2021/10/09

Ganesha - Wikipedia

Ganesha - Wikipedia:

Ganesha

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"Vinayaka" and "Ganapati" redirect here. For other uses, see Vinayaka (disambiguation), Ganapati (disambiguation), and Ganesha (disambiguation).
Ganesha
  • God of New Beginnings, Success and Wisdom
  • Remover of Obstacles[1][2]
Attired in an orange dhoti, an elephant-headed man sits on a large lotus. His body is red in colour and he wears various golden necklaces and bracelets and a snake around his neck. On the three points of his crown, budding lotuses have been fixed. He holds in his two right hands the rosary (lower hand) and a cup filled with three modakas (round yellow sweets), a fourth modaka held by the curving trunk is just about to be tasted. In his two left hands, he holds a lotus in the upper hand and an axe in the lower one, with its handle leaning against his shoulder.
Basohli miniature, c. 1730. National Museum, New Delhi.[3]
AffiliationDeva, Brahman (Ganapatya), Saguna Brahman (Panchayatana puja)
Abode• Mount Kailash (with parents)
• Ganeshloka
MantraOṃ Shri Gaṇeśāya Namaḥ
Oṃ Gaṃ Gaṇapataye Namaḥ
WeaponParaśu (axe), pāśa (noose), aṅkuśa (elephant goad)
SymbolsSwastika, Om, Modak
MountMouse
TextsGanesha Purana, Mudgala Purana, Ganapati Atharvashirsa
GenderMale
FestivalsGanesh Chaturthi, Diwali
Personal information
Parents
SiblingsKartikeya (brother)
Consorts
Children
(satisfaction)

Ganesha (Sanskrit: गणेश, IAST: Gaṇeśa, also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon.[4] His image is found throughout India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia (Java and Bali), Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines, and Bangladesh and in countries with large ethnic Indian populations including Fiji, Guyana, Mauritius, and Trinidad and Tobago.[5] Hindu denominations worship him regardless of affiliations.[6] Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists.[7]

Although Ganesha has many attributes, he is readily identified by his elephant head.[8] He is widely revered, more specifically, as the remover of obstacles and thought to bring good luck;[9][10] the patron of arts and sciences; and the deva of intellect and wisdom.[11] As the god of beginnings, he is honored at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as a patron of letters and learning during writing sessions.[2][12] Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits.

An elephant–headed anthropomorphic figure on Indo-Greek coins from the 1st century BCE has been proposed by some scholars to be "incipient Ganesha", while others have suggested Ganesha may have been an emerging deity in India and southeast Asia around the 2nd century CE based on the evidence from archaeological excavations in Mathura and outside India.[13] Most certainly by the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta period, Ganesha was well established and had inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors.[14] Hindu mythology identifies him as the restored son of Parvati and Shiva of the Shaivism tradition, but he is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions.[15][16] In the Ganapatya tradition of Hinduism, Ganesha is the supreme deity.[17] The principal texts on Ganesha include the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Brahma Purana and Brahmanda Purana are other two Puranic genre encyclopaedic texts that deal with Ganesh.

Etymology and other names[edit]

Ganesha, Gupta Period (4th-6th century CE), Art of Mathura.

Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati (Ganpati) and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri (Sanskrit: श्री; IAST: śrī; also spelled Sri or Shree) is often added before his name.[18]

The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana (gaṇa), meaning a 'group, multitude, or categorical system' and isha (īśa), meaning 'lord or master'.[19] The word gaṇa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaṇas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva, Ganesha's father.[20] The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.[21] Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaṇas" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements.[22] Ganapati (गणपति; gaṇapati), a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning "group", and pati, meaning "ruler" or "lord".[21] Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha.[23][24] The Amarakosha,[25] an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha: Vinayaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighnesha), Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers),[26] Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana (gajānana); having the face of an elephant.[27]

Vinayaka (विनायक; vināyaka) or Binayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[28] This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak (Marathi: अष्टविनायक, aṣṭavināyaka).[29] The names Vighnesha (विघ्नेश; vighneśa) and Vighneshvara (विघ्नेश्वर; vighneśvara) (Lord of Obstacles)[30] refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles (vighna).[31]

A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai (Tamil: பிள்ளை) or Pillaiyar (பிள்ளையார்).[32] A.K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also "elephant tooth or tusk".[33] Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant".[34]

In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne (မဟာပိန္နဲ, pronounced [məhà pèiɰ̃né]), derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka (မဟာဝိနာယက).[35] The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikanet.[36] The earliest images and mention of Ganesha names as a major deity in present-day Indonesia,[37] Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam date from the 7th- and 8th-centuries,[38] and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier.[39] In Sri Lankan Singhala Buddhist areas, he is known as Gana deviyo, and revered along with Buddha, Vishnu, Skanda and others.[40]

Iconography[edit]

A 13th-century statue of Ganesha, Hoysala-style, Karnataka

Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art.[41] Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time.[42] He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, or sitting down on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.

Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century CE.[43] The 13th-century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,[44] and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.[45] Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.[46] A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century.[47] Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head.[note 1]

The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (Abhaya mudra).[51] The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.[52]

Common attributes[edit]

For thirty-two popular iconographic forms of Ganesha, see Thirty-two forms of Ganesha.
A typical four-armed form. Miniature of Nurpur school (circa 1810)[53]

Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.[54] Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.[55] One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.[56] While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories.[57] The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.[58] Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source.[59] Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.[60]

Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken.[61] Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.[62] The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta.[63] Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries).[64] This feature is so important that according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly).[65] Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST: udara).[66] The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs; IAST: brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are present in him.[67]

The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.[68] Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.[69] His earliest images had two arms.[70] Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.[71] The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.[72] According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck.[73] Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST: yajñyopavīta)[74] wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a third eye or the sectarian mark (IAST: tilaka), which consists of three horizontal lines.[75] The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead.[76] A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra (IAST: bhālacandra; "Moon on the Forehead") includes that iconographic element.[77]

Ganesha is often described as red in colour.[78] Specific colours are associated with certain forms.[79] Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage).[80] Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualised as blue during meditation in that form.[81]

Vahanas[edit]

Dancing Ganesha sculpture from North Bengal, 11th century CE, Asian Art Museum of Berlin (Dahlem).

The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle).[82] Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.[83] Mohotkata uses a lion, Mayūreśvara uses a peacock, Dhumraketu uses a horse, and Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.[84]

Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse, shrew or rat.[85] Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.[86] The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation.[87] The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.[88] The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.[89]

The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire".[90] Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolises those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.[91] Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.[92] Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.[93]

Features[edit]

Heramba-Ganesha with consort, 18th century Nepal

Removal of obstacles[edit]

Ganesha is Vighneshvara (Vighnaraja, Marathi – Vighnaharta), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order.[94] He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Hence, he is often worshipped by the people before they begin anything new.[95] Paul Courtright says that Ganesha's dharma and his raison d'être is to create and remove obstacles.[96]

Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time.[31] Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas, to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter).[97] However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.[98]

Buddhi (Intelligence)[edit]

Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.[99] In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is an active noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[100] The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya.[101] This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important.[102] The word priya can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband",[103] so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".[104]

Om[edit]

Ganesha, Chola period, early 13th century.

Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Om. The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Om is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.[105] The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:[106]

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.[107]

First chakra[edit]

According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called Muladhara (mūlādhāra). Mula means "original, main"; adhara means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests.[108] This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra]."[109] Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara.[110] Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life".[108]

Family and consorts[edit]

See also: Mythological anecdotes of Ganesha and Consorts of Ganesha
Shiva and Parvati giving a bath to Ganesha. Kangra miniature, 18th century. Allahabad Museum, New Delhi.[111]

Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic myths give different versions about his birth.[112] In some he was created by Parvati,[113] or by Shiva[114] or created by Shiva and Parvati,[115] in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati[116] or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river.[117]

The family includes his brother, the god of war, Kartikeya, who is also called Skanda and Murugan.[118] Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the firstborn.[119] In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, after which worship of him declined significantly. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers[120] and may reflect sectarian tensions.[121]

Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.[122] One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmachari.[123] This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.[124] Another popularly-accepted mainstream pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives.[125] He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi).[126] Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra).[127] He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi.[128] Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.[129]

The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: Kşema (safety) and Lābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be Śubha (auspiciousness) and Lābha.[130] The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.[131]

Worship and festivals[edit]

Hindus in Ghana celebrating Ganesh Chaturti

Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions, especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business.[132] K.N Soumyaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. ... Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country".[133] Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.[134]

Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.[135] Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin art performances such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha.[78] Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).[136]

Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls called laddus. He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra.[137] Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (raktachandana)[138] or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.[139]

Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of Bhadrapada (August/September) and the Ganesh Jayanti (Ganesha's birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of magha (January/February)."[140]

Ganesha Chaturthi[edit]

Street festivities in Hyderabad, India during the festival of Ganesha Chaturthi

An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September.[141] The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising the god's visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when the idols (murtis) are immersed in the most convenient body of water.[142] Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event.[143] He did so "to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra.[144] Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule.[145] Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.[146] Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.[147][148] The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.

Temples[edit]

Further information: List of Ganapati temples and Ashtavinayak
The Morgaon temple, the chief Ashtavinyak temple

In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as a subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna).[149] As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati's doorkeeper.[150] In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: अष्टविनायक; aṣṭavināyaka; lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore.[151] The eight shrines are: Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon.

There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: Kanipakam in Andhra Pradesh; the Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple at Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu; Kottarakkara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala; Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Telangana.[152]

T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below pīpaḹa (Sacred fig) trees ... in a niche ... in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples ... the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen."[153] Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including Southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu Valley),[154] and in several western countries.[155]

Rise to prominence[edit]

First appearance[edit]

The Gardez Ganesha, a 7th-century marble Ganesha found in Gardez, Afghanistan, and once displayed at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath, Kabul. The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image of Mahāvināyaka" was consecrated by the Shahi King Khingala.[156][157]

Later, the Greco-Bactrians used elephant scalps in the depiction of their rulers, such as Demetrius I or Lysias, or elephants in association with the god Zeus, as in the coinage of Antialcidas — this was mistakenly identified with Ganesha.[158][159]

First terracotta images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram, and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with an elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd–3rd centuries CE).[160]

Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries CE.[161] Some of the earliest known Ganesha images include two images found in eastern Afghanistan. The first image was discovered in the ruins north of Kabul along with those of Surya and Shiva. It is dated to the 4th-century. The second image found in Gardez, the Gardez Ganesha, has an inscription on Ganesha pedestal that has helped date it to the 5th-century. Another Ganesha sculpture is embedded in the walls of Cave 6 of the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh. This is dated to the 5th-century. An early iconic image of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap has been found in the ruins of the Bhumara Temple in Madhya Pradesh, and this is dated to the 5th-century Gupta period.[162][163][164] Other recent discoveries, such as one from Ramgarh Hill, are also dated to the 4th or 5th centuries.[163] An independent cult with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established by about the 10th century.[161] Narain summarises the lack of evidence about Ganesha's history before the 5th century as follows:[161]

Ganesha from Bhumara Temple, 5th-6th century CE.

What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaṇeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand, there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaṇeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand, there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence [in ancient Brahmanic literature] of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.

The evidence for more ancient Ganesha, suggests Narain, may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions, or outside geocultural boundaries of India.[161] Ganesha appears in China by the 6th century, states Brown,[165] and his artistic images in temple setting as "remover of obstacles" in South Asia appear by about 400 CE.[166] He is, states Bailey, recognised as goddess Parvati's son and integrated into Shaivism theology by early centuries of the common era.[167]

Possible influences[edit]

Ganesha worshipped in the Durga Puja celebrations in Cologne

Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:[168]

In this search for a historical origin for Gaṇeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaṇeśa.

Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut."[169]

One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas (Vināyakas).[170] In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties[171] but who were easily propitiated.[172] The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[28] Krishan is one of the academics who accept this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-Vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering".[173] Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century.[174] According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era.[175]

Vedic and epic literature[edit]

17th century RajasthanI manuscript of the Mahabharata depicting Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, who serves as the scribe

The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators.[176] While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today.[177] In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only".[178] Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra,[179] who is given the epithet 'gaṇapati', translated "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts)."[180] However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha.[181]

The Sangam period Tamil poet Avvaiyar (3rd century BCE), invokes Ganesha while preparing the invitation to the three Tamil Kingdoms for giving away in marriage of Angavay and Sangavay of Ceylon in marriage to the King of Tirucovalur (pp. 57–59).[182]

Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1)[183] and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (10.1),[184] appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (Dantiḥ), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" (Vakratuṇḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification.[185] The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane,[186] and a club,[187] is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin".[188] However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.[189] Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity".[190]

Ganesha does not appear in the Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata (1.1.75–79[a]) says that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on the condition that Vyasa recites the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata,[191] in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.[192] The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during the preparation of the critical edition.[193] Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation.[194] Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.[195] The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations.[196] A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām ("Creator of Obstacles") in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.[197]

Puranic period[edit]

Further information: Mythological anecdotes of Ganesha
A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana: Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Devi (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right).

Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300.[198] Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed of c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.[199]

In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:[200]

Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.

Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th-century philosopher Adi Shankara popularised the "worship of the five forms" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition.[201] This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya.[202] Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalised the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

Scriptures[edit]

Further information: Ganesha Purana, Mudgala Purana, and Ganapati Atharvashirsa
Ganesha statue in 9th-century Prambanan temple, Java, Indonesia

Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Hinduism, some Hindus chose Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.[203]

The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comment about dating and provide her own judgment. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated."[204] Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.[205]

R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400.[206] However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.[207] While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.[208] Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries.[209]

Ganesha Sahasranama is part of the Puranic literature, and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha. Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. Versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama are found in the Ganesha Purana.[210]

One of the most important Sanskrit texts that enjoys authority in Ganapatya tradition, according to John Grimes, is the Ganapati Atharvashirsa.[211]

Beyond India and Hinduism[edit]

TibetianGanpati.jpg
103 Ganesa, Semerang, Central Java, 9-10th c (22861464314).jpg
Buddhist Ganesha.jpg
雙身歡喜天 - Sōshin Kangiten.png
Bronze Ganesh, the largest in the world. - panoramio.jpg
(clockwise from top) Ganesha in Tibet (as Maharakta), Nepal, Thailand, Japan (as Kangiten) and Java.
Further information: Ganesha in world religions

Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in Western and Southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who consequently reached foreign lands.[212]

Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.[213] From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.[214] The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.[215]

Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.[216] Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of Philippines, Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences.[217] The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practised side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.[218] In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.[219]

Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.[219] Thailand regards Ganesha mainly as the god of arts and academics. The belief was initiated by King Vajiravudh of Chakri Dynasty who was devoted to Ganesha personally. He even built a Ganesha shrine at his personal palace, Sanam Chandra Palace in Nakhon Pathom Province where he focused on his academic and literature works. His personal belief regarding Ganesha as the god of arts was formally became prominent following the establishment of the Fine Arts Department where he took Ganesha as the seal. Today, Ganesha is depicted both in the seal of the Fine Arts Department, and Thailand's first prominent fine arts academy; the Silpakorn University.[220]

Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practised. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.[221]

Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name.[222] His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.[223] As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, called Nṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.[224] In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion.[225] Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.[226] A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag.[227] In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla,(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity.[228] Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing.[229] Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.[230] In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.[231]

The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha.[232] However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of the god of wealth, Kubera.[233] Jain ties with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections.[234] The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.[235] A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of its images.[232] Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.[236]

Explanatory notes[edit]

  1. ^ Bombay edition
  1. ^ For the human-headed form of Ganesha in:

Citations[edit]

  1. ^ Heras 1972, p. 58.
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b Getty 1936, p. 5.
  3. ^ "Ganesha getting ready to throw his lotus. Basohli miniature, circa 1730. National Museum, New Delhi. In the Mudgalapurāṇa (VII, 70), in order to kill the demon of egotism (Mamāsura) who had attacked him, Gaṇeśa Vighnarāja throws his lotus at him. Unable to bear the fragrance of the divine flower, the demon surrenders to Gaṇeśha." For quotation of description of the work, see: Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 73.
  4. ^ Ramachandra Rao 1992, p. 6.
  5. ^      
    • Brown 1991, p. 1 "Gaṇeśa is often said to be the most worshipped god in India."
    • Getty 1936, p. 1 "Gaṇeśa, Lord of the Gaṇas, although among the latest deities to be admitted to the Brahmanic pantheon, was, and still is, the most universally adored of all the Hindu gods and his image is found in practically every part of India."
  6. ^      
  7. ^      
  8. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 2.
  9. ^ For Ganesha's role as an eliminator of obstacles, see commentary on Gaṇapati Upaniṣad, verse 12 in Saraswati 2004, p. 80
  10. ^ DeVito, Carole; DeVito, Pasquale (1994). India - Mahabharata. Fulbright-Hays Summer Seminar Abroad 1994 (India). United States Educational Foundation in India. p. 4.
  11. ^ Heras 1972, p. 58
  12. ^ These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings.
  13. ^ Brown 1991, pp. 6–7
  14. ^ Narain, A.K. "Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon" in Brown 1991, p. 27
  15. ^ Gavin D., Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–18, 110–113. ISBN 978-0521438780.
  16. ^ Vasudha, Narayan (2009). Hinduism. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-1435856202.
  17. ^ For history of the development of the gāṇapatya and their relationship to the wide geographic dispersion of Ganesha worship, see: Chapter 6, "The Gāṇapatyas" in: Thapan 1997, pp. 176–213.
  18. ^ "Lord Ganesha – Symbolic description of Lord Ganesha | – Times of India". The Times of India. 4 April 2019. Archivedfrom the original on 7 September 2019. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
  19. ^ * Narain, A.K. "Gaṇeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon". Brown 1991, pp. 21–22.
  20. ^ For the derivation of the name and relationship with the gaṇas, see: Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 2
  21. ^ Jump up to:a b Apte 1965, p. 395.
  22. ^ The word gaṇa is interpreted in this metaphysical sense by Bhāskararāya in his commentary on the gaṇeśasahasranāma. See in particular commentary on verse 6 including names Gaṇeśvaraḥ and Gaṇakrīḍaḥ in: Śāstri Khiste 1991, pp. 7–8.
  23. ^ Grimes 1995, pp. 17–19, 201.
  24. ^ Rigveda Mandala 2 Archived 2 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Hymn 2.23.1, Wikisource, Quote: गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनामुपमश्रवस्तमम् । ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत आ नः शृण्वन्नूतिभिः सीद सादनम् ॥१॥; For translation, see Grimes 1995, pp. 17–19
  25. ^
    • Oka 1913, p. 8 for source text of Amarakośa 1.38 as vināyako vighnarājadvaimāturagaṇādhipāḥ – apyekadantaherambalambodaragajānanāḥ.
    • Śāstri 1978 for text of Amarakośa versified as 1.1.38.
  26. ^ Y. Krishan, Gaṇeśa: Unravelling an Enigma, 1999, p. 6): "Pārvati who created an image of Gaṇeśa out of her bodily impurities but which became endowed with life after immersion in the sacred waters of the Gangā. Therefore he is said to have two mothers—Pārvati and Gangā and hence called dvaimātura and also Gāngeya."
  27. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 6
  28. ^ Jump up to:a b Thapan 1997, p. 20
  29. ^ For the history of the aṣṭavināyaka sites and a description of pilgrimage practices related to them, see: Mate 1962, pp. 1–25
  30. ^ These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For the name Vighnesha, see: Courtright 1985, pp. 156, 213
  31. ^ Jump up to:a b For Krishan's views on Ganesha's dual nature see his quote: "Gaṇeśa has a dual nature; as Vināyaka, as a grāmadevatā, he is vighnakartā, and as Gaṇeśa he is vighnahartā, a paurāṇic devatā." (Krishan 1999, p. viii)
  32. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 367.
  33. ^ Narain, A.K. "Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon".Brown 1991, p. 25
  34. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 62
  35. ^ Myanmar-English Dictionary, Yangon: Dunwoody Press, 1993, ISBN 978-1881265474, archived from the original on 10 February 2010, retrieved 20 September 2010
  36. ^ Justin Thomas McDaniel (2013). The Lovelorn Ghost and the Magical Monk: Practicing Buddhism in Modern Thailand. Columbia University Press. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-0231153775.
  37. ^ Brown, Robert L. (1987), "A Note on the Recently Discovered Gaṇeśa Image from Palembang, Sumatra", Indonesia, 43 (43): 95–100, doi:10.2307/3351212, hdl:1813/53865, JSTOR 3351212
  38. ^ Brown 1991, pp. 176, 182, Note: some scholars suggest adoption of Ganesha by the late 6th century CE, see p. 192 footnote 7.
  39. ^ Brown 1991, p. 190.
  40. ^ John Clifford Holt (1991). Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka: Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press. pp. 6, 100, 180–181. ISBN 978-0195362466.
  41. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf, p. vii
  42. ^ * Martin-Dubost 1965, for a comprehensive review of iconography abundantly illustrated with pictures.
    • Chapter X, "Development of the Iconography of Gaṇeśa", in: Krishan 1999, pp. 87–100, for a survey of iconography with emphasis on developmental themes, well-illustrated with plates.
    • Pal 1995, for a richly illustrated collection of studies on specific aspects of Ganesha with a focus on art and iconography.
  43. ^ Brown 1991, p. 175
  44. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 213. In the upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973–1200).
  45. ^ Pal, p. vi. The picture on this page depicts a stone statue in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art that is dated as c. 12th century. Pal shows an example of this form dated c. 13th century on p. viii.
  46. ^ Brown 1991, p. 176
  47. ^ See photograph 2, "Large Ganesh", in: Pal 1995, p. 16
  48. ^ "Adi Vinayaka - The Primordial Form of Ganesh". agasthiar.org. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  49. ^ "Vinayaka in unique form". The Hindu. 10 October 2003. Archived from the original on 1 May 2015. Retrieved 30 April2015.
  50. ^ Catlin, Amy; "Vātāpi Gaṇapatim": Sculptural, Poetic, and Musical Texts in the Hymn to Gaṇeśa" in Brown 1991, pp. 146, 150
  51. ^ In:
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 197–198
    • photograph 9, "Ganesh images being taken for immersion", in: Pal 1995, pp. 22–23. For an example of a large image of this type being carried in a festival procession.
    • Pal 1995, p. 25, For two similar statues about to be immersed.
  52. ^ In:
    • Pal 1995, pp. 41–64. For many examples of Ganesha dancing.
    • Brown 1991, p. 183 For the popularity of the dancing form.
  53. ^ Four-armed Gaṇeśa. Miniature of Nurpur school, circa 1810. Museum of Chandigarh. For this image see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 64, which describes it as follows: "On a terrace leaning against a thick white bolster, Gaṇeśa is seated on a bed of pink lotus petals arranged on a low seat to the back of which is fixed a parasol. The elephant-faced god, with his body entirely red, is dressed in a yellow dhoti and a yellow scarf fringed with blue. Two white mice decorated with a pretty golden necklace salute Gaṇeśa by joining their tiny feet together. Gaṇeśa counts on his rosary in his lower right hand; his two upper hands brandish an axe and an elephant goad; his fourth hand holds the broken left tusk."
  54. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 77
  55. ^ Brown 1991, p. 3
  56. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 78
  57. ^ Brown 1991, p. 76
  58. ^ Brown 1991, p. 77
  59. ^ Brown 1991, pp. 77–78
  60. ^ For creation of Ganesha from Shiva's laughter and subsequent curse by Shiva, see Varaha Purana 23.17 as cited in Brown 1991, p. 77.
  61. ^ Getty 1936, p. 1.
  62. ^ Heras 1972, p. 29
  63. ^ Granoff, Phyllis. "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor". Brown 1991, pp. 92–94
  64. ^ "Ganesha in Indian Plastic Art" and Passim. Nagar 1992, p. 78
  65. ^ Granoff, Phyllis. "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor". Brown 1991, p. 76
  66. ^ For translation of Udara as "belly" see: Apte 1965, p. 268
  67. ^
    • Br. P. 2.3.42.34
    • Thapan 1997, p. 200, For a description of how a variant of this story is used in the Mudgala Purana 2.56.38–9
  68. ^ For an iconographic chart showing number of arms and attributes classified by source and named form, see: Nagar 1992, pp. 191–195 Appendix I.
  69. ^ For history and prevalence of forms with various arms and the four-armed form as one of the standard types see: Krishan 1999, p. 89.
  70. ^
    • Krishan 1999, p. 89, For two-armed forms as an earlier development than four-armed forms.
    • Brown 1991, p. 103 Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri say in "Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism" that the presence of only two arms on a Ganesha image points to an early date.
  71. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 120.
  72. ^
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202, For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography.
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 50–53, For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography.
  73. ^ Ganesha Purana
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202. For the Ganesha Purana references for Vāsuki around the neck and use of a serpent-throne.
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 51–52. For the story of wrapping Vāsuki around the neck and Śeṣa around the belly and for the name in his sahasranama as Sarpagraiveyakāṅgādaḥ ("Who has a serpent around his neck"), which refers to this standard iconographic element.
  74. ^ * Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202. For the text of a stone inscription dated 1470 identifying Ganesha's sacred thread as the serpent Śeṣa.
    • Nagar 1992, p. 92. For the snake as a common type of yajñyopavīta for Ganesha.
  75. ^ * Nagar 1992, p. 81. tilaka with three horizontal lines.
    • the dhyānam in: Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.1. For Ganesa visualized as trinetraṁ (having three eyes).
  76. ^ * Nagar 1992, p. 81. For a citation to Ganesha Purana I.14.21–25 and For a citation to Padma Purana as prescribing the crescent for decoration of the forehead of Ganesha
    • Bailey 1995, pp. 198–199. For the translation of Ganesha Purana I.14, which includes a meditation form with the moon on forehead.
  77. ^
    • Nagar 1992, p. 81 For Bhālacandra as a distinct form worshipped.
    • Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.15. For the name Bhālacandra appearing in the Ganesha Sahasranama
  78. ^ Jump up to:a b Civarāman̲, Akilā (2014). Sri Ganesha Purana. Giri Trading Agency. ISBN 978-81-7950-629-5.
  79. ^ Martin-Dubost, Paul (1997). Gaṇeśa, the Enchanter of the Three Worlds. Franco-Indian Research. pp. 412–416. ISBN 978-81-900184-3-2.
  80. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, pp. 224–228
  81. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 228
  82. ^ Krishan 1999, pp. 47–48, 78
  83. ^ Krishan 1981–1982, p. 49
  84. ^
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 48–49
    • Bailey 1995, p. 348. For the Ganesha Purana story of Mayūreśvara with the peacock mount (GP I.84.2–3)
    • Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri, "Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism", in: Brown 1991, pp. 101–102.
  85. ^ * Nagar 1992. Preface.
  86. ^ See note on figure 43 in: Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 144.
  87. ^ Citations to Matsya Purana 260.54, Brahmananda Purana Lalitamahatmya XXVII, and Ganesha Purana 2.134–136 are provided by: Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 231.
  88. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 232.
  89. ^ For Mūṣakavāhana see v. 6. For Ākhuketana see v. 67. In: Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta 'khadyota' vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  90. ^ For a review of different interpretations, and quotation, see: Grimes 1995, p. 86.
  91. ^ A Student's Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification, by Michael Wilcockson, p. 117
  92. ^ Krishan 1999, pp. 49–50
  93. ^ * Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 231
    • Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature", in: Brown 1991, p. 73. For mention of the interpretation that "the rat is 'the animal that finds its way to every place,'"
  94. ^ "Lord of Removal of Obstacles", a common name, appears in the title of Courtright's Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For equivalent Sanskrit names Vighneśvara and Vighnarāja, see: Mate 1962, p. 136
  95. ^ "Ganesha: The Remover of Obstacles". 31 May 2016.
  96. ^ Courtright 1985, p. 136
  97. ^ For Dhavilkar's views on Ganesha's shifting role, see Dhavalikar, M.K. "Gaṇeśa: Myth and reality" in Brown 1991, p. 49
  98. ^ Brown 1991, p. 6
  99. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 5.
  100. ^ Apte 1965, p. 703.
  101. ^ Ganesha Purana I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary.
  102. ^ Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204–206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma reads Buddhipriya, Bailey translates Granter-of-lakhs.
  103. ^ Practical Sanskrit Dictionary By Arthur Anthony McDonell; p. 187 (priya); Published 2004; Motilal Banarsidass Publ; ISBN 8120820002
  104. ^ Krishan 1999, pp. 60–70p. discusses Ganesha as "Buddhi's Husband".
  105. ^ Grimes, p. 77.
  106. ^ Chinmayananda 1987, p. 127, In Chinmayananda's numbering system, this is upamantra 8..
  107. ^ For examples of both, see: Grimes 1995, pp. 79–80
  108. ^ Jump up to:a b Tantra Unveiled: Seducing the Forces of Matter & Spirit By Rajmani Tigunait; Contributor Deborah Willoughby; Published 1999; Himalayan Institute Press; p. 83; ISBN 0893891584
  109. ^ Courtright 1985, p. 253.
  110. ^ Chinmayananda 1987, p. 127, In Chinmayananda's numbering system this is part of upamantra 7. 'You have a permanent abode (in every being) at the place called "Muladhara"'..
  111. ^ This work is reproduced and described in Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 51, which describes it as follows: "This square shaped miniature shows us in a Himalayan landscape the god Śiva sweetly pouring water from his kamaṇḍalu on the head of baby Gaṇeśa. Seated comfortably on the meadow, Pārvatī balances with her left hand the baby Gaņeśa with four arms with a red body and naked, adorned only with jewels, tiny anklets and a golden chain around his stomach, a necklace of pearls, bracelets and armlets."
  112. ^ In:
    • Nagar 1992, pp. 7–14. For a summary of Puranic variants of birth stories.
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 41–82. Chapter 2, "Stories of Birth According to the Purāṇas".
  113. ^ Shiva Purana IV. 17.47–57. Matsya Purana 154.547.
  114. ^ Linga Purana
  115. ^ Varāha Purana 23.18–59.
  116. ^ For summary of Brahmavaivarta Purana, Ganesha Khanda, 10.8–37, see: Nagar 1992, pp. 11–13.
  117. ^ Melton, J. Gordon (13 September 2011). Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. pp. 325–. ISBN 978-1598842050.
  118. ^ For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: Thapan 1997, p. 300.
  119. ^ Khokar & Saraswati 2005 p.4.
  120. ^ Brown 1991, p. 79.
  121. ^ Oka 1913, p. 38.
  122. ^ For a review, see: Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown 1991, pp. 115–140
  123. ^ In:
    • Getty 1936, p. 33. "According to ancient tradition, Gaṇeśa was a Brahmacārin, that is, an unmarried deity; but legend gave him two consorts, personifications of Wisdom (Buddhi) and Success (Siddhi)."
    • Krishan 1999, p. 63. "... in the smārta or orthodox traditional religious beliefs, Gaṇeśa is a bachelor or brahmacārī"
  124. ^ For discussion on celibacy of Ganesha, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, pp. 126–129.
  125. ^ For a review of associations with Buddhi, Siddhi, Riddhi, and other figures, and the statement "In short the spouses of Gaṇeśa are the personifications of his powers, manifesting his functional features...", see: Krishan 1999, p. 62.
  126. ^ For single consort or a nameless daşi (servant), see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, p. 115.
  127. ^ For associations with Śarda and Sarasvati and the identification of those goddesses with one another, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, pp. 131–132.
  128. ^ For associations with Lakshmi see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, pp. 132–135.
  129. ^ For discussion of the Kala Bou, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, pp. 124–125.
  130. ^ For statement regarding sons, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of Gaṇeśa", in: Brown 1991, p. 130.
  131. ^ In:
    • Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of Gaṇeśa". Brown 1991, p. 130.
    • Thapan 1997, p. 15–16, 230, 239, 242, 251.
  132. ^ Krishan 1981–1982, pp. 1–3
  133. ^ K.N. Somayaji, Concept of Ganesha, p. 1 as quoted in Krishan 1999, pp. 2–3
  134. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 38
  135. ^ For worship of Ganesha by "followers of all sects and denominations, Saivites, Vaisnavites, Buddhists, and Jainas" see Krishan 1981–1982, p. 285
  136. ^ Grimes 1995, p. 27
  137. ^ The term modaka applies to all regional varieties of cakes or sweets offered to Ganesha. Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 204.
  138. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 369.
  139. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 95–99
  140. ^ Thapan 1997 p. 215
  141. ^ For the fourth waxing day in Māgha being dedicated to Ganesa (Gaṇeśa-caturthī) see: (Bhattacharyya 1956)., "Festivals and Sacred Days", in: Bhattacharyya, volume IV, p. 483.
  142. ^ The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra; Edited By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, pp. 76–94 ("The Ganesh Festival in Maharashtra: Some Observations" by Paul B. Courtright); 1988; SUNY Press; ISBN 088706664X
  143. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf, p. 150.
  144. ^ In:
  145. ^ In:
    • Momin, A.R., The Legacy of G.S. Ghurye: A Centennial Festschrift, p. 95.
    • Brown 1991, p. 9. For Ganesha's appeal as "the god for Everyman" as a motivation for Tilak.
  146. ^ For Tilak as the first to use large public images in maṇḍapas (pavilions or tents) see: Thapan 1997, p. 225.
  147. ^ For Ganesh Chaturthi as the most popular festival in Maharashtra, see: Thapan 1997, p. 226.
  148. ^ "Gaṇeśa in a Regional Setting". Courtright 1985, p. 202–247.
  149. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 92
  150. ^ Brown 1991, p. 3
  151. ^ Grimes 1995, p. 110–112
  152. ^ Krishna 1985, p. 91–92
  153. ^ T.A. Gopinatha; Elements of Hindu Iconography, p. 47–48 as quoted in Krishan 1999, p. 2
  154. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 147–158
  155. ^ "Ganesha Temples worldwide". Archived from the original on 17 December 2007.
  156. ^ For photograph of statue and details of inscription, see: Dhavalikar, M.K., "Gaņeśa: Myth and Reality", in: Brown 1991, pp. 50, 63.
  157. ^ Dhavalikar, M. K. (1971), "A Note on Two Gaṇeśa Statues from Afghanistan", East and West, 21 (3/4): 331–336, JSTOR 29755703
  158. ^ Sukumar, Raman (11 September 2003). The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour, and Conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-0-19-802673-0.
  159. ^ Cribb, Joe (1982). "The earliest Ganesa-a case of mistaken identity". Numismatic Digest. Bombay. VI: 30–34.
  160. ^ Kumar, Ajit (2007). "A Unique Early Historic Terracotta Ganesa Image from Pal, District Aurangabad, Maharashtra". Kala, the Journal of Indian Art History Congress, Vol XI. (2006–2007): 89–91.
  161. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Brown 1991, pp. 19–21, chapter by AK Narain.
  162. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 4
  163. ^ Jump up to:a b Brown 1991, pp. 50–55, 120.
  164. ^ Raman Sukumar (2003). The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour, and Conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0198026730.
  165. ^ Brown 1991, p. 2.
  166. ^ Brown 1991, p. 8.
  167. ^ Bailey 1995, p. ix.
  168. ^ Courtright 1985 p. 10–11.
  169. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 75.
  170. ^ In:
    • Passim. Thapan 1997.
    • Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown 1991, p. 70–72.
  171. ^ Aitareya Brāhmana, I, 21.
  172. ^ Bhandarkar. Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. p. 147–148.
  173. ^ Krishan 1999, p. vii.
  174. ^ For a discussion of early depiction of elephant-headed figures in art, see Krishan 1981–1982, pp. 287–290 or Krishna 1985, pp. 31–32
  175. ^ Ellawala 1969, p. 159.
  176. ^ Wilson, H. H. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: Maṇḍalas 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. II); ISBN 8171101380 (Set). RV 2.23.1 (2222) gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam | 2.23.1; "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages."
  177. ^ In:
  178. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown 1991, p. 69. Bṛhaspati is a variant name for Brahamanaspati.
  179. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown 1991, p. 69–70.
  180. ^ Wilson, H.H. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume IV: Maṇḍalas 9, 10. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K.L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. IV); ISBN 8171101380 (Set). RV 10.112.9 (10092) ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām; "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".
  181. ^ For use of RV verses in recent Ganapatya literature, see Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature" in Brown 1991, p. 70
  182. ^ Edward Jewitt Robinson (1873). Tamil Wisdom; Traditions Concerning Hindu Sages, and Selections from their writings. London: Wesleyan Conference Office.
  183. ^ The verse : "tát karāţāya vidmahe | hastimukhāya dhîmahi | tán no dántî pracodáyāt||"
  184. ^ The verse: " tát púruṣâya vidmahe vakratuṇḍāya dhîmahi| tán no dántî pracodáyāt||"
  185. ^ For text of Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā 2.9.1 and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka 10.1 and identification by Sāyaṇa in his commentary on the āraṇyaka, see: Rocher, Ludo, "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature" in Brown 1991, p. 70.
  186. ^ Rajarajan, R.K.K. (2001). "Sugarcane Gaṇapati". East and West, Rome. 51 (3/4): 379–84. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016 – via JSTOR.
  187. ^ Taittiriya Aranyaka, X, 1, 5.
  188. ^ Heras 1972, p. 28.
  189. ^ In:
  190. ^
    • Thapan, p. 101. For interpolation into the Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka.
    • Dhavalikar, M.K. "Gaṇeśa: Myth and reality" in Brown 1991, pp. 56–57. For Dhavilkar's views on Ganesha's in early Literature.
  191. ^ Rocher, Ludo "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 71–72.
  192. ^ Mahābhārata Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.
  193. ^ For a statement that "Fifty-nine manuscripts of the Ādiparvan were consulted for the reconstruction of the critical edition. The story of Gaṇeśa acting as the scribe for writing the Mahābhārata occurs in 37 manuscripts", see: Krishan 1999, p. 31, note 4.
  194. ^ Brown, p. 4.
  195. ^ Winternitz, Moriz. "Gaṇeśa in the Mahābhārata". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown 1991, p. 80.
  196. ^ For interpolations of the term vināyaka see: Krishan 1999, p. 29.
  197. ^ For reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām and translation as "Creator of Obstacles", see: Krishan 1999, p. 29.
  198. ^ Brown 1991, p. 183.
  199. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 103.
  200. ^ Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown 1991, p. 73.
  201. ^ * (Courtright 1985, p. 163) For Dating of the pañcāyatana pūjā and its connection with Smārta Brahmins.
    • Bhattacharyya, S., "Indian Hymnology", in: Bhattacharyya 1956, p. 470. Volume VI. For the "five" divinities (pañcādevatā) becoming "the major deities" in general, and their listing as Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Ganesha.
  202. ^      
  203. ^ Thapan 1997, pp. 196–197. Addresses the pañcāyatana in the Smārta tradition and the relationship of the Ganesha Puranaand the Mudgala Purana to it.
  204. ^ For a review of major differences of opinions between scholars on dating, see: Thapan 1997, pp. 30–33.
  205. ^ Preston, Lawrence W., "Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to Gaṇeśa", in: N.K. Wagle, ed., Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India. p. 103.
  206. ^ R.C. Hazra, "The Gaṇeśa Purāṇa", Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute (1951); 79–99.
  207. ^ Phyllis Granoff, "Gaṇeśa as Metaphor", in Brown 1991, pp. 94–95, note 2.
  208. ^ Thapan 1997, pp. 30–33.
  209. ^ Courtright 1985, p. 252.
  210. ^ Bailey 1995, pp. 258–269.
  211. ^ Grimes 1995, pp. 21–22.
  212. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 175.
  213. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 174.
  214. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 170.
  215. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 152.
  216. ^ Getty 1936, p. 55.
  217. ^ Getty 1936, p. 55–66.
  218. ^ Getty 1936, p. 52.
  219. ^ Jump up to:a b Brown 1991, p. 182.
  220. ^ วัฒนะมหาตม์, กิตติ (November 2011). "พระคเณศไม่ใช่เทพศิลปะ รัชกาลที่ 6 ทรงทำให้เป็นเทพศิลปะ" [Ganesh was not the god of art. King Vajiravudh was the one who made him be one.]. ศิลปวัฒนธรรม (Arts and Culture) (in Thai) (November 2011). Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  221. ^ In:
  222. ^ Getty 1936, pp. 37–45.
  223. ^ Getty 1936, p. 37.
  224. ^ Getty 1936, p. 38.
  225. ^ Getty 1936, p. 40.
  226. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 185.
  227. ^ Wayman, Alex (2006). Chanting the Names of Manjushri. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: p. 76. ISBN 8120816536
  228. ^ Ganesha
  229. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 185–186.
  230. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 311.
  231. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 313.
  232. ^ Jump up to:a b Krishan 1999, p. 121.
  233. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 157.
  234. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 151, 158, 162, 164, 253.
  235. ^ Krishna 1985, p. 122.
  236. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 158.

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2021/10/08

의식이라는 꿈 - 뇌에서 의식은 어떻게 만들어지는가 대니얼 데닛 (지은이),문규민 (옮긴이)

알라딘: 의식이라는 꿈

의식이라는 꿈 - 뇌에서 의식은 어떻게 만들어지는가   
대니얼 데닛 (지은이),문규민 (옮긴이)바다출판사2021-06-07
원제 : Sweet Dreams: Philosophical Obstacles to a Science of Consciousness (2004년)

320쪽

책소개

이 시대 가장 독창적인 사상가, 대니얼 데닛은 과학의 최신 성과와 진화적 관점을 중시하는 대표적 철학자다. 철학자의 역할은 좋은 질문을 던지는 데 있다고 강조하는 그는 심리철학, 인지과학, 생물철학의 선구자로서 마음·종교·인공지능 연구에 심대한 영향을 끼쳤다. 인공지능 분야를 개척한 과학자, 마빈 민스키는 대니얼 데닛을 두고 ‘버트런드 러셀 이후 가장 위대한 철학자’ ‘지구를 대표해 외계인과 지적 대결을 펼칠 사상가’라고 평하기도 했다.

여든을 바라보는 노학자, 데닛은 하버드 대학교 철학과를 졸업한 뒤 옥스퍼드 대학교에서 철학 박사 학위를 받았고 2012년, 40여 년 학문적 공적을 인정받아 네덜란드의 에라스무스상을 수상했다. 현재 미국의 터프츠 대학교에서 가장 저명한 교수직인 유니버시티 프로페서쉽과 인지 연구 센터의 소장을 맡고 있다. 데닛은 리처드 도킨스의 밈 이론을 자신의 지향계 이론에 결합하여 의식·종교·인공지능에 흥미로운 철학 이론을 발전시켜 왔는데 그중에서도 마음을 과학적으로 바라보는 이해의 지평을 넓히는 데 혁혁한 공을 세웠다. 데닛이 반세기 동안 골몰해 온 지적 난제 중 하나는 ‘축축한 뇌에서 어떻게 의식이 나오는가’이다. 이와 관련하여 데닛은 의식을 과학(3인칭 접근)이 접근할 수 있는가? 라는 골자의 질문을 던지며 의식 이론을 정립했는데 이를 《의식의 수수께끼를 풀다》(1991)라는 책에서 한 차례 총정리한 바 있다.

이후 데닛은 꾸준한 대중 강연을 통해 자신의 생각을 보완하며 10여 년을 보냈는데 미국에서는 그사이 ‘뇌의 10년’이라는 기치로 뇌과학을 부흥시키려는 정책적 움직임과 새로운 과학적 성취도 있었다. 이 책 《의식이라는 꿈》은 그 시간 속에서 새롭게 의식 이론을 보완하며 집대성한 데닛의 집념이 담긴 결과물이다. 프랑스 장 니코드 연구소 강연 등에서 행한 강연록이 기본 바탕이 되었다. 의식과학은 우리에게 조금 낯선 분야다. 인류에게 의식이 생긴 것은 진화의 역사에서 비교적 최근의 사건인데 이 분야의 최전선에서 다뤄지는 쟁점들을 알고 싶다면 이 책을 반드시 거쳐야 한다.

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주요 용어

1장 좀비감: 직관의 소멸?
자연주의적 전회│반동분자들│좀비의 당혹스러움│넓은 기능주의와 최소주의│환상의 미래

2장 의식에 대한 삼인칭 접근
화성에서 온 과학자│통속 이론과 철학│타자현상학 다시 보기│타자현상학과 데이비드 차머스│이인칭 관점

3장 의식이라는 ‘마술’ 설명하기
마술을 설명한다는 보답 없는 과제│관객 해체하기│소리 나는 카드│

4장 감각질이 우리 삶을 살 만하게 해 주는가?
감각질, 잡기 어려운 용의자│변화맹과 감각질의 문제│클라프그라스 씨의 달콤한 꿈과 악몽

5장 로보메리가 아는 것
메리와 파란 바나나│‘확실히’ 그는 놀랄 거야│당신은 그래 봤어야 해!│로보메리│감금된 로보메리

6장 우리는 지금 의식을 설명하고 있는가?더보기

책속에서
첫문장
사울 스타인버그는 일러스트(26쪽 QR코드 참조-편집자주)는 의식의 문제를 보여 주는 한 가지 좋은 방식을 구현한다.
P. 109 많은 이들에게 의식은 하나의 신비, 상상할 수 있는 최고로 놀라운 마술쇼, 설명을 불허하는 특수 효과들의 끝없는 연속으로 보인다. 나는 그들이 심하게 착각하고 있다고 생각한다. 의식은 비록 그 작동에서 있어서는 절묘하게 독창적이지만, 기적적이거나 심지어 궁극적으로는 신비스럽지조차 않은 (신진대사나 생식, 자가 수리와 같은) 물리적... 더보기
P. 61 의식은 과학을 넘어선 신비로서 자주 상찬받는다. 그것이 우리 각자의 안으로부터 제아무리 내밀하게 알려지건, 밖에서는 꿰뚫어 볼 수 없는 것으로 여겨지는 것이다. 나는 이러한 전통이 그저 단순한 실수가 아니라고 생각한다. 다른 자연 현상(신진 대사·생식·대륙 이동·빛·중력 등)을 심층적으로 그리고 완전하게 설명할 수 있는 꼭 그만큼... 더보기
물론 아직도 많은 이들에게는 타자현상학이 뭔가를 빠뜨리는 것처럼 보일 것이다. 그게 바로 좀비감이다. 타자현상학은 이에 어떻게 대응할 수 있을까? 매우 직접적으로 대응할 수 있다. 좀비감을 그 어떤 좋은 의식 이론이라도 반드시 설명해야 하는 진심 어린 확신들 중 하나로 포함시킴으로써 그럴 수 있는 것이다. 의식 이론이 책임지고 설... 더보기
P. 232 기본적인 생각은 의식은 텔레비전보다는 명성fame에 더 가깝다는 것이다. 그것은 내용을 담지하는 사건들이 의식적이게 되기 위해 그것으로 변환되어야 할 뇌 안의 특수한 ‘표상의 매체’가 아니다. 캔위셔가 적절하게 강조하듯이 “주어진 지각적 특성에 대한 자각a 신경 상관물은 그 특성을 지각적으로 분석하는 바로 그 신경 구조 속에서 발... 더보기
P. 258 간단히 말해?그리고 지금 우리는 너무나 많은 오해를 야기한 도발적인 판본에 이르렀는데?원칙적으로 당신은 당신의 축축한, 유기적인 뇌를 한 묶음의 실리콘 칩과 전선으로 대체하고도 별문제 없이 생각을 (또한 의식을 가지는 일과 그 외 기타 등등을) 할 수 있을 것이다. 이러한 과감한 전망, 즉 계산주의 또는 ‘강한 인공지능’은, 두 ... 더보기
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추천글
이 책을 추천한 다른 분들 : 
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 - 한국일보 2021년 6월 11일자 '새책'
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저자 및 역자소개
대니얼 데닛 (Daniel C. Dennett) (지은이) 
저자파일
 
신간알리미 신청
과학의 최신 성과와 진화적 관점을 중시하는 철학자. 이 시대 가장 독창적인 사상가로 정평이 난 그는 심리철학, 인지과학, 생물철학의 선구자로서 마음·종교·인공지능 연구에 심대한 영향을 끼쳤다. 마빈 민스키는 그를 ‘버트런드 러셀 이후 가장 위대한 철학자’라고 평하기도 했다. 1942년 미국 보스턴에서 태어났으며 하버드 대학교 철학과를 졸업했고 옥스퍼드 대학교에서 철학 박사 학위를 받았다. 2012년, 학문적 공헌을 인정받아 네덜란드의 에라스무스상을 수상했으며 현재 터프츠 대학교에서 가장 저명한 교수직인 유니버시티 프로페서쉽을 보유하고 있으며 같은 대학교의 오스틴 B. 플래처 철학 교수와 인지 연구 센터의 소장을 맡고 있다.
데닛은 리처드 도킨스의 밈 이론을 자신의 지향계 이론에 결합하여 의식·종교·인공지능 등에 흥미로운 철학 이론을 발전시켜 왔다. 실제로 지난 40여 년 동안 《다윈의 위험한 생각》 《마음의 진화》 《마음의 설계》 《내용과 의식》 《지향적 자세》 등의 저술 활동을 통해 마음을 과학적으로 바라보는 이해의 지평을 넓혀 왔다. 그 밖의 저서로는 《의식의 수수께끼를 풀다》 《신 없음의 과학》(공저) 《자유의 진화》 《주문을 깨다》 《직관펌프, 생각을 열다》 가 있다.
데닛은 강단의 학자라는 관성에서 비껴가는 고유의 표현법을 고수한다. 직관펌프라고 불리는 사고 실험으로 통념에 빠진 철학자들의 오류를 직관적으로 포착하는 것이다. 여기에는 치밀하고 정교하게 짜여진 논증과 다양한 관찰에 기반한 예증이 있다.
또한 그는 철학자를 가리켜 답을 주기보다는 질문을 던지는 데 더 재주가 많은 사람이라고 말한다. 모든 물음에 답하려는 욕망을 누르고, 열린 마음과 좋은 질문으로 낡은 관행과 전통을 깨뜨리는 철학자라면 ‘나와 세계’를 이해하는 인간의 장대한 구상에 기여할 수 있다고 역설한다. 접기
최근작 : <의식이라는 꿈>,<신 없음의 과학>,<직관펌프, 생각을 열다> … 총 97종 (모두보기)
문규민 (옮긴이) 
저자파일
 
신간알리미 신청
중앙 대학교 인문콘텐츠연구소 HK 연구교수. 경희 대학교에서 동양철학을 전공하고 같은 대학교에서 인도불교학으로 석사 학위를, 서울 대학교 철학과에서 의식에 대한 연구로 박사 학위를 받았다. 고려 대학교와 서울시립 대학교 등에서 강의하고 연구했다. 주로 분석철학 계통의 형이상학, 과학철학, 심리철학, 인식론의 주요 문제들을 연구한다. 전문 분야는 의식과학과 형이상학이며 주요 논문으로는 “Making Sense of Consciousness as Integrated Information”(2019), “Exclusion and Underdetermined Qualia”(2019) 등이 있다. 의식과학을 연구하는 국내 유일의 연구 모임을 운영 중이며 최근에는 현대 인류학과 존재론의 새로운 흐름들, 임상심리학과 정신의학 등으로 연구 영역을 넓혀 가고 있다. 제대로 된 문제라면 반드시 답이 있다고 믿는다.
접기
최근작 :
출판사 소개
바다출판사 
도서 모두보기
  
신간알리미 신청

최근작 : <뉴필로소퍼 2021 16호>,<과학하는 마음>,<노화에 도전하는 과학>등 총 361종
대표분야 : 정리/심플라이프 2위 (브랜드 지수 56,405점), 과학 6위 (브랜드 지수 302,774점), 음악이야기 15위 (브랜드 지수 6,095점) 
출판사 제공 책소개


무수한 세포들 사이에
의식 주체의 자리는 있는가
우리의 신체는 수조 개의 세포로 만들어져 있고, 각각의 세포에는 마음이 없다. 빵 반죽을 부풀게 하는 효모 또한 생명이지만 의식적이거나 자각적이진 않다. 내 몸속 세포 중 어느 것도 내가 누구인지, 내가 무엇을 신경 쓰는지 알지 못한다. 의식적 주체를 설명하려 한다면 이처럼 아무것도 모르는 세포들로부터 뭔가를 아는 세포 조직들로의 이행이 이루어져야만 한다.(244쪽) 이를 두고 하나의 의식적 자아, 하나의 마음이라는 총본부로 기능하는 체계나 영혼과 같이 마법적인 부가 요소가 개입한다는 관념이 한때 의식에 관한 가장 우세한 표상이었다.(29쪽) 하지만 이제 이러한 이원론은 거짓이라는 광범위한 합의가 있다. 우리 각자는 물리적인, ‘마음이 없는 로봇’으로 만들어졌을 뿐 결코 어떤 다른 비물리적인 요소로 만들어지지 않았다.
흔히 생각하는 주체를 묘사할 때 뇌 안에 누군가가 있어야 할 자리를 생각한다. 이를 데카르트적 극장이라고 한다. 의식을 영화를 감상하듯 객석에 앉아 뇌 속에서 일어나는 모든 일을 관찰하는 존재라고 보는 관점인 것이다. 이는 정신과 물질을 구분하는 이원론을 전제한 개념인데 정신과 내적 자아가 자리하는 공간이 어딘가에 있다고 주장한다. 하지만 데닛은 우리의 뇌에 그러한 공간이 따로 없다고 지적한다. 뇌 안의 더 작은 행위자, 생물학적인 요소의 역할을 무시하게 되기 때문이다. 이 지점에서 데닛은 의식의 다중 원고 모델이라는 자신의 이론을 전개한다. 의식이 발생하는 자리 따위는 없다. 다만 뇌의 모든 정신 활동은 감각 입력이 각각 독립적으로 처리되고, 연속적으로 편집되고 수정, 해석된 결과물이다. “뇌 안의 정치적 대박을 위한 ‘정보들’ 사이의 치열한 경쟁이 있겠지만(242쪽) 우리가 자연스럽게 전제하는 1인칭 주체는 그 경쟁의 다양한 후속 효과들 속에 이미 통합된 결과일 뿐이며 단일하고 고정 불변한 존재가 아니다. 데닛은 이 의식의 변화무쌍한 움직임을 3인칭적 관점에서 보아야 한다고 역설한다. 이것이 타자현상학이다. 의식의 주관성을 극복하기 위해 만든 사고 장치인 것이다.

데닛의 의식 이론
우리가 생각한 ‘그런 의식’은 없다
영미권에서는 1970년대부터 물리적으로 형언하기 힘든, 의식의 사적이고 주관적인 측면들에 대해 활발하게 논의해 왔다. 데닛은 이를 반박하며 아무도 들여다볼 수 없는 ‘속마음’으로 의식을 바라보는 것은 지구중심설과 다를 바 없는 틀린 직관이라고 지적했다.(186쪽) 데닛의 의식 이론은 크게 부정적·비판적 단계와 긍정적·설명적 단계로 나누어진다.(5쪽) 부정적·비판적 단계에서는 일부 철학자와 과학자 들이 관심을 가지고 있는 감각질, 현상적 속성, 현상적 의식, 주관성과 같은 것들을 ‘해체’한다. 감각질(퀄리아)의 어원은 질quality을 의미하는 라틴어의 복수형이다. 의식에 대한 가장 흔한 직관으로 정신 상태의 질적인 내용을 의미하며 의식을 다른 모든 심리 상태들과 명확히 구분된다고 본다. 데닛은 감각질은 없다고 단언한다. 현대 철학자들이 감각질을 전제하고 의식의 주관성을 강조하는 것이 현대의 뇌과학적 성과를 무시한 채 여전히 데카르트적 시각에 갇혀 있다고 보는 것이다. 긍정적·설명적 단계에서는 뇌가 의식을 어떻게 만들어내는지에 대한 이론적 모델을 제안한다. 최근 의식에 대한 철학적 논쟁에서 주목받는 범심론과 환영론 중에서 환영론의 원천 발상은 전부 데닛에게서 나왔다고 해도 과언이 아니다. 이는 뇌가 의식을 어떻게 만들어내는지에 대한 데닛 고유의 이론적 모델을 뼈대로 한다. 이후 데닛은 다중 원고 모델을 더욱 발전시키고 세련되게 다듬은 개념들을 ‘뇌 안의 명성’, ‘두뇌의 유명인’ 등으로 이름 붙였었는데 이 책에서는 ‘환상의 메아리 이론’이라는 이름으로 불리고 있다.
환상의 메아리 이론은 스타니슬라스 드엔의 광역 뉴런 작업 공간 이론을 뼈대로 삼아 데닛이 보충적 설명을 덧붙였다. 그 핵심은 뇌 안에서 매 순간마다 정보들, 표상들, 신호들 사이에서 선거 또는 오디션과 같은 경쟁과 선발 과정이 일어난다는 것이다. 말하자면 의식적 뇌는 최정상의 자리를 두고 온갖 정보, 표상, 신호들이 서로 정치적인 경쟁을 벌이고 있는 아수라장이다. 단일한 자아가 총본부로서 기능하는, 그런 의식은 없다.

좀비감, 색 과학자 메리 …
기존의 통념을 부수는 데닛식 직관펌프
《의식이라는 꿈》에서 대니얼 데닛은 데이비드 차머스가 주창한 의식의 ‘어려운 문제’를 반박한다. 이는 데이비드 차머스를 일약 철학계의 락스타로 만든 구분법으로서 어떤 대상을 설명하는 표준 패러다임으로 마음, 특히 마음의 의식적인 측면을 설명하기 어렵다는 문제를 제기한다. 몸속의 신경 과정이 어떻게 주관적 경험을 불러일으키는지, 인간의 내적 경험을 직접 다룰 수 없는지에 대한 질문인 것이다. 차머스는 쉬운 문제와는 달리 어려운 문제는 원칙적으로 해결이 어렵다고 보는데, 데닛은 아예 그런 문제 자체가 성립하지 않는다고 주장한다. 의식을 물리적 관점으로 설명될 수 없는, 주관적 느낌이라고 보는 것은 환영이라는 것이다.
데닛은 이 외에도 기존의 사고 실험에서 의식과학을 가로막는 철학적 장애물들을 지적해낸다. 그중 하나가 좀비감이다. 좀비감은 의식적 인간과 완전한 좀비 사이에 실제적인 차이가 있다는 확신 및 직관을 일컫는데 데닛은 이를 천동설과 같은 직관이라고 비판한다.(1장) 나아가 색 과학자 메리 사고 실험을 비판한다. 색 과학자 메리는 1982년에 첫선을 보인 프랭크 잭슨의 사고 실험이다. 메리는 흑백의 방에서 흑백 텔레비전을 보며 세상을 보는 과학자다. 토마토의 빨강색이나 다른 색깔 용어를 사용할 때 일어나는 물리적 정보를 알고 있다. 이를테면 빨강색을 볼 때의 망막 자극이나 성대 및 폐의 변화를 알고 있는 것이다. 그런 그녀가 흑백방에서 풀려나 컬러 텔레비전 모니터를 얻으면 어떤 일이 벌어질지, 의문을 던지며 ‘물리주의는 거짓’이라는 결론에 다다른다.
이 사고 실험은 좋은 사고 실험일까? 데닛은 이를 반박하기 위해 더글러스 호프스태터의 오래된 충고를 끌어온다.(180쪽) 철학자들이 사고 실험을 다룰 때, 과학자들이 자신의 관심 대상을 다루는 방식으로 다뤄야 한다는 것이다. 그는 그것을 변형시키고, 뒤집고, 모든 각도에서 검토하며, 다른 모든 설정과 조건에서 당신이 인과의 환상에 사로잡히지 않았음을 반드시 확인하라는 의미다. 데닛은 메리에 대한 사고 실험을 다음과 같이 반박한다.
메리를 흑백방에 억류한 사람이 색을 보여주기로 마음 먹으며 ‘파란 바나나’를 보여주는 것이다. 하지만 메리는 그것을 보자마자 ‘파란 바나나’라는 것을 알아챈다. “색 지각의 물리적 원인들과 효과들”을 숙지하고 있기 때문이다. 하지만 물리주의를 부정하는 사고 실험은 보통 이런 상황까지 가정하지 않은 채 쉽게 결론을 내려 버린다. 색 과학에 대한 방대한 지식을 가진 가상 인물에 대한 상상력 부재다. ‘무엇을 본다’는 것이 물리적으로 신경계에 끼치는 세세한 영향에 대해 과소평가하기 때문에, 기존 철학적 전통에만 기댄 통념적 사고 실험은 논리적 비약으로 귀결될 수밖에 없다.
인류에게 의식이 생긴 것은 진화의 역사에서 비교적 최근의 사건이며 생물학적인 현상이다. (33쪽) 지구상 모든 생명체에게 면역, 시각 등의 체계를 선사한 진화적 산물이지만 단순히 마음이 여타 생물학적 현상들과 달라 보인다는 이유 하나만으로 정상적인 생명과학이 기계론적으로 해석할 자리를 내주지 않고 있다. 의식과학은 명실상부 정상과학이 되어 가고 있다. 데닛은 그 기초가 될 수 없는 불량 직관들을 폐기하며 통념과 관성을 부수는 것이 참다운 앎에 기여하는 철학자의 역할이라고 강조한다. 접기
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