Ignatius' background as Captain in the Spanish army) as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The Spanish "company" would be translated into Latin as societas like in socius, a partner or comrade. From this came "Society of Jesus" (SJ) by which they would be known more widely.[27]

Religious orders established in the medieval era were named after particular men: Francis of Assisi(Franciscans), Domingo de Guzmán, later canonized as St Dominic (Dominicans); and Augustine of Hippo(Augustinians). Ignatius of Loyola and his followers appropriated the name of Jesus for their new order, provoking resentment by other orders who considered it presumptuous. The resentment was recorded by Jesuit José de Acosta of a conversation with the Archbishop of Santo Domingo.[28] In the words of one historian: "The use of the name Jesus gave great offense. Both on the Continent and in England, it was denounced as blasphemous; petitions were sent to kings and to civil and ecclesiastical tribunals to have it changed; and even Pope Sixtus V had signed a Brief to do away with it." But nothing came of all the opposition; there were already congregations named after the Trinity and as "God's daughters".[29]

In 1537, the seven travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order. Pope Paul IIIgave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests. These initial steps led to the official founding in 1540.

They were ordained in Venice by the bishop of Arbe (24 June). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy. The Italian War of 1535-1538 renewed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Venice, the Pope, and the Ottoman Empire, had rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible.

Again in 1540, they presented the project to Paul III. After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favourably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae ("To the Government of the Church Militant"), on 27 September 1540. This is the founding document of the Society of Jesus as an official Catholic religious order. Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General. Paul III's bull had limited the number of its members to sixty. This limitation was removed through the bull Exposcit debitum of Julius III in 1550.[30]

Jesuits at Akbar's court in India, c. 1605

In fulfilling the mission of the "Formula of the Institute of the Society", the first Jesuits concentrated on a few key activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were trained in both classical studies and theology, and their schools reflected this. Second, they sent out missionaries across the globe to evangelize those peoples who had not yet heard the Gospel, founding missions in widely diverse regions such as modern-day Paraguay, Japan, Ontario, and Ethiopia. One of the original seven arrived in India already in 1541.[31]Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to preserve communion with Rome and the successor of Saint Peter. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the movement toward Protestantism in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and southern Germany.

Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions, adopted in 1553, which created a centralised organization and stressed acceptance of any mission to which the Pope might call them.[32][33][34] His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things normally considered of little importance.[30]

The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying on alms, or donations, for support.

The term Jesuit (of 15th-century origin, meaning one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus) was first applied to the society in reproach (1544–1552).[35] The term was never used by Ignatius of Loyola, but over time, members and friends of the society adopted the name with a positive meaning.[29]
Early works[edit]

Ratio Studiorum, 1598

The Jesuits were founded just before the Council of Trent(1545–1563) and ensuing Counter-Reformation that would introduce reforms within the Catholic Church, and so counter the Protestant Reformation throughout Catholic Europe.

Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical church was in dire need of reform. Some of their greatest struggles were against corruption, venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Catholic Church. Ignatius insisted on a high level of academic preparation for the clergy in contrast to the relatively poor education of much of the clergy of his time. And the Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" can be seen as an effort to counteract another problem evidenced in the preceding century.

Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the church had to begin with the conversion of an individual's heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion is the Ignatian retreat, called the Spiritual Exercises. During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditationson the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ. They meet regularly with a spiritual director who guides their choice of exercises and helps them to develop a more discerning love for Christ.

The retreat follows a "Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive" pattern in the tradition of the spirituality of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers. Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life. Further, he used it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as "retreats".

The Jesuits' contributions to the late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought.

In addition to the teachings of faith, the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum (1599) would standardize the study of Latin, Greek, classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences, and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials.

The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably Polandand Lithuania. Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music. The theater was a form of expression especially prominent in Jesuit schools.[36]

Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to kings during the early modern period. They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living and celebration of the Liturgy of Hours in common) allowed them to be flexible and meet diverse needs arising at the time.[37]
Expansion[edit]
See also: Jesuit Reductions

Jesuit missionary, painting from 1779

Bell made in Portugal for Nanbanji Church run by Jesuits in Japan, 1576–1587

The Spanish missionary José de Anchieta was, together with Manuel da Nóbrega, the first Jesuit that Ignacio de Loyola sends to America.

After much training and experience in theology, Jesuits went across the globe in search of converts to Christianity. Despite their dedication, they had little success in Asia except for the Philippines. For instance, early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. However, this was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence.[38] Jesuits did, however, have much success in Latin America. Their ascendancy in societies in the Americas accelerated during the seventeenth century, wherein Jesuits created new missions in Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia; as early as 1603, there were 345 Jesuit priests in Mexico alone.[39]

Francis Xavier, one of the original companions of Loyola, arrived in Goa, in Portuguese India, in 1541 to consider evangelical service in the Indies. In a 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, he requested an Inquisition to be installed in Goa (see Goa Inquisition). He died in China after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. The Portuguese Jesuit, António de Andradefounded a mission in Western Tibet in 1624. Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville, reached Lhasa in Tibet in 1661. The Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideriestablished a new Jesuit mission in Lhasa and Central Tibet (1716–21) and gained an exceptional mastery of Tibetan language and culture, writing a long and very detailed account of the country and its religion as well as treatises in Tibetan that attempted to refute key Buddhist ideas and establish the truth of Roman Catholic Christianity.

Jesuit missions in America became controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Native Americans and slavery. Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay, they formed Christian Native American city-states, called "reductions". These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model. The efforts of Jesuits like Antonio Ruiz de Montoya to protect the natives from enslavement by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers would contribute to the call for the society's suppression. Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion, and education of Indian nations. They also built schools, organized people into villages, and created a writing system for the local languages of Brazil.[39] José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega were the first Jesuits that Ignacio de Loyola sent to America.[40]

Jesuit scholars working in foreign missions were very important in studying their languages and strove to produce Latinized grammars and dictionaries. This included: Japanese (see Nippo jisho also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam, Vocabulary of the Japanese Language, a Japanese–Portuguese dictionary written 1603); Vietnamese(Portuguese missionaries created the Vietnamese alphabet,[41][42] which was later formalized by Avignon missionary Alexandre de Rhodes with his 1651 trilingual dictionary); Tupi (the main language of Brazil); and the pioneering study of Sanskrit in the West by Jean François Pons in the 1740s.

Under Portuguese royal patronage, Jesuits thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded their activities to education and healthcare. In 1594 they founded the first Roman-style academic institution in the East, St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau, China. Founded by Alessandro Valignano, it had a great influence on the learning of Eastern languages (Chinese and Japanese) and culture by missionary Jesuits, becoming home to the first western sinologists such as Matteo Ricci. Jesuit efforts in Goa were interrupted by the expulsion of the Jesuits from Portuguese territories in 1759 by the powerful Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State in Portugal.[43]

Jesuit missionaries were active among indigenous peoples in New France in North America, many of them compiling dictionaries or glossaries of the First Nations and Native American languages they had learned. For instance, before his death in 1708, Jacques Gravier, vicar general of the Illinois Mission in the Mississippi River valley, compiled a Kaskaskia Illinois–French dictionary, considered the most extensive among works of the missionaries.[44] Extensive documentation was left in the form of The Jesuit Relations, published annually from 1632 until 1673.
China[edit]
Main article: Jesuit China missions

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqiin the 1607 Chinese publication of Euclid's Elements

Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, or, Chinese Knowledge Explained in Latin, published by Philippe Couplet, Prospero Intorcetta, Christian Herdtrich, and François de Rougemont at Paris in 1687

A map of the 200-odd Jesuit churches and missions established across China c. 1687.

The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguesesettlement on Macau, where they settled on Green Islandand founded St. Paul's College.

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. The scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when scientific innovation had declined in China:


[The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.[45]

For over a century, Jesuits like Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci,[46] Philippe Couplet, Michal Boym, and François Noël refined translations and disseminated Chinese knowledge, culture, history, and philosophy to Europe. Their Latin works popularized the name "Confucius" and had considerable influence on the Deists and other Enlightenmentthinkers, some of whom were intrigued by the Jesuits' attempts to reconcile Confucian morality with Catholicism.[47]

Upon the arrival of the Franciscans and other monastic orders, Jesuit accommodation of Chinese culture and rituals led to the long-running Chinese Rites controversy. Despite the personal testimony of the Kangxi Emperor and many Jesuit converts that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius was a nonreligious token of respect, Pope Clement XI's papal decree Cum Deus Optimus... ruled that such behavior constituted impermissible forms of idolatry and superstition in 1704;[48] his legate Tournonand the Bishop of Fujian, tasked with presenting this finding to the Kangxi Emperor, displayed such extreme ignorance that the emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism.[49][50][51][52]Tournon's summary and automatic excommunication for any violators of Clement's decree[53]—upheld by the 1715 bull Ex Illa Die...—led to the swift collapse of all the missions in China;[50] the last Jesuits were finally expelled after 1721.[54]
Canada[edit]
See also: Jesuit missions in North America

Bressani map of 1657 depicts the martyrdom of Jean de Brébeuf

During the French colonisation of New France in the 17th century, Jesuits played an active role in North America. When Samuel de Champlain established the foundations of the French colony at Québec, he was aware of native tribes who possessed their own languages, customs, and traditions. These natives that inhabited modern day Ontario, Québec, and the areas around Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay were the Montagnais, the Algonquins, and the Huron.[55]Champlain believed that these had souls to be saved, so in 1614 he initially obtained the Recollects, a reform branch of the Franciscans in France, to convert the native inhabitants.[56] In 1624 the French Recollects realized the magnitude of their task[57] and sent a delegate to France to invite the Society of Jesus to help with this mission. The invitation was accepted, and Jesuits Jean de Brébeuf, Ennemond Masse, and Charles Lalemant arrived in Quebec in 1625.[58] Lalemant is considered to have been the first author of one of the Jesuit Relations of New France, which chronicled their evangelization during the seventeenth century.

The Jesuits became involved in the Huron mission in 1626 and lived among the Huron peoples. Brébeuf learned the native language and created the first Huron language dictionary. Outside conflict forced the Jesuits to leave New France in 1629 when Quebec was captured by the Kirke brothers under the English flag. But in 1632 Quebec was returned to the French under the Treaty of Saint Germain-en-Laye and the Jesuits returned to Huron territory, modern Huronia.[59]

In 1639, Jesuit Jerome Lalemant decided that the missionaries among the Hurons needed a local residence and established Sainte-Marie, which expanded into a living replica of European society.[60] It became the Jesuit headquarters and an important part of Canadian history. Throughout most of the 1640s the Jesuits had great success, establishing five chapels in Huronia and baptising over one thousand Huron natives.[61] However, as the Jesuits began to expand westward they encountered more Iroquois natives, rivals of the Hurons. The Iroquois grew jealous of the Hurons' wealth and fur trade system, began to attack Huron villages in 1648. They killed missionaries and burned villages, and the Hurons scattered. Both Jean de Brébeuf and Gabriel Lalemant were tortured and killed in the Iroquois raids; they have been canonized as martyrs in the Catholic Church.[62] With the knowledge of the invading Iroquois, the Jesuit Paul Ragueneau burned down Sainte-Marie instead of allowing the Iroquois the satisfaction of destroying it. By late June 1649, the French and some Christian Hurons built Sainte-Marie II on Christian Island (Isle de Saint-Joseph). However, facing starvation, lack of supplies, and constant threats of Iroquois attack, the small Sainte-Marie II was abandoned in June 1650; the remaining Hurons and Jesuits departed for Quebec and Ottawa.[62] After a series of epidemics, beginning in 1634, some Huron began to mistrust the Jesuits and accused them of being sorcerers casting spells from their books.[63] As a result of the Iroquois raids and outbreak of disease, many missionaries, traders, and soldiers died.[64] Today, the Huron tribe, also known as the Wyandot, have a First Nations reserve in Quebec, Canada, and three major settlements in the United States.[65]

After the collapse of the Huron nation, the Jesuits were to undertake the task of converting the Iroquois, something they had attempted in 1642 with little success. In 1653 the Iroquois nation had a fallout with the Dutch. They then signed a peace treaty with the French and a mission was established. The Iroquois took the treaty lightly and soon turned on the French again. In 1658, the Jesuits were having very little success and were under constant threat of being tortured or killed,[64] but continued their effort until 1687 when they abandoned their permanent posts in the Iroquois homeland.[66]

By 1700, Jesuits turned to maintaining Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa without establishing new posts.[67] During the Seven Years' War, Quebec fell to the English in 1759 and New France was under British control. The English barred the immigration of more Jesuits to New France. By 1763, there were only twenty-one Jesuits stationed in New France. By 1773 only eleven Jesuits remained. During the same year the English crown laid claim to New France and declared that the Society of Jesus in New France was dissolved.[68]

The dissolution of the Order left in place substantial estates and investments, amounting to an income of approximately £5,000 a year, and the Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec, later succeeded by the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, assumed the task of allocating the funds to suitable recipients, chiefly schools.[69]

The Jesuit mission in Quebec was re-established in 1842. There were a number of Jesuit colleges founded in the decades following; one of these colleges evolved into present-day Laval University.[70]
United States[edit]
Main article: Jesuits in the United States
Mexico[edit]

Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchoó in the 18th century, the first permanent Jesuit mission in Baja California, established by Juan María de Salvatierra in 1697

Main altar of the Jesuit colegio in Tepozotlan, now the Museo Nacional del Virreinato

Mexican-born Jesuit Francisco Clavijero (1731–1787) wrote an important history of Mexico.

The Jesuits in New Spain distinguished themselves in several ways. They had high standards for acceptance to the order and many years of training. They attracted the patronage of elite families whose sons they educated in rigorous newly founded Jesuit colegios("colleges"), including Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo, Colegio de San Ildefonso, and the Colegio de San Francisco Javier, Tepozotlan. Those same elite families hoped that a son with a vocation to the priesthood would be accepted as a Jesuit. Jesuits were also zealous in evangelization of the indigenous, particularly on the northern frontiers.

To support their colegios and members of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits acquired landed estates that were run with the best-practices for generating income in that era. A number of these haciendas were donated by wealthy elites. The donation of a hacienda to the Jesuits was the spark igniting a conflict between seventeenth-century bishop of Puebla Don Juan de Palafox and the Jesuit colegio in that city. Since the Jesuits resisted paying the tithe on their estates, this donation effectively took revenue out of the church hierarchy's pockets by removing it from the tithe rolls.[71]

Many of Jesuit haciendas were huge, with Palafox asserting that just two colleges owned 300,000 head of sheep, whose wool was transformed locally in Puebla to cloth; six sugar plantations worth a million pesos and generating an income of 100,000 pesos.[71] The immense Jesuit hacienda of Santa Lucía produced pulque, the fermented juice of the agave cactus whose main consumers were the lower classes and Indians in Spanish cities. Although most haciendas had a free work force of permanent or seasonal labourers, the Jesuit haciendas in Mexico had a significant number of black slaves.[72]

The Jesuits operated their properties as an integrated unit with the larger Jesuit order; thus revenues from haciendas funded their colegios. Jesuits did significantly expand missions to the indigenous in the northern frontier area and a number were martyred, but the crown supported those missions.[71] Mendicant orders that had real estate were less economically integrated, so that some individual houses were wealthy while others struggled economically. The Franciscans, who were founded as an order embracing poverty, did not accumulate real estate, unlike the Augustinians and Dominicans in Mexico.

The Jesuits engaged in conflict with the episcopal hierarchy over the question of payment of tithes, the ten percent tax on agriculture levied on landed estates for support of the church hierarchy from bishops and cathedral chapters to parish priests. Since the Jesuits were the largest religious order holding real estate, surpassing the Dominicans and Augustinians who had accumulated significant property, this was no small matter.[71] They argued that they were exempt, due to special pontifical privileges.[73] In the mid-seventeenth century, bishop of Puebla, Don Juan de Palafox took on the Jesuits over this matter and was so soundly defeated that he was recalled to Spain, where he became the bishop of the minor diocese of Osma.

As elsewhere in the Spanish empire, the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767. Their haciendas were sold off and their colegios and missions in Baja California were taken over by other orders.[74] Exiled Mexican-born Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero wrote an important history of Mexico while in Italy, a basis for creole patriotism. Andrés Cavo also wrote an important text on Mexican history that Carlos María de Bustamante published in the early nineteenth-century.[75] An earlier Jesuit who wrote about the history of Mexico was Diego Luis de Motezuma (1619–99), a descendant of the Aztec monarchs of Tenochtitlan. Motezuma's Corona mexicana, o Historia de los nueve Motezumas was completed in 1696. He "aimed to show that Mexican emperors were a legitimate dynasty in the 17th-century in the European sense."[76][77]

The Jesuits were allowed to return to Mexico in 1840 when General Antonio López de Santa Anna was once more president of Mexico. Their re-introduction to Mexico was "to assist in the education of the poorer classes and much of their property was restored to them."[78]
Northern Spanish America[edit]

Acosta's Historia natural y moral de las Indias (1590) text on the Americas

Peter Claver ministering to African slaves at Cartagena

Jesuit church, Cuzco, Peru

The Jesuits arrived in the Viceroyalty of Peru by 1571; it was a key area of Spanish empire, with not only dense indigenous populations but also huge deposits of silver at Potosí. A major figure in the first wave of Jesuits was José de Acosta(1540–1600), whose book Historia natural y moral de las Indias (1590) introduced Europeans to Spain's American empire via fluid prose and keen observation and explanation, based on fifteen years in Peru and a bit of time in New Spain(Mexico). Viceroy of Peru Don Francisco de Toledo urged the Jesuits to evangelize the indigenous peoples of Peru, wanting to put them in charge of parishes, but Acosta adhered to the Jesuit position that they were not subject to the jurisdiction of bishops and to catechize in Indian parishes would bring them into conflict with the bishops. For that reason, the Jesuits in Peru focused on education of elite men rather than the indigenous populations.[79]

To minister to newly arrived African slaves, Alonso de Sandoval (1576–1651) worked at the port of Cartagena de Indias. Sandoval wrote about this ministry in De instauranda Aethiopum salute (1627),[80] describing how he and his assistant Pedro Claver, later canonized, met slave transport ships in the harbour, went below decks where 300–600 slaves were chained, and gave physical aid with water, while introducing the Africans to Christianity. In his treatise, he did not condemn slavery or the ill-treatment of slaves, but sought to instruct fellow Jesuits to this ministry and describe how he catechized the slaves.[81]

Rafael Ferrer was the first Jesuit of Quito to explore and found missions in the upper Amazon regions of South America from 1602 to 1610, which belonged to the Audiencia(high court) of Quito that was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until it was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. In 1602, Ferrer began to explore the Aguarico, Napo, and Marañon rivers (Sucumbios region, in what is today Ecuador and Peru), and between 1604 and 1605 set up missions among the Cofane natives. He was martyred by an apostate native in 1610.

In 1639, the Audiencia of Quito organized an expedition to renew its exploration of the Amazon river and the Quito Jesuit (Jesuita Quiteño) Cristóbal de Acuña was a part of this expedition. The expedition disembarked from the Napo river 16 February 1639 and arrived in what is today Pará Brazil on the banks of the Amazon river on 12 December 1639. In 1641, Acuña published in Madrid a memoir of his expedition to the Amazon river entitled Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran rio de las Amazonas, which for academics became a fundamental reference on the Amazon region.

Samuel Fritz's 1707 map showing the Amazon and the Orinoco

In 1637, the Jesuits Gaspar Cugia and Lucas de la Cueva from Quito began establishing missions in Maynas territories, on the banks of the Marañón River, around the Pongo de Manseriche region, close to the Spanish settlement of Borja. Between 1637 and 1652 there were 14 missions established along the Marañón River and its southern tributaries, the Huallaga and the Ucayali rivers. Jesuit Lucas de la Cueva and Raimundo de Santacruz opened up two new routes of communication with Quito, through the Pastaza and Napo rivers.

Between 1637 and 1715, Samuel Fritz founded 38 missions along the length of the Amazon river, between the Napo and Negro rivers, that were called the Omagua Missions. These missions were continually attacked by the Brazilian Bandeirantes beginning in the year 1705. In 1768, the only Omagua mission that was left was San Joaquin de Omaguas, since it had been moved to a new location on the Napo river away from the Bandeirantes.

In the immense territory of Maynas, the Jesuits of Quito made contact with a number of indigenous tribes which spoke 40 different languages, and founded a total of 173 Jesuit missions encompassing 150,000 inhabitants. Because of the constant epidemics (smallpox and measles) and warfare with other tribes and the Bandeirantes, the total number of Jesuit Missions were reduced to 40 by 1744. At the time when the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767, the Jesuits of Quito registered 36 missions run by 25 Jesuits of Quito in the Audiencia of Quito – 6 in the Napo and Aguarico Missions and 19 in the Pastaza and Iquitos Missions, with the population at 20,000 inhabitants.
Paraguay[edit]


This section contains close paraphrasing of a non-free copyrighted source, Paraguay: A Country Study.Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Ideas in this article should be expressed in an original manner.(June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)


Ruins of La Santisima Trinidad de Parana mission in Paraguay, founded by Jesuits in 1706

The first Jesuits arrived in 1588, and in 1610 Philip III proclaimed that only the "sword of the word" should be used to subdue Paraguayan Indians, mostly Guarani. The church granted Jesuits extensive powers to phase out the encomiendasystem of forced labor, angering settlers dependent on a continuing supply of Indian labor and concubines. The first Jesuit mission in the Paraguay area (which encompassed the border regions of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil) was founded in 1609. By 1732, the Jesuits had gathered into 30 missions or reductions a total of 141,382 Guarani. Due to disease, European politics, and internal discord, the population in the missions declined afterwards.[82] At their apogee, the Jesuits dreamed of a Jesuit empire that would stretch from the Paraguay-Paraná confluence to the coast and back to the Paraná headwaters.[83]

In the early years the new Jesuit reductions were threatened by the slave-raiding bandeirantes. The bandeirantes captured Indians and sold them as slaves to planters in Brazil. Having depleted the Indian population near Sâo Paulo, they discovered the richly populated reductions. The Spanish authorities chose not to defend the settlements, and the Jesuits and their thousands of neophytes thus had little means to protect themselves. Thousands of Guarani were captured by the bandeirantes before, organized and armed by the Jesuits, a Guarani army defeated the slave raiders at the battle of Mbororé. Subsequently, the viceroy of Peru conceded the right of bearing arms to the Guarani. Thereafter, well-trained and highly motivated Indian units were able to defend themselves from slavers and other threats.[84] The victory at Mbororé set the stage for the golden ageof the Jesuits in Paraguay. Life in the reductions offered the Guaraní higher living standards, protection from settlers, and physical security. These reductions, which became quite wealthy, exported goods, and supplied Indian armies to the Spanish on many occasion.[83]

The reductions, where the Jesuits created orchestras, musical ensembles, and actors' troupes, and in which virtually all the profits derived from Indian labor were distributed to the labourers, earned praise from some of the leaders of the French enlightenment, who were not predisposed to favour Jesuits. "By means of religion," d'Alembert wrote, "the Jesuits established a monarchical authority in Paraguay, founded solely on their powers of persuasion and on their lenient methods of government. Masters of the country, they rendered happy the people under their sway; they succeeded in subduing them without ever having recourse to force." And Jesuit-educated Voltaire called the Jesuit government "a triumph of humanity."[85]

Because of their success, the Paraguayan Jesuits gained many enemies, and the Reductions fell prey to changing times. During the 1720s and 1730s, Paraguayan settlers rebelled against Jesuit privileges in the Revolt of the Comuneros and against the government that protected them. Although this revolt failed, it was one of the earliest and most serious risings against Spanish authority in the New World and caused the crown to question its continued support for the Jesuits. The Jesuit-inspired War of the Seven Reductions (1750–61) increased sentiment in Madrid for suppressing this "empire within an empire."

The Spanish king Charles III (1759–88) expelled the Jesuits in 1767 from Spain and its territories. Within a few decades of the expulsion, most of what the Jesuits had accomplished was lost. The missions were mismanaged and abandoned by the Guaraní. Today, these ruins of a 160-year experiment have become a tourist attraction.[83][86]
Colonial Brazil[edit]

Manuel da Nóbrega on a commemorative Portuguese stamp of the 400th anniversary of the foundation of São Paulo, Brazil

Jesuit in 18th century, Brazil

Tomé de Sousa, first Governor General of Brazil, brought the first group of Jesuits to the colony. The Jesuits were officially supported by the King, who instructed Tomé de Sousa to give them all the support needed to Christianize the indigenous peoples.

The first Jesuits, guided by Manuel da Nóbrega, Juan de Azpilcueta Navarro, Leonardo Nunes, and later José de Anchieta, established the first Jesuit missions in Salvador and in São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga, the settlement that gave rise to the city of São Paulo. Nóbrega and Anchieta were instrumental in the defeat of the French colonists of France Antarctiqueby managing to pacify the Tamoio natives, who had previously fought the Portuguese. The Jesuits took part in the foundation of the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1565.

The success of the Jesuits in converting the indigenous peoples is linked to their efforts to understand the native cultures, especially their languages. The first grammar of the Tupilanguage was compiled by José de Anchieta and printed in Coimbra in 1595. The Jesuits often gathered the aborigines in communities (the Jesuit Reductions) where the natives worked for the community and were evangelised.

The Jesuits had frequent disputes with other colonists who wanted to enslave the natives. The action of the Jesuits saved many natives from being enslaved by Europeans, but also disturbed their ancestral way of life and inadvertently helped spread infectious diseases against which the aborigines had no natural defenses. Slave labor and trade were essential for the economy of Brazil and other American colonies, and the Jesuits usually did not object to the enslavement of African peoples, but rather critiqued the conditions of slavery.[87]
Suppression and restoration[edit]
Main article: Suppression of the Jesuits

The Suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma, and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was troubling to the society's defender, Pope Clement XIII. On 21 July 1773 Pope Clement XIV issued the papal brief Dominus ac Redemptor,[88] decreeing:


Having further considered that the said Company of Jesus can no longer produce those abundant fruits, ... in the present case, we are determining upon the fate of a society classed among the mendicant orders, both by its institute and by its privileges; after a mature deliberation, we do, out of our certain knowledge, and the fulness of our apostolical power, suppress and abolish the said company: we deprive it of all activity whatever. ...And to this end a member of the regular clergy, recommendable for his prudence and sound morals, shall be chosen to preside over and govern the said houses; so that the name of the Company shall be, and is, for ever extinguished and suppressed.

The suppression was carried out in all countries except Prussia and Russia, where Catherine the Great had forbidden its promulgation. Because millions of Catholics (including many Jesuits) lived in the Polish provinces recently annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, the society was able to maintain its existence and carry on its work all through the period of suppression. Subsequently, Pope Pius VI would grant formal permission for the continuation of the society in Russia and Poland, with Stanislaus Czerniewicz elected superior of the society in 1782. Pope Pius VII had resolved during his captivity in France to restore the Jesuits universally, and after his return to Rome he did so with little delay. On 7 August 1814, by the bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, he reversed the suppression of the society, and therewith another Polish Jesuit, Thaddeus Brzozowski, who had been elected to Superior in Russia in 1805, acquired universal jurisdiction.

The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities established in the 19th century. In the United States, 22 of the society's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits during this time. It has been suggested that the experience of suppression served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits upon restoration. While this claim is debatable, Jesuits were generally supportive of papal authority within the church, and some members were associated with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870.

In Switzerland, following the defeat of the Sonderbund Catholic defense alliance, the constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in 1848. The ban was lifted on 20 May 1973, when 54.9 per cent of voters accepted a referendum modifying the Constitution.[89]
Early 20th century[edit]

In the Constitution of Norway from 1814, a relic from the earlier anti-Catholic laws of Denmark-Norway, Paragraph 2 originally read: "The Evangelical-Lutheran religion remains the public religion of the State. Those inhabitants, who confess thereto, are bound to raise their children to the same. Jesuits and monastic orders are not permitted. Jews are still prohibited from entry to the Realm." Jews were first allowed into the realm in 1851 after the famous Norwegian poet Henrik Wergeland had campaigned for it. Monastic orders were permitted in 1897, but the ban on Jesuits was only lifted in 1956.[90]

Republican Spain in the 1930s passed laws banning the Jesuits on grounds that they were obedient to a power different from the state. Pope Pius XI wrote about this: "It was an expression of a soul deeply hostile to God and the Catholic religion, to have disbanded the Religious Orders that had taken a vow of obedience to an authority different from the legitimate authority of the State. In this way it was sought to do away with the Society of Jesus – which can well glory in being one of the soundest auxiliaries of the Chair of Saint Peter – with the hope, perhaps, of then being able with less difficulty to overthrow in the near future, the Christian faith and morale in the heart of the Spanish nation, which gave to the Church of God the grand and glorious figure of Ignatius Loyola."[91]
Post–Vatican II[edit]

The 20th century witnessed both growth and decline. Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have declined steadily since. Meanwhile, the number of Jesuit institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to a post–Vatican II focus on the establishment of Jesuit secondary schools in inner-city areas and an increase in voluntary lay groups inspired in part by the Spiritual Exercises. Among the notable Jesuits of the 20th century, John Courtney Murray was called one of the "architects of the Second Vatican Council" and drafted what eventually became the council's endorsement of religious freedom, Dignitatis humanae.

In Latin America, the Jesuits had significant influence in the development of liberation theology, a movement that was controversial in the Catholic community after the negative assessment of it by Pope John Paul II in 1984.[92]

Under Superior General Pedro Arrupe, social justice and the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant themes of the work of the Jesuits. When Arrupe was paralyzed by a stroke in 1981, Pope John Paul II, not entirely pleased with the progressive turn of the Jesuits, took the unusual step of appointing the venerable and aged Paolo Dezza for an interim to oversee "the authentic renewal of the Church",[93] instead of the progressive American priest Vincent O'Keefe whom Arrupe had preferred.[94] In 1983 John Paul gave leave for the Jesuits to appoint a successor to Arrupe.

On 16 November 1989, six Jesuit priests (Ignacio Ellacuría, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martín-Baró, Joaquin López y López, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado López), Elba Ramos their housekeeper, and Celia Marisela Ramos her daughter, were murdered by the Salvadoran military on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador, because they had been labeled as subversives by the government.[95] The assassinations galvanized the society's peace and justice movements, including annual protests at the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation at Fort Benning, Georgia, United States, where several of the assassins had been trained under US government sponsorship.[96]

On 21 February 2001, the Jesuit priest Avery Dulles, an internationally known author, lecturer, and theologian, was created a cardinal of the Catholic Church by Pope John Paul II. The son of former Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, Avery Dulles was long known for his carefully reasoned argumentation and fidelity to the teaching office of the church. An author of 22 books and over 700 theological articles, Dulles died on 12 December 2008 at Fordham University, where he had taught for twenty years as the Laurence J. McGinley Professor of Religion and Society. He was, at his passing, one of ten Jesuit cardinals in the Catholic Church.

In 2002, Boston College president and Jesuit priest William P. Leahy initiated the Church in the 21st Century program as a means of moving the church "from crisis to renewal". The initiative has provided the society with a platform for examining issues brought about by the worldwide Catholic sex abuse cases, including the priesthood, celibacy, sexuality, women's roles, and the role of the laity.[97]

Visit of Pope Benedict XVI to the Jesuit-run Pontifical Gregorian University

In April 2005, Thomas J. Reese, editor of the American Jesuit weekly magazine America, resigned at the request of the society. The move was widely published in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such as HIV/AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality, and the right of life for the unborn. Following his resignation, Reese spent a year-long sabbatical at Santa Clara University before being named a fellow at the Woodstock Theological Center in Washington, D.C., and later Senior Analyst for the National Catholic Reporter. President Barack Obama appointed him to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom in 2014 and again in 2016.[98]

On 2 February 2006, Peter Hans Kolvenbach informed members of the Society of Jesus that, with the consent of Pope Benedict XVI, he intended to step down as Superior General in 2008, the year he would turn 80.

On 22 April 2006, Feast of Our Lady, Mother of the Society of Jesus, Pope Benedict XVI greeted thousands of Jesuits on pilgrimage to Rome, and took the opportunity to thank God "for having granted to your Company the gift of men of extraordinary sanctity and of exceptional apostolic zeal such as St Ignatius of Loyola, St Francis Xavier, and Bl Peter Faber." He said "St Ignatius of Loyola was above all a man of God, who gave the first place of his life to God, to his greater glory and his greater service. He was a man of profound prayer, which found its center and its culmination in the daily Eucharistic Celebration."[99]

In May 2006, Benedict XVI also wrote a letter to Superior General Peter Hans Kolvenbach on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Pope Pius XII's encyclical Haurietis aquas, on devotion to the Sacred Heart, because the Jesuits have always been "extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion".[100] In his 3 November 2006 visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, Benedict XVI cited the university as "one of the greatest services that the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church".[101]

The 35th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus convened on 5 January 2008 and elected Adolfo Nicolás as the new Superior General on 19 January 2008. In a letter to the Fathers of the Congregation, Benedict XVI wrote:[102]


As my Predecessors have said to you on various occasions, the Church needs you, relies on you and continues to turn to you with trust, particularly to reach those physical and spiritual places which others do not reach or have difficulty in reaching. Paul VI's words remain engraved on your hearts: "Wherever in the Church, even in the most difficult and extreme fields, at the crossroads of ideologies, in the social trenches, there has been and there is confrontation between the burning exigencies of man and the perennial message of the Gospel, here also there have been, and there are, Jesuits" (Address to the 32nd General Congregation of the Jesuits, 3 December 1974; ORE, 12 December, n. 2, p. 4.)

Pope Francis, the first Jesuit pope

In 2013, Jesuit Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio became Pope Francis. Before he became Pope, he was appointed bishop when he was in "virtual estrangement from the Jesuits" since he was seen as "an enemy of liberation theology" and viewed by others as "still far too orthodox", trying to protect Jesuits but not approving of their participation in violent groups.[103][104][105] Once elected, there was an immediate reconciliation, and Pope Francis has been bringing the Jesuit simplicity, love for the poor, and service of the flock into the papacy.[103]

On 2 October 2016, General Congregation 36 convened in Rome, convoked by Superior General Adolfo Nicolás, who had announced his intention to resign at age 80.[106][107][108]On 14 October, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Arturo Sosa, a Venezuelan, as its thirty-first Superior General.[109]

The General Congregation of Jesuits who elected Arturo Sosa in 2016 asked him to bring to completion the process of discerning Jesuit priorities for the time ahead. Sosa devised a two-year plan that enlisted all Jesuits and their lay collaborators in the process. Then in February 2019 he presented the results of the discernment, a list of four priorities for Jesuit ministries for the next ten years.1. To show the way to God through discernment and the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola;2. To walk with the poor, the outcasts of the world, those whose dignity has been violated, in a mission of reconciliation and justice;3. To accompany young people in the creation of a hope-filled future;4. To collaborate in the care of our Common Home.

Pope Francis gave his approval to these priorities, saying that they are in harmony with the Church's present priorities and with the programmatic letter of his pontificate, Evangelii gaudium.[110]
Ignatian spirituality[edit]
Main article: Ignatian spirituality

The spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian spirituality, ultimately based on the Catholic faith and the gospels, is drawn from the Constitutions, The Letters, and Autobiography, and most specially from Ignatius' Spiritual Exercises, whose purpose is "to conquer oneself and to regulate one's life in such a way that no decision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment." The Exercises culminate in a contemplationwhereby one develops a facility to "find God in all things."
Formation[edit]
Main article: Jesuit formation

The formation (training) of Jesuits seeks to prepare men spiritually, academically, and practically for the ministries they will be called to offer the church and world. Ignatius was strongly influenced by the Renaissance, and he wanted Jesuits to be able to offer whatever ministries were most needed at any given moment and, especially, to be ready to respond to missions (assignments) from the pope. Formation for priesthood normally takes between eight and fourteen years, depending on the man's background and previous education, and final vows are taken several years after that, making Jesuit formation among the longest of any of the religious orders.
Government of the society[edit]

The society is headed by a Superior General with the formal title Praepositus Generalis, Latin for "provost-general", more commonly called Father General or General. He is elected by the General Congregation for life or until he resigns; he is confirmed by the Pope and has absolute authority in running the society. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is the Venezuelan Arturo Sosa who was elected on 14 October 2016.[111]

The Father General is assisted by "assistants", four of whom are "assistants for provident care" and serve as general advisors and a sort of inner council, and several other regional assistants, each of whom heads an "assistancy", which is either a geographic area (for instance the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry (for instance higher education). The assistants normally reside with Father General in Rome and along with others form an advisory council to the General. A vicar general and secretary of the society run day-to-day administration. The General is also required to have an admonitor, a confidential advisor whose task is to warn the General honestly and confidentially when he might be acting imprudently or contrary to the church's magisterium. The central staff of the General is known as the Curia.[111]

The society is divided into geographic provinces, each of which is headed by a Provincial Superior, generally called Father Provincial, chosen by the General. He has authority over all Jesuits and ministries in his area, and is assisted by a socius who acts as a sort of secretary and chief of staff. With the approval of the General, the provincial appoints a novice master and a master of tertians to oversee formation, and rectors of local communities of Jesuits.[112] For better cooperation and apostolic efficacy in each continent, the Jesuit provinces are grouped into six Jesuit Conferences worldwide.

Each Jesuit community within a province is normally headed by a rector who is assisted by a "minister", from the Latin for "servant", a priest who helps oversee the community's day-to-day needs.

The General Congregation is a meeting of all of the assistants, provincials, and additional representatives who are elected by the professed Jesuits of each province. It meets irregularly and rarely, normally to elect a new superior general and/or to take up some major policy issues for the Order. The General meets more regularly with smaller councils composed of just the provincials.
Habit and dress[edit]

Jesuits do not have an official habit. The society's Constitutions gives the following instructions: "The clothing too should have three characteristics: first, it should be proper; second, conformed to the usage of the country of residence; and third, not contradictory to the poverty we profess." (Const. 577)

Historically, a "Jesuit-style cassock" became "standard issue": it was wrapped around the body and was tied with a cincture, rather than the customary buttoned front. A tuftless biretta (only diocesan clergy wore tufts) and a ferraiolo (cape) completed the look.

Today, most Jesuits in the United States wear the clerical collar and black clothing of ordinary priests, although some still wear the black cassock.[113] Jesuits in tropical countries may use a white cassock when ministering outdoors.
Controversies[edit]
Power-seeking[edit]

The Monita Secreta (Secret Instructions of the Jesuits), published in 1612 and in 1614 in Kraków, is alleged to have been written by Claudio Acquaviva, the fifth general of the society, but was probably written by former Jesuit Jerome Zahorowski. It purports to describe the methods to be adopted by Jesuits for the acquisition of greater power and influence for the society and for the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Encyclopediastates the book is a forgery, fabricated to ascribe a sinister reputation to the Society of Jesus.[114]
Separation of church and state in the history of the Catholic Church

Overview[show]

Sovereignty and loyalty[show]

Documents[show]

Historical controversies[hide]

Constantinian shift
Society of Jesus § Political intrigue
Americanism
(heresy) § The American response

20th century topics[show]

Current topics[show]


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Political intrigue[edit]

The Jesuits were temporarily banished from France in 1594 after a man named Jean Châtel tried to assassinate the king of France, Henri IV. Under questioning, Châtel revealed that he had been educated by the Jesuits of the Collège de Clermont. The Jesuits were accused of inspiring Châtel's attack. Two of his former teachers were exiled and a third was hanged.[115] The Collège de Clermont was closed, and the building was confiscated. The Jesuits were banned from France, although this ban was quickly lifted.

In England, Henry Garnet, one of the leading English Jesuits, was hanged for misprision of treason because of his knowledge of the Gunpowder Plot (1605). The Plot was the attempted assassination of King James I of England and VI of Scotland, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in a single attack, by exploding the Houses of Parliament. Another Jesuit, Oswald Tesimond, managed to escape arrest for his involvement in this plot.[116]
Casuistic justification[edit]

Jesuits have been accused of using casuistry to obtain justifications for unjustifiable actions (cf. formulary controversy and Lettres Provinciales, by Blaise Pascal).[117] Hence, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of the English language lists "equivocating" as a secondary denotation of the word "Jesuit". Modern critics of the Society of Jesus include Avro Manhattan, Alberto Rivera, and Malachi Martin, the latter being the author of The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church (1987).[118]
Anti-Semitism[edit]

Although in the first 30 years of the existence of the Society of Jesus there were many Jesuits who were conversos (Catholic-convert Jews), an anti-converso faction led to the Decree de genere (1593) which proclaimed that either Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, was an insurmountable impediment for admission to the Society of Jesus.[119] This new rule was contrary to the original wishes of Ignatius who "said that he would take it as a special grace from our Lord to come from Jewish lineage."[120] The 16th-century Decree de genere remained in force until it was repealed in 1946.[b]
Theological debates[edit]

Within the Roman Catholic Church, there has existed a sometimes tense relationship between Jesuits and the Holy See due to questioning of official church teaching and papal directives, such as those on abortion,[123][124] birth control,[125][126][127][128] women deacons,[129] homosexuality, and liberation theology.[130][131] Usually, this theological free thinking is academically oriented, being prevalent at the university level. From this standpoint, the function of this debate is less to challenge the magisterium than to publicize the results of historical research or to illustrate the church's ability to compromise in a pluralist society based on shared values that do not always align with religious teachings.[132] However, others have questioned whether this 'free-thinking' is simply a revival of the opinion condemned by Pope St Pius X, according to which the Church does not have the right to pass judgement on the assertions of human sciences.[133] However, this has not prevented Popes from appointing Jesuits to powerful positions in the church. John Paul II and Benedict XVI together appointed ten Jesuit cardinals to notable jobs. Under Benedict, Archbishop Luis Ladaria Ferrer was Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and Federico Lombardi was Vatican Press Secretary.[134] The current Pope, Francis, is himself a Jesuit.
Child sexual abuse[edit]
Main article: Sexual abuse scandal in the Society of Jesus

Members of the Society of Jesus have been implicated in the Catholic Church sexual abuse cases.
Nazi persecution[edit]
Main article: Jesuits and Nazi Germany

The Catholic Church faced persecution in Nazi Germany. Hitler was anticlerical and had particular disdain for the Jesuits. According to John Pollard, the Jesuits' "ethos represented the most intransigent opposition to the philosophy of Nazism",[135] and so the Nazis considered them as one of their most dangerous enemies. A Jesuit college in the city of Innsbruck served as a center for anti-Nazi resistance and was closed down by the Nazis in 1938.[136] Jesuits were a target for Gestapo persecution, and many Jesuit priests were deported to concentration camps.[137] Jesuits made up the largest contingent of clergy imprisoned in the Priest Barracks of Dachau Concentration Camp.[138] Lapomarda lists some 30 Jesuits as having died at Dachau.[139] Of the total of 152 Jesuits murdered by the Nazis across Europe, 43 died in the concentration camps and an additional 27 died from captivity or its results.[140]

The Superior General of Jesuits at the outbreak of war was Wlodzimierz Ledochowski, a Pole. The Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland was particularly severe. Vincent Lapomarda wrote that Ledochowski helped "stiffen the general attitude of the Jesuits against the Nazis" and that he permitted Vatican Radio to carry on its campaign against the Nazis in Poland. Vatican Radio was run by the Jesuit Filippo Soccorsi and spoke out against Nazi oppression, particularly with regard to Poland and to Vichy-French anti-Semitism.[141]

Jesuit Alfred Delp, member of the Kreisau Circlethat operated within Nazi Germany; he was executed in February 1945.[142][verification needed]

Several Jesuits were prominent in the small German Resistance.[143] Among the central membership of the Kreisau Circle of the Resistance were the Jesuit priests Augustin Rösch, Alfred Delp, and Lothar König.[144] The Bavarian Jesuit Provincial, Augustin Rosch, ended the war on death row for his role in the July Plot to overthrow Hitler. Another non-military German Resistance group, dubbed the "Frau Solf Tea Party" by the Gestapo, included the Jesuit priest Friedrich Erxleben.[145] The German Jesuit Robert Leiber acted as intermediary between Pius XII and the German Resistance.[146][147]

Among the Jesuit victims of the Nazis, Germany's Rupert Mayer has been beatified. Mayer was a Bavarian Jesuit who clashed with the Nazis as early as 1923. Continuing his critique following Hitler's rise to power, Mayer was imprisoned in 1939 and sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp. As his health declined, the Nazis feared the creation of a martyr and sent him to the Abbey of Ettal in 1940. There he continued to give sermons and lectures against the evils of the Nazi régime, until his death in 1945.[148][149]
Rescue efforts during the Holocaust[edit]
Further information: Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust

In his history of the heroes of the Holocaust, the Jewish historian Martin Gilbert notes that in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews, and that the Jesuits were one of the Catholic Orders that hid Jewish children in monasteries and schools to protect them from the Nazis.[150][151] Fourteen Jesuit priests have been formally recognized by Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust of World War II: Roger Braun (1910–1981) of France;[152] Pierre Chaillet (1900–1972) of France;[153] Jean-Baptist De Coster (1896–1968) of Belgium;[154] Jean Fleury (1905–1982) of France;[155] Emile Gessler (1891–1958) of Belgium; Jean-Baptiste Janssens (1889–1964) of Belgium; Alphonse Lambrette (1884–1970) of Belgium; Emile Planckaert (1906–2006) of France; Jacob Raile (1894–1949) of Hungary; Henri Revol (1904–1992) of France; Adam Sztark (1907–1942) of Poland; Henri Van Oostayen (1906–1945) of Belgium; Ioannes Marangas (1901–1989) of Greece; and Raffaele de Chantuz Cubbe (1904–1983) of Italy.[156]

Several other Jesuits are known to have rescued or given refuge to Jews during that period.[157] A plaque commemorating the 152 Jesuit priests who gave their lives during the Holocaust was installed in April 2007 at the Jesuits' Rockhurst University in Kansas City, Missouri, United States.
In science[edit]
Main article: List of Jesuit scientists

Jesuit scholars in China. Top: Matteo Ricci, Adam Schall and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623–88); Bottom: Paul Siu (Xu Guangqi), Colao or Prime Minister of State, and his granddaughter Candide Hiu.

Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, the teaching of science in Jesuit schools, as laid down in the Ratio atque Institutio Studiorum Societatis Iesu ("The Official Plan of studies for the Society of Jesus") of 1599, was almost entirely based on the works of Aristotle.

The Jesuits, nevertheless, have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. For example, the Jesuits have dedicated significant study to earthquakes, and seismologyhas been described as "the Jesuit science".[158]The Jesuits have been described as "the single most important contributor to experimental physics in the seventeenth century."[159]According to Jonathan Wright in his book God's Soldiers, by the eighteenth century the Jesuits had "contributed to the development of pendulum clocks, pantographs, barometers, reflecting telescopes and microscopes – to scientific fields as various as magnetism, optics, and electricity. They observed, in some cases before anyone else, the colored bands on Jupiter's surface, the Andromeda nebula, and Saturn's rings. They theorized about the circulation of the blood (independently of Harvey), the theoretical possibility of flight, the way the moon affected the tides, and the wave-like nature of light."[160]

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy. One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography."[161] The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible."[162] Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China.
Notable members[edit]
Main article: List of Jesuits
See also: List of Jesuit theologians, Category:Jesuit philosophers, and List of Jesuit scientists

North American Martyrs

Notable Jesuits include missionaries, educators, scientists, artists, philosophers, and Pope Francis. Among many distinguished early Jesuits was Francis Xavier, a missionary to Asia who converted more people to Catholicism than anyone before, and Robert Bellarmine, a doctor of the Church. José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, founders of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, were Jesuit priests. Another famous Jesuit was Jean de Brébeuf, a French missionary who was martyred during the 17th century in what was once New France (now Ontario) in Canada.

In Spanish America, José de Acosta wrote a major work on early Peru and New Spain with important material on indigenous peoples. In South America, Peter Claver was notable for his mission to African slaves, building on the work of Alonso de Sandoval. Francisco Javier Clavijero was expelled from New Spainduring the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767 and wrote an important history of Mexico during his exile in Italy. Eusebio Kino is renowned in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico (an area then called the Pimeria Alta). He founded numerous missions and served as the peace-bringer between the tribes and the government of New Spain. Antonio Ruiz de Montoya was an important missionary in the Jesuit reductions of Paraguay.

Baltasar Gracián was a 17th-century Spanish Jesuit and baroque prose writer and philosopher. He was born in Belmonte, near Calatayud (Aragon). His writings, particularly El Criticón (1651–7) and Oráculo Manual y Arte de Prudencia ("The Art of Prudence", 1647) were lauded by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche.

In Scotland, John Ogilvie, a Jesuit, is the nation's only post-Reformation saint.

Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio of Argentina was elected Pope Francis on 13 March 2013 and is the first Jesuit to be elected pope.[163]

Gerard Manley Hopkins was one of the first English poets to use sprung verse. Anthony de Mello was a Jesuit priest and psychotherapist who became widely known for his books which introduced Westerners to the East Indian traditions of spirituality.

The Feast of All Jesuit Saints and Blesseds is celebrated on 5 November.[164]
Institutions[edit]
Educational institutions[edit]
See also: List of Jesuit educational institutions

Although the work of the Jesuits today embraces a wide variety of apostolates, ministries, and civil occupations, they are probably most well known for their educational work. Since the inception of the order, Jesuits have been teachers. Besides serving on the faculty of Catholic and secular schools, the Jesuits are the Catholic religious order with the second highest number of schools which they run: 168 tertiary institutions in 40 countries and 324 secondary schools in 55 countries. (The Brothers of the Christian Schools have over 560 Lasallian educational institutions.) They also run elementary schools at which they are less likely to teach. Many of the schools are named after Francis Xavier and other prominent Jesuits.

Jesuit educational institutions aim to promote the values of Eloquentia Perfecta. This is a Jesuit tradition that focuses on cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good.
Jesuit universities gallery




Fordham University, USA



University of Ingolstadt, Germany



St. Xavier's College, Mumbai, India



St. Xavier's College, Kolkata, India



Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan



University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain



Comillas Pontifical University, Spain



Fairfield University, USA



Georgetown University, USA



Boston College, USA



Loyola College, Chennai



Pontifical Gregorian U., Rome



St. Joseph University, Beirut



University of Pacific, Peru



Sogang University, Seoul



Université de Namur, Belgium



St. Mary's U., Halifax



Regis College, U. of Toronto



Loyola College Montreal



Pontifical Xaverian U., Bogota



Pontifical Catholic U., Ecuador



University of the Sinos Valley, Brazil
Social and development institutions[edit]

Since the Second Vatican Council and their own General Congregations which followed it, Jesuits have become increasingly involved in works directed primarily toward social and economic development for the poor and marginalized.[165] Included in this would be research, training, advocacy, and action for human development, as well as direct services. Most Jesuit schools have an office that fosters social awareness and social service in the classroom and through extracurricular programs, usually detailed on their websites. The Jesuits also run over 500 notable or stand-alone social or economic development centres in 56 countries around the world.

Since the Second Vatican Council, Jesuits have founded many schools with the special purpose of serving the poor or marginalized, as among the Dalits in India and the Cristo Rey Network in the United States.
Publications[edit]

The Sanctuary of Loyola in Azpeitia, Basque Country, Spain, the main Jesuit shrine in the birthplace of Ignatius of Loyola

Jesuits are also known for their involvement in publications. La Civiltà Cattolica, a periodical produced in Rome by the Jesuits, has often been used as a semi-official platform for popes and Vatican officials to float ideas for discussion or hint at future statements or positions. In the United States, America magazine has long had a prominent place in Catholic intellectual circles. Most Jesuit colleges and universities have their own presses which produce a variety of books, book series, textbooks, and academic publications. Ignatius Press, founded by a Jesuit, is an independent publisher of Catholic books, most of which are of the popular academic or lay-intellectual variety.

In Australia, the Jesuits produce a number of magazines, including Eureka Street, Madonna, Australian Catholics, and Province Express.

In Germany, the Jesuits publish Geist und Leben.

In Sweden the Catholic cultural magazine Signum, edited by the Newman Institute, covers a broad spectrum of issues concerning faith, culture, research, and society. The printed version of Signum is published eight times per year. In addition, there is an up-to-date website (www.signum.se) containing an article archive dating from 1975 to the present.
In popular culture[edit]
The character Father Mulcahy is a Jesuit priest in the novel, film, and TV show M*A*S*H franchise.
The character Damien Karras is a Jesuit priest from the book and film The Exorcist.
The Jesuits are the antagonists in the novel and TV miniseries Shōgun
The 1986 British drama film The Mission revolves around the experiences of a Jesuit missionary in 18th-century South America.
Antonio Banderas plays a Jesuit priest in the 2001 film The Body.
Édgar Ramírez plays a Jesuit priest in 2014 film Deliver Us from Evil.
The 2016 Martin Scorsese film Silence is based on two Jesuit priests who travel to Japan to spread Christianity.
The main protagonist in James Blish's 1958 novel A Case of Conscience is a Jesuit priest.
Aramis is made Superior General of the Jesuits in Alexandre Dumas' The Man in the Iron Mask (1850).
Mary Doria Russell's 1996 novel The Sparrow follows a Jesuit space mission to make contact with a newfound planet; the majority of the characters are Jesuits.
Angelo Cardinal Mennoni is the head of the Society of Jesus in A. J. Quinnell's 1987 novel The Name of the Father.
In James Joyce's semi-autobiographical 1916 novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, the novel's protagonist, Stephen Dedalus, is educated in Jesuit schools.
See also[edit]

Catholicism portal

Ad maiorem Dei gloriam
Apostleship of Prayer
Bollandist
Canadian Indian residential school system
Jesuit conspiracy theories
Jesuit Ivy
Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos
Jesuits and Nazi Germany
List of Jesuit buildings
List of saints of the Society of Jesus
Misiones Province
Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu
Pontifical university
Roman Catholicism in China
Roman Catholicism in Japan
Sexual abuse scandal in the Society of Jesus
Notes[edit]

^ Spanish: "todo el que quiera militar para Dios".[3]
^ Jesuit scholar John Padberg states that the restriction on Jewish/Muslim converts was limited only to the degree of parentage. Fourteen years later this was extended back to the fifth degree. Over time the restriction relating to Muslim ancestry was dropped.[121] In 1923, the 27th Jesuit General Congregation specified that "The impediment of origin extends to all who are descended from the Jewish race, unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church." In 1946, the 29th General Congregation dropped the requirement but still called for "cautions to be exercised before admitting a candidate about whom there is some doubt as to the character of his hereditary background." Robert Aleksander Maryks interprets the 1593 "Decree de genere" as preventing, despite Ignatius' desires, any Jewish or Muslim conversos and, by extension, any person with Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, from admission to the Society of Jesus.[122]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]

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^ Spiteri, Stephen C. (2016). Baroque Routes. University of Malta. p. 16.
^ (in Spanish) See Fórmula del Instituto on Google Books.
^ O'Malley 2006, p. xxxv.
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^ "About Our Jesuits". Ignatius House Retreat Center. Atlanta, Georgia. Archived from the original on 11 April 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
^ "News on the elections of the new Superior General". Sjweb.info. Retrieved 4 December2011.
^ "africa.reuters.com, Spaniard becomes Jesuits' new "black pope"". Africa.reuters.com. 9 February 2009. Archived from the original on 23 February 2011. Retrieved 4 December2011.
^ "Curia Generalizia of the Society of Jesus". Sjweb.info. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
^ Jump up to:a b Curia Generalis, Society of Jesus (10 April 2013). "From the Curia – THE SOCIETY OF JESUS IN NUMBERS". Digital News Service SJ. The Jesuit Portal – Society of Jesus Homepage. 17 (10). Retrieved 27 June 2013. The new statistics of the Society of Jesus as of January 1st, 2013 have been published. [...] As of 1 January 2013, the total number of Jesuits was 17,287 [...]—a net loss of 337 members from 1 January 2012.
^ Lapitan, Giselle (22 May 2012). "The changing face of the Jesuits". Province Express. Archived from the original on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
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^ Ignatius of Loyola (1970). The constitutions of the society of Jesus. Translated by Ganss, George E. Institute of Jesuit Sources. p. 249. Carried and directed by Divine Providencethrough the agency of the superior as if he were a lifeless body which allows itself to be carried to any place and to be treated in any manner desired.
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^ "The American Catholic quarterly review". archive.org. Philadelphia : Hardy and Mahony. p. 244. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
^ Adelaar 2004.
^ Udías 2003.
^ Parker 1978, p. 26.
^ Hobson 2004, pp. 194–195; Parker 1978, p. 26.
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^ Ricci, Matteo (1603), 《天主實義》 [Tiānzhŭ Shíyì, The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven]. (in Chinese)
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^ Von Collani, Claudia (2009), "Biography of Charles Maigrot MEP", Stochastikon Encyclopedia, Würzburg: Stochastikon.
^ Seah, Audrey (2017), "The 1670 Chinese Missal: A Struggle for Indigenization amidst the Chinese Rites Controversy", China's Christianity: From Missionary to Indigenous Church, Studies in Christian Mission, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 115, ISBN 9789004345607.
^ Ott, Michael (1913), "Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon", Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XV, New York: Encyclopedia Press.
^ Mungello 1994.
^ Devine 1925, p. 1.
^ Devine 1925, p. 3.
^ Paquin 1932, p. 29.
^ Devine 1925, p. 5.
^ Delaney & Nicholls 1989, p. 1.
^ Delaney & Nicholls 1989, p. 2.
^ Kennedy 1950, p. 42.
^ Jump up to:a b Delaney & Nicholls 1989, p. 3.
^ Carpenter 2004, p. 61.
^ Jump up to:a b Kennedy 1950, p. 43.
^ "First Nations Culture Areas Index". the Canadian Museum of Civilization.
^ Kennedy 1950, p. 46.
^ Kennedy 1950, p. 49.
^ Kennedy 1950, p. 53.
^ The Provincial Statutes of Canada: anno undecimo et duodecimo Victoriae Reginae(Montreal: Stewart Derbishire and George Desbarats, 1848), pp. 1483, 1484
^ Jesuits at thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
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^ Konrad 1980.
^ Cline 1997, p. 250.
^ Van Handel 1991.
^ Carlos María de Bustamante, Los tres siglos de México durante el gobierno español, hasta la entrada del ejército trigarante. Obra escrita en Roma por el P. Andrés Cavo, de la Compañía de Jesús; publicada con notas y suplemento. 4 vols. Mexico 1836–38.
^ Warren 1973, p. 84.
^ Diego Luis de Motezuma, Corona mexicana, o historia de los Motezumas, por el Padre Diego Luis de Motezuma de la Compañía de Jesús. Madrid 1914.
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^ Brading 1991, pp. 167–169.
^ Ganson, Barbara (2003), The Guarani under Spanish Rule, Stanford: Stanford University Press, pp 3, 52–53.
^ Jump up to:a b c Sacks 1990, pp. 11–14.
^ Ganson, pp 44–51
^ Durant & Durant 1961, pp. 249–250.
^ "The Jesuit Missions in South America: Jesuits Reductions in Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil – Colonial Voyage". www.colonialvoyage.com. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
^ Campbell 1921, pp. 87ff.
^ "Dominus ac Redemptor Noster". www.reformation.org. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
^ Chancellerie Fédérale Suisse, Votation populaire du 20 mai 1973 (20 May 1973). "Arrêté fédéral abrogeant les articles de la constitution fédérale sur les jésuites et les couvents (art. 51 et 52)" (in French). Retrieved 23 October 2007.
^ "Chronology of Jesuit History" (PDF). Jesuits in Europe.
^ Pius XI, dilectissima Nobis, 1933
^ Novak, Michael (21 October 1984). "The Case Against Liberation Theology". The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
^ "20 December 1999, Eulogy for His Eminence Cardinal Paolo Dezza | John Paul II". w2.vatican.va. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
^ "Religion: John Paul Takes On the Jesuits". Time. 9 November 1981. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
^ Müller et al. 2000.
^ Krickl, Tony (3 February 2007). "CGU Student Josh Harris to Spend Two Months in Federal Prison for Protesting". Claremont Courier. Archived from the original on 5 February 2007. Retrieved 19 September 2015.
^ Lehigh, Scot (19 June 2002). "BC is leading the way on church reform". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
^ "Rev. Thomas J. Reese, S.J., Chair". United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. 19 May 2014. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
^ Benedict XVI (22 April 2006). "Address of his Holiness Benedict XVI to the Fathers and Brothers of the Society of Jesus". Retrieved 23 October 2007.
^ Benedict XVI (15 May 2006). "Letter to the Superior General of the Society of Jesus on the 50th anniversary of the Encyclical Haurietis Aquas". Retrieved 23 October 2007.
^ Benedict XVI (3 November 2006). "Address of his Holiness Benedict XVI—Visit of the Holy Father to the Pontifical Gregorian University". Retrieved 23 October 2007.
^ "To the Fathers of the General Congregation of the Society of Jesus (February 21, 2008) | BENEDICT XVI". w2.vatican.va. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
^ Jump up to:a b "To understand Pope Francis, look to the Jesuits". National Catholic Reporter. 12 March 2014. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ "Pope Francis and the Dirty War". The New Yorker. 14 March 2013. Retrieved 1 June2017.
^ "Vatican, Argentine church to open "dirty war" archives". Crux. 25 October 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
^ "General Congregation 36". jesuits.org. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ enquiries@thetablet.co.uk, The Tablet – w. "Dominican Master urges Jesuits to adopt 'audacity and humility' in electing Superior General". www.thetablet.co.uk. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ "The first session in the aula and Father Nicolás' resignation – General Congregation 36". General Congregation 36. 3 October 2016. Archived from the original on 10 July 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ "Jesuits elect first Latin-American general". Crux. 14 October 2016. Retrieved 30 May2017.
^ "Pope Francis approves four priorities for the Jesuits' next decade". America Magazine. 19 February 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
^ Jump up to:a b "Father General's House". www.sjweb.info. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ "USA Assistancy". www.sjweb.info. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ "The Society of Jesus in the United States: Frequently Asked Questions". Jesuit.org. 19 January 2008. Archived from the original on 25 March 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
^ Gerard 1911.
^ Voltaire (1769), "XXXI", Histoire du Parlement de Paris, Châtel fut écartelé, le jésuite Guignard fut pendu; et ce qui est bien étrange, Jouvency, dans son Histoire des Jésuites, le regarde comme un martyr et le compare à Jésus-Christ. Le régent de Châtel, nommé Guéret, et un autre jésuite, nommé Hay, ne furent condamnés qu’à un bannissement perpétuel.
^ Fraser 2005, p. 448.
^ Nelson 1981, p. 190.
^ see Malachi Martin (1987) The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church, Simon & Schuster, Linden Press, New York, 1987, ISBN 0-671-54505-1
^ Rosa, De La; Coello, Alexandre (1932). "El Estatuto de Limpieza de Sangre de la Compañía de Jesús (1593) y su influencia en el Perú Colonial". Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu. Institutum Societatis Iesu: 45–93. ISSN 0037-8887. Archived from the original on 26 October 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ Reites 1981, p. 17.
^ Padberg 1994, p. 204.
^ Maryks 2010, p. xxviii.
^ Kavanaugh, John F. (15 December 2008). "Abortion Absolutists". America. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ O'Brien, Dennis (30 May 2005). "No to Abortion: Posture, Not Policy". America. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ Rigali, Norbert J. (23 September 2000). "Words and Contraception". America. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ McCormick, Richard A. (17 July 1993). "'Humanae Vitae' 25 Years Later". America. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ Dulles, Avery (28 September 1968). "Karl Rahner on 'Humanae Vitae'". America. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ Reese, Thomas J. (31 March 2009). "Pope, Condoms and AIDS". On Faith. The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 3 April 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ Zagano, Phyllis (17 February 2003). "Catholic Women Deacons". America. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ Martin, James (21 November 2008). "Jesuit General: Liberation Theology "Courageous"". America. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ Martin, James (29 August 2010). "Glenn Beck and Liberation Theology". America. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
^ Worthen, Molly (15 September 2012). "The Power of Political Communion". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
^ "Lamentabili sane, 5".
^ Thavis, John (8 September 2006). "'Sala Stampa' style change: From toreador to low-key mathematician". Catholic News Service. Archived from the original on 5 October 2009. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
^ Pollard 2006, p. 357.
^ Pollard 2006, p. 356.
^ Pollard 2006, p. 356–357.
^ Lapomarda 2005, pp. 140–141.
^ Lapomarda 2005, appx. A.
^ Lapomarda 2005, p. 33, appx. A.
^ Lapomarda 2005, pp. 266–267.
^ Anton Gill; An Honourable Defeat; A History of the German Resistance to Hitler; Heinemann; London; 1994; p. 264.
^ Lapomarda 2005, p. 33.
^ Peter Hoffmann; The History of the German Resistance 1933–1945; 3rd Edn (First English Edn); McDonald & Jane's; London; 1977; p. 33.
^ Shirer 1960, pp. 1025–1026.
^ Peter Hoffmann; The History of the German Resistance 1933–1945; 3rd Edn (First English Edn); McDonald & Jane's; London; 1977; p. 160
^ Shirer 1960, pp. 648–649.
^ "Pontiff Praises a Bavarian Foe of Nazism". Zenit News Agency. Retrieved 6 November2013.
^ "Library : The Gentile Holocaust". Catholic Culture. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
^ Martin Gilbert; The Righteous – The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust; Doubleday; 2002; ISBN 0-385-60100-X; p. 299
^ Martin Gilbert; The Righteous: the Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust; Holt Paperback; New York; 2004; Preface
^ Braun Roger (1910–1981); Yad Vashem
^ Chaillet Pierre (1900–1972); Yad Vashem
^ De Coster, Father Jean-Baptiste; Yad Vashem
^ Fleury Jean (1905–1982); Yad Vashem
^ Vincent A. Lapomarda, The Jesuits and the Third Reich (Edward Mellen Press, 1989).
^ "Hiatt Holocaust Collection". Holycross.edu. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
^ Hough 2007, p. 68.
^ Ashworth 1986, p. 154.
^ Wright 2004, p. 200.
^ Ebrey 2010, p. 212.
^ Woods 2005, p. 101.
^ Ivereigh 2014, pp. 1–2.
^ "November 5: Feast of all Jesuit Saints and Blessed | European Tertianship". tertianship.eu. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ "4th Decree". onlineministries.creighton.edu. Retrieved 30 May 2017.



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Further reading[edit]

• Surveys[edit]
• Bangert, William V. A History of the Society of Jesus (2nd ed. 1958) 552 pp.
• Barthel, Manfred. Jesuits: History & Legend of the Society of Jesus (1984) 347 pp. online free
• Chapple, Christopher. Jesuit Tradition in Education & Missions: A 450-Year Perspective (1993), 290 pp.
• Mitchell, David. Jesuits: A History (1981) 320 pp.
• Molina, J. Michelle. To Overcome Oneself: The Jesuit Ethic and Spirit of Global Expansion, 1520–1767 (2013) online
• O'Malley, John W. The Jesuits: A History from Ignatius to the Present (2014), 138 pp
• Worcester, Thomas. ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits (2008), to 1773
• Wright, Jonathan. God's Soldiers: Adventure, Politics, Intrigue & Power: A History of the Jesuits (2004) 368 pp online free
• Specialized studies[edit]
• Alden, Dauril. Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, Its Empire & Beyond, 1540–1750 (1996) 707pp
• Brockey, Liam Matthew. Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724(2007) 496 pp.
• Brodrick James (1940). The Origin of the Jesuits. Originally Published Longmans Green. ISBN 9780829409307., Special Edition Published 1997 by Loyola University Press, US - ISBN 0829409300
• Brodrick, James. Saint Francis Xavier (1506–1552) (1952).
• Brodrick, James. Saint Ignatius Loyola: The Pilgrim Years 1491–1538 (1998)
• Burson, Jeffrey D. and Jonathan Wright, eds. The Jesuit Suppression in Global Context: Causes, Events, and Consequences (Cambridge UP, 2015) 297.pp
• Bygott, Ursula M. L. With Pen & Tongue: The Jesuits in Australia, 1865–1939 (1980) 423 pp.
• Dalmases, Cándido de. Ignatius of Loyola, Founder of the Jesuits: His Life & Work(1985) 362 pp.
• Caraman, Philip. Ignatius Loyola: A Biography of the Founder of the Jesuits (1990), 222 pp.
• Edwards, Francis. Jesuits in England from 1580 to the Present Day (1985) 333 pp.
• Edwards, Francis. Robert Persons: The Biography of an Elizabethan Jesuit, 1546–1610 (1995) 411 pp.
• Healy, Róisin. Jesuit Specter in Imperial Germany (2003) 263 pp.
• Höpfl, Harro. Jesuit Political Thought: The Society of Jesus & the State, c. 1540–1640(2004) 406 pp.
• Hsia, Ronnie Po-chia. "Jesuit Foreign Missions. A Historiographical Essay." Journal of Jesuit Studies(2014) 1#1 pp: 47–65.
• Kaiser, Robert Blair. Inside the Jesuits: How Pope Francis is Changing the Church and the World (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014)
• Klaiber, Jeffrey. The Jesuits in Latin America: 1549–2000:: 450 Years of Inculturation, Defense of Human Rights, and Prophetic Witness. St Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources 2009.
• Lapomarda, Vincent A., The Catholic Bishops of Europe and the Nazi Persecutions of Catholics and Jews, The Edwin Mellen Press (2012)
• McCoog, Thomas M., ed. Mercurian Project: Forming Jesuit Culture: 1573–1580(2004) 992 pp.; 30 advanced essays by scholars
• Martin, A. Lynn. Jesuit Mind. The Mentality of an Elite in Early Modern France (1988) 256 pp.
• O'Malley, John. "The Society of Jesus." in R. Po-chia Hsia, ed., A Companion to the Reformation World (2004) pp. 223–36.
• O'Malley, John W. ed. Saints or Devils Incarnate? Studies in Jesuit History (2013) 312 pp
• Parkman, Francis (1867). The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century(PDF). p. 637.
• Pomplun, Trent. "Jesuit on the Roof of the World: Ippolito Desideri's Mission to Tibet." Oxford University Press (2010).
• Roberts, Ian D. Harvest of Hope: Jesuit Collegiate Education in England, 1794–1914(1996) 253 pp.
• Ronan, Charles E. and Bonnie B. C. Oh, eds. East Meets West: The Jesuits in China, 1582–1773 (1988), 332 pp.
• Ross, Andrew C. Vision Betrayed: The Jesuits in Japan & China, 1542–1742 (1994) 216 pp.
• Santich, Jan Joseph. Missio Moscovitica: The Role of the Jesuits in the Westernization of Russia, 1582–1689 (1995) 255 pp.
• Wright, Jonathan. "From Immolation to Restoration: The Jesuits, 1773–1814." Theological Studies (2014) 75#4 pp. 729–745.
• United States[edit]
• Cushner, Nicholas P. Soldiers of God: The Jesuits in Colonial America, 1565–1767(2002) 402 pp.
• Garraghan, Gilbert J. The Jesuits Of The Middle United States (3 vol 1938) covers Midwest from 1800 to 1919 vol 1 online, ; vol 2; vol 3
• McDonough, Peter. Men astutely trained : a history of the Jesuits in the American century (1994), covers 1900 to 1960s; online free
• Schroth, Raymond A. The American Jesuits: A History (2009)

Primary sources[edit]
Desideri, Ippolito. "Mission to Tibet: The Extraordinary Eighteenth-Century Account of Father Ippolito Desideri." Translated by Michael J. Sweet. Edited by Leonard Zwilling. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2010.
Donnelly, John Patrick, ed. Jesuit Writings of the Early Modern Period: 1540–1640(2006)

In German[edit]
Klaus Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 1: 1814–1872 Münster: Aschendorff Verlag, 2013. XXX, 274 S. ISBN 978-3-402-12964-7. online review
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 2: 1872–1917
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 3: 1917–1945
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 4: 1945–1983
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 5: Quellen, Glossar, Biogramme, Gesamtregister
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Society of Jesus.

Catholic Church documents[edit]
Benedict XVI's Address to the Members of the Society of Jesus, 22 April 2006
Benedict XVI's Visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, 3 November 2006
Jesuit documents[edit]
The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum of 1599
[permanent dead link] The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan, 1591–1610[permanent dead link]
Letter of the Jesuit Social Justice Secretariat to the leaders of the G8, July 2005
The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola
Other links[edit]
The Jesuits, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Nigel Aston, Simon Ditchfield & Olwen Hutton (In Our Time, 18 January 2007)
"The Jesuit Curia in Rome". Retrieved 2 April 2012.
"Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu – Jesuit Archive in Rome". Retrieved 2 July2013.
"Society of Jesus" section of Wikisource's Roman Catholicism portal.
Archives of Jezuïeten - Belgische (1832-1935) En Vlaamse (1935-) Provincie. 16de Eeuw-2012 in ODIS - Online Database for Intermediary Structures