2022/07/21

바이셰시카 학파 - 위키백과, Vaiśeṣika Vaisheshika ヴァイシェーシカ学派

바이셰시카 학파 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전

바이셰시카 학파

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.

바이셰시카 학파(산스크리트어Vaiśeṣika팔리어Visesikā영어Vaisheshika)는 힌두교의 정통 육파철학 중의 하나로, 승론(勝論)으로 한역(漢譯)되어 승론 학파(勝論學派)라고도 불린다. 전통에 따르면, 바이셰시카 학파는 기원전 1세기경에 카나다(Kanada: 우르카 또는 카나브주라고도 한다)에 의해 성립되었다고 한다. 그러나 창시자 카나다의 이름으로 전해지는 《바이셰시카 수트라》는 이보다 후대에 성립된 것으로 여겨지고 있다.[1]

바이셰시카 학파는 

  1. 실체[實, dravya, substance] · 
  2. 성질[德, guṇa, quality] · 
  3. 운동[業, karma, activity] · 
  4. 보편[同, sāmānya, generality] · 
  5. 특수[異, viśeṣa, particularity] · 
  6. 결합[和合, samavāya, inherence]의 

여섯 가지의 원리 또는 범주[六句義]를 세워서 현상계, 즉 우주의 여러 사물의 구성을 밝힌다. 그리고 이들 여섯 원리 중 첫 번째 원리인 실체에는 

  1.  · 
  2.  · 
  3.  · 
  4. 공기 · 
  5. 아카사 · 
  6. 시간 · 
  7. 공간 · 
  8. 아트만 · 
  9. 마나스의 

아홉 가지가 있다고 말한다.[2]

명칭[편집]

학파의 명칭인 바이셰시카(Vaiśeṣika)는 특수 또는 구별을 뜻하는 비셰사(viśeṣa)라는 낱말에서 유래한 것으로, 이 학파가 세계 즉 현상계를 실체[實, dravya, substance] · 성질[德, guṇa, quality] · 운동[業, karma, activity] · 보편[同, sāmānya, generality] · 특수[異, viśeṣa, particularity] · 결합[和合, samavāya, inherence]의 여섯 가지의 원리 또는 범주[六句義]로 구별하여 설명하기 때문에 생긴 명칭이다. 그러나 중국에서는 바이셰시카(Vaiśeṣika)라는 말을 수승(殊勝) 즉 '뛰어나다'는 뜻으로 이해하였고 이에 따라 승론(勝論)이라 불리고 있다.[3]

개요[편집]

바이셰시카 학파의 교의 또는 철학은 자이나교의 영향을 받아 실재론적인 경향이 강하며 브라만교의 신학적 요소보다도 자연철학적인 색채가 짙다.[1] 모든 사물을 실체와 속성으로 나누고 이를 실체 · 성질 · 운동 · 보편 · 특수 · 결합의 6개 원리 또는 범주(範疇: 句義)로 설명하였다.[1]

실체로는 자연 · 생물 등 우주의 만물을 구성하는 요소인  ·  ·  · 공기 · 아카사( · 허공 · 에테르· 시간 · 공간 · 아트만(我) · 마나스(意)의 아홉 가지가 있다.[1]  ·  ·  · 공기는 인(因) 상태로는 원체(元體: 으뜸이 되어 더 이상 나눌 수 없는)의 미진(微塵: 미세 입자)으로서 불변이며 에는 향기에는 에는 색깔공기에는 촉감이 본래의 성질로서 화합 또는 결합한다.[1] 이것들은 극히 미세하여 감각할 수 없다. 감각의 대상이 되는 것은 그것들이 복합해서 된 결과일 따름이다.[1]

 ·  ·  · 공기의 4원소의 극미체(極微體)는 우주가 창조되기 이전에는 화합 또는 결합이 없었고 또한 아트만과 극미체의 화합 또는 결합도 없었다.[1] 그러나, 아트만에는 선업(善業)과 악업(惡業)이 잠재해 있으며 이것이 불가견력(不可見力)으로서 작용하게 되면 우주의 창조가 개시된다.[1] 그러나 창조된 세계는 일정한 기간을 지속하면 아트만의 불가견력에 의해서 4원소가 차례로 분리되어 다시금 극미체로 해체 · 분산하게 된다고 우주의 발생 · 지속 · 소멸을 설명하였다.[1]

이와 같이 우주와 인생을 설명함에 있어 물질 · 정신의 2원적 대립으로써가 아니고 또한 브라만을 유일절대로 하는 1원관(一元觀)도 아닌 다원적(多元的)인 관점에서 원소(즉, 실체· 속성(즉, 성질 · 운동 · 보편 · 특수· 관계(즉, 결합)의 측면으로 설명하였다.[1]

용어[편집]

바이셰시카 학파의 교의 또는 철학에서 주로 사용되는 용어들의 산스크리트어와 한글 번역어들 및 영어 번역어들은 다음과 같다.[1][2][4][5][6][7] 아래의 여섯 가지 원리 · 아홉 가지 실체 등보다 더 많은 원리 또는 실체가 있을 수 있지만, 이들 여섯 가지와 아홉 가지로 구분한 것은 바이셰시카 학파에서는 이들이 윤회를 벗어나 "영혼의 자유"(모크샤 · 해탈)에 이르기 위한 구도의 과정에서 반드시 깨우쳐야 할 필요가 있는 것들이라고 보기 때문이다. 특히 아홉 가지 실체는 실제적인 요가 수행을 통해 깨우쳐야(앎 · knowledge) 하는 것들("실체들")로, 수행 계위와 관련이 깊다. 바이셰시카 학파의 여섯 가지 원리 · 아홉 가지 실체에 대한 교의 또는 철학은 수행을 통해 실제로 깨우쳐야 하는 것들이 무엇인지를 명확히 말해준다는 점에서 의의가 있다.

여섯 가지 원리[편집]

  • 여섯 가지 원리: 빠다-아르타스 (Padārthas) · 여섯 가지 범주 · 육구의(六句義) · 6가지 카테고리 · Six Categories · Six Predicables
  • 원리(原理): 빠다-아르타(Padārtha) · 범주(範疇) · 구의(句義) · Category · Predicable
    여섯 가지의 원리 또는 범주가 있다. 산스크리트어 파다르타(Padārtha)의 문자 그대로의 뜻은 "낱말의 의미(meaning of a word)"로 "구의(句義: 문자 그대로는 '낱말의 의미')"라는 한역은 이러한 문자 그대로의 뜻을 쫓아서 번역된 것이다. 바이셰시카 학파에서는 인식할 수 있는 것에는 이름(낱말)을 붙일 수 있다고 본다. 따라서 "낱말의 의미"라는 말은 "인식할 수 있는 것들을 그 유형(의미)에 따라 나눈 것(범주화한 것)"을 뜻한다. 영어 낱말 "프레디커블(Predicable)"의 사전적인 의미는 "주장할 수 있는(can be asserted)" 또는 "서술할 수 있는(can be predicated)"이다.
  1. 실체(實體): 드라브야(Dravya) · (實) · Substance · Eternal Reality
  2. 성질(性質): 구나(Guṇa) · (德) · Quality · Attribute
  3. 운동(運動): 카르마(Karma) · (業) · (行) · Activity · Action
  4. 보편(普遍): 싸만야(Sāmānya) · (同) · Generality · Genus
  5. 특수(特殊): 비세사(Viśeṣa) · (異) · Particularity · Species
  6. 내속(內屬): 사마바야(Samavāya) · 화합(和合) · Inherence

아홉 가지 실체[편집]

고대 원소

바빌로니아

공기 
에테르
 

그리스

 공기 
에테르
  

타트바 (인도 철학)

 바유 (바람) 
아파스 (물)아카샤 (허공)테자스 (불)
 프리티비(흙) 

오행 (동양 철학)

  (木) 
 (水)  (火)
 (金) (土)

오대 (일본)

 공기 (風) 
 (水)무극 (空) (火)
  (地) 

오대 (티베트 · 본)

 공기 
에테르
  

중세 연금술

 공기 
아조트
 
수은소금

v • d • e • h

  1. (地): 프르트비(Pṛthvī) · 프르티비(Pṛthivī) · (地) ·  · Earth
  2. (水): 아프(Ap) · (水) · Water
  3. (火): 테자스(Tejas) · 아그니(Agni) · (火) · Fire
  4. 공기(空氣): 바유(Vāyu) · (風) · 바람 · Air
  5. 아카사(空): 아카사(Ākāśa) · (空) · 하늘 · 허공(虛空) · 에테르 · Akasha · Ether · Aether · Æther
  6. 시간(時間): 칼라(Kāla) ·  · Time
  7. 공간(空間): 디크(Dik) · 방위(方位) · Space
  8. 아트만(自我): 아트만(Ātman) · (我) · 영혼(靈魂) · 자아(自我) · Self · Soul
    참고로, 불교에서는 아트만을 (我)라고 한역한다.
  9. 마나스(意): 마나스(Manas) · (意) · 마음 · (心) · Mind
    참고로, 불교의 유가유식파에서는 마나스(Manas)를 (意) 또는 말나식(末那識)이라고 한역하며, (心)은 제8아뢰야식의 다른 이름 중 하나이다. 윤회의 주체이며 선업(善業)과 악업(惡業)의 업력을 함장하고 있다는 면에서, 바이셰시카 학파의 아트만은 유가유식파의 제8아뢰야식, 즉 (心)과 유사하다. 그러나, 그 구체적인 내용은 상이하다.

원소·극미체·원자[편집]

같이 보기[편집]

참고 문헌[편집]

  • Heckert GNU white.svgCc.logo.circle.svg 이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 내용을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다.
  • 김사업 (1989). 《제칠말나식의 성립과 그 체성 연구》. 동국대학원 불교학과 석사학위논문.
  • (영어) Bernard, Theos (1947).《Hindu Philosophy》. Philosophical Library, New York.
  • Chattopadhyaya, D. (1986). 《Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction》 (영어). People’s Publishing House, New Delhi. ISBN 81-7007-023-6.
  • Radhakrishnan, S. (2006). 《Indian Philosophy, Vol. II》 (영어). Oxford University Press, New Delhi. ISBN 0-19-563820-4.

각주[편집]

  1. ↑ 이동:           종교·철학 > 세계의 종교 > 힌 두 교 > 힌두교 > 힌두교 전사(前史) > 바이셰시카 학파, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전
    "바이셰시카 학파: Vaisheshika學派 승론(勝論)으로 한역(漢譯)된다. 기원전 1세기경에 성립되었다고 하나 창시자 카나다(우르카 또는 카나브주라고도 한다)의 이름으로 전해지는 <뱌이셰시카 수트라>는 약간 후대의 것으로 생각된다. 자이나교의 영향을 받아 실재론적인 경향이 강하며 바라문교의 신학적 요소보다도 자연철학적인 색채가 짙다. 모든 사물을 실재와 속성으로 나누고 이를 실(實)·덕(德)·업(業)·동(同)·이(異)·화합(和合)의 6개 범주(範疇:句義)로 설명하였다. 실체는 실구의(實句義)로서 대표되며 또한 자연·생물의 두 세계를 구성하는 요소인 땅·물·불·바람·하늘·때·방향·아(我)·의(意)로 나뉜다. 땅·물·불·바람은 인(因) 상태로는 원체(圓體)의 미진(微震)으로서 불변이며 땅에는 향기, 물에는 맛, 불에는 색깔, 바람에는 촉감이 본래의 덕으로서 화합한다. 이것들은 극히 미세하여 감각할 수 없다. 감각의 대상이 되는 것은 그것들이 복합해서 된 결과일 따름이다. 땅·물·불·바람의 4원소의 극미체(極微體)는 우주가 창조되기 이전에는 결합이 없었고 또한 아트만과 극미체의 결합도 없었다. 그러나, 아트만에는 선업(善業)과 악업(惡業)이 잠재해 있으며 이것이 불가견력(不可見力)으로서 작용하게 되면 우주의 창조가 개시된다. 그러나 창조된 세계는 일정한 기간을 지속하면 아트만의 불가견력에 의해서 4원소가 차례로 분리되어 다시금 극미체로 해체, 분산하게 된다고 우주의 발생·지속·소멸을 설명하였다. 이와 같이 우주와 인생을 설명함에 있어 물질·정신의 2원적 대립으로써가 아니고 또한 브라만을 유일절대로 하는 1원관(一元觀)도 아닌 다원적(多元的) 면에서 원소·속성·관계의 측면으로 설명하였다."
  2. ↑ 이동:  동양사상 > 동양의 사상 > 인도의 사상 > 정통바라문 계통의 철학체계 > 바이셰시카 학파, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전
    "바이셰시카 학파: Vasesika 學派 바이셰시카 학파의 개조(開祖)는 카나다(별명 울루카, 전 150 ? ∼전 50 ?)라고 하는 사람이다. 기원 50∼150년경에 이 학파의 근본 경전인 <바이셰시카 슈트라>가 편찬되었다. 바이셰시카 학파의 한역(漢譯)으로서는 <승론(勝論)>·<위세사(衛世師)>·<폐세사가(吠世史迦)> 등이라 쓴다. 이 학파는 우리들의 지식을 성립시키는 근거로서는 직접 지각(直接知覺, 現量)과 추론(推論, 比量)만을 인정한다. 여러 철학파가 일반적으로 성전의 권위를 인정하고 있는 데 대하여, 이 학파는 성전에서 얻는 지식을 추론에 의하여 얻어지는 지식의 일종에 불과한 것이라고 하여 독립된 지식근거로는 인정하지 않는다. 또 어상주론(語常住論)을 배척한다. 일반적으로 언어와 의미와의 결합관계는 편의적·습관적이어서 선천적 혹은 항구적인 것은 아니라고 한다. 여하한 지식도 전부 경험으로부터 생겨난 것이라고 주장한다. 이 학파는 실체·성질·운동·보편·특수·내속(內屬:實·德·業·同·異·和合)이라고 하는 여섯 가지의 원리(原理:句義)를 세워서 현상계의 여러 사물의 구성을 밝힌다. 실체로는 지(地)·수(水)·화(火)·풍(風)의 4원소(元素=四大)와 허공(虛空)과 시간과 방위(方位)와 아트만(我)과 의(意)라는 아홉을 내세우고 있다. 이 4원소에는 각각 성질이 다른 무수한 원자(原子)가 있다. 원자는 단순미세한 것으로 구체(球體)를 이루고 있어 불멸이다. 성질로서는 색(色)·향(香)·미(味)·가촉성(加觸性, 觸)·수(數)·양(量)·별이성(別異性, 別體)·결합(結合, 合)·분리(分離, 離)·저쪽(彼體)·이쪽(比體)·지각작용(知覺作用,覺)·쾌감(快感,樂)·불쾌감(不快感, 苦)·욕구(欲求, 欲)·혐오(嫌惡, 瞋)·의지적 노력(意志的 努力, 勸勇)이라는 17가지를 인정한다. 운동으로서는 상승·하강·수축·신장·진행의 다섯 가지를 인정한다. 보편과 특수와는 서로 대립하는 것이다. 최상의 보편은 유성(有性)인 것이요, 이에 반하여 극한에 있어서의 특수(特殊)는 원자(原子)속에 있어 보편을 포함하지 않는다. 유성(有性)과 극한(極限), 특수와 중간에 있어서 표준을 세우는 방법에 따라서 동일물(同一物)이 보편으로도 되며, 또한 특수로도 된다. 그런데 성질과 운동, 보편과 특수는 본래 불상리(不相離)인 것으로서 실체에 내속(內屬)한다. 따라서 이 내속이라고 하는 관계를 독립된 원리로 간주한다. 이것은 보편도 아니며 특수도 아니다. 이 학파에 의하면 <베다 성전>은 일단 가치가 있는 것이지만, 베다의 내용을 쫓아서 행동할 것 같으면 다만 과보(果報)로서 생천(生天)을 가져오게 할 뿐이고 윤회(輪廻)의 범위를 벗어날 수가 없다. 해탈하기 위해서는 바이셰시카의 6원리의 연구와 실수(實修)를 행하지 않으면 안 된다. 아트만이 암매(暗昧)해진 것은 뜻(意)이 작용하고 있기 때문이므로 뜻을 제어하는 요가의 수행(修行)을 중심으로 하였다. 요가에 의해 전생(前生)으로부터의 여력 즉, 불가견력(不可見力)을 소멸시키면 해탈이 실현된다. 그 경지에 있어서는 아트만은 아무 활동도 하지 않는 순수한 실체로서 존재한다. 후에 바이셰시카 학파에서는 혜월(慧月 550 ?∼650 ?)이 <승종10구의론(勝宗十句義論)>(玄裝譯)을 저작하였다. 10구의(十句義)란 6구의(六句義) 외에 보편이면서도 특수한 것(俱分), 가능력(可能力:有能), 무능력(無能力:無能), 무(無:無說)을 말한다. 그는 보편을 유성(有性)에만 한정시키고 특수를 극한에 있어서의 특수에만 한정하였기 때문에 그 중간자(中間子)를 별도로 세운 것이다. 가능력(可能力)은 실체·성질·운동이 그 결과를 생기게 하는 능력이요, 무능력은 그것이 없는 것이다. 또 우주를 지배하는 주재신의 존재를 승인하게 되었다."
  3.  김사업 1989, 37쪽.
  4.  Radhakrishnan 2006, 183–86쪽
  5.  Chattopadhyaya 1986, 169쪽
  6.  Bernard 1947, 46-47쪽
  7.  "구실(九實)"[깨진 링크(과거 내용 찾기)], 《네이버 백과사전》. 2011년 4월 23일에 확인.


===

ヴァイシェーシカ学派

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア(Wikipedia)』

ヴァイシェーシカ学派(ヴァイシェーシカがくは、वैशॆषिक、Vaiśeṣika)は、インド哲学(ダルシャナ)の学派であり、現代では六派哲学の一つに数えられる[1]カナーダが書いたとされる『ヴァイシェーシカ・スートラ』を根本経典とする。現代では一種の自然哲学と見なされることもある。漢訳勝論勝宗

6種のカテゴリー[編集]

『ヴァイシェーシカ・スートラ』では、全存在を6種のカテゴリー(padārtha)、すなわち実体・属性・運動・特殊・普遍・内属の6種から説明する。言葉は実在に対応しており、カテゴリーは思惟の形式ではなく客観的なものであるとする。

実体[編集]

実体(dravya)は以下のように分けられる。

  • 地 (pṛthivī)
  • 水 (āpas)
  • 火 (tejas)
  • 風 (vāyu)
  • 虚空 (ākāśa)
  • 時間 (kāla)
  • 方向 (dik)
  • アートマン (ātman)
  • 意(マナス) (manas)

属性[編集]

属性(guṇa)は以下のように分けられる。

  • 色 (rūpa)
  • 味 (rasa)
  • 香 (gandha)
    • 芳香
    • 悪臭
  • 触 (sparśa)
    • 非冷非熱
  • 数 (saṅkhyā)
  • 量 (parimāṇa)
  • 別異性 (pṛthaktva)
  • 結合 (saṃyoga)
  • 分離 (vibhāga)
  • 彼方性 (paratva)
  • 此方性 (aparatva)
  • 知識作用 (buddhi)
  • 楽 (sukha)
  • 苦 (duḥkha)
  • 欲求 (icchā)
  • 嫌悪 (dveṣa)
  • 意志的努力 (prayatna)

運動[編集]

運動(karma)は以下のように分けられる。

  • 上昇 (utkṣepaṇa)
  • 下降 (avakṣepaṇa)
  • 収縮 (ākuñcana)
  • 伸張 (prasāraṇa)
  • 進行 (gamana)

普遍・特殊・内属[編集]

普遍 (sāmānya)
同類の観念を生む原因である。黒い牛も白い牛も同じ牛であると分かるのは普遍としての「牛性」を牛が持っているからである。
特殊 (viśeṣa)
あるものを別のものから区別する観念の原因である。牛が牛であって馬でないと分かるのは特殊としての「牛性」を牛が持っているからである。
内属 (samavāya)
不可分でありながら別個の実在となっているもの同士の関係である。糸と布は内属の関係にある。

受容[編集]

勝宗十句義論[編集]

東アジアでは、ヴァイシェーシカ学派は「勝論」や「勝宗」と呼ばれ、『大毘婆沙論』等の言及で知られていた[2]。特に、6-7世紀の慧月著・玄奘訳とされる『勝宗十句義論』によって思想が伝えられた[3]。『勝宗十句義論』は、ヴァイシェーシカ学派の綱要書の漢訳だが、サンスクリット原典が伝わらず、チベット訳も無い[3]。また内容が特殊で、6種ではなく10種のカテゴリーが扱われる[3]。同書は仏教の論書ではないが大蔵経に収められた[4]

日本では江戸時代に盛んに研究され、複数の注釈書が著された[4]。主な注釈者として、真言宗豊山派法住快道がいる[5]。彼らはサーンキヤ学派の『金七十論』も研究した[5]

大正6年(1917年)には、宇井伯寿により英訳が作られた[6]

西洋哲学との比較[編集]

近現代のインド哲学研究では、ヴァイシェーシカの思想は「自然哲学」「原子論」「実体」「普遍と特殊」といった西洋哲学の術語で説明され、アリストテレス等としばしば比較される[7][8]

関連項目[編集]

脚注[編集]

  1. ^ 六派哲学”. ブリタニカ国際大百科事典 小項目事典. 2020年8月23日閲覧。
  2. ^ 宮坂宥勝インド哲学思想と密教 -
  3.  序説」『現代密教』第7号、智山伝法院、2018年。75頁。
  4. a b c 立川武蔵井上円了の『外道哲学』」『井上円了選集』第22巻、2003年、 701頁。
  5. a b 宮元啓一・小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)『勝宗十句義論』 - コトバンク
  6. a b 興津香織「基師の数論と『金七十論』」『印度學佛教學研究』67巻2、日本印度学仏教学会、2019年。570頁。
  7. ^ 雲井昭善<書評・紹介> 金倉円照 : インドの自然哲学」『佛教学セミナー』第14号、大谷大学佛教学会、1971年。75頁。
  8. ^ 友岡雅弥「ニヤーヤ・ヴァイシェーシカ学派の実在論的展開」『待兼山論叢. 哲学篇』第14号、大阪大学文学部、1980年。39頁。
  9. ^ 中村元普遍の觀念を手がかりとするヴァイシェーシカ體系の考察」『印度學佛教學研究』7巻2、日本印度学仏教学会、1959年。

Samuel Nkamura Pobi 목사의 '도의신학' 관련 박사논문에 대한 zoom seminar

(5) Facebook: 한국과학생명포럼(Korea Forum for Science & Life)은 과학과 종교 간의 대화와 생명생태문화 촉진을 위해 세계과학종교학술원(ISSR)과 템플톤재단과 연계하여 설립된 비영리단체입니다. (http://www.kfsl.org 참조).

오늘 오후 8시 Samuel Nkamura Pobi 목사의 최근 연세대 글로벌 신학대학원에서 통과된 '도의신학' 관련 박사논문에 대한 zoom seminar가 있습니다. 
아프리카 출신 촉망되는 소장 신학자의 눈으로 본 '도의신학'을 듣는 귀한 기회이니 많은 참석 바랍니다. 링크는 아래를 사용하기 바랍니다. 간추린 통역은 숭실대 정대경 교수께서 수고 하시겠습니다.
Heup Kim이(가) 예약된 Zoom 회의에 귀하를 초대합니다.

주제: Zoom meeting invitation - Heup Kim님의 Zoom 회의
시간: 2022년 7월 21일 08:00 오후 서울
Zoom 회의 참가
https://us02web.zoom.us/j/89461171414...
회의 ID: 894 6117 1414
암호: 436734 
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2022/07/20

Native: Identity, Belonging, and Rediscovering God - Friends Journal

Native: Identity, Belonging, and Rediscovering God - Friends Journal


Native: Identity, Belonging, and Rediscovering God


Reviewed by Lauren Brownlee

February 1, 2022

By Kaitlin B. Curtice. Brazos Press, 2020. 208 pages. $35.99/hardcover; $17.99/paperback or eBook.
Buy from QuakerBooks

Native: Identity, Belonging, and Rediscovering God is Kaitlin B. Curtice’s exploration of the fullness of her identity, particularly as a “white-coded Potawatomi woman” and a Christian. She had struggled in the past to make each of these identities her own. This work contains lessons from her journey: not only about her own particular identities but also about building Beloved Community, and consideration of our spiritual relationship to the Earth. She believes that through sharing and listening to stories with “grace and honor,” we will catalyze healing.

Curtice did not grow up immersed in Potawatomi culture, so readers benefit from her reflections on all she has gained from reconnecting with that culture and its teachings as an adult. She shares that Indigenous people “carry stories inside us—not just stories of oppression but stories of liberation, of renewal, of survival.” Throughout the book, she weaves lessons of the Potawatomi flood (the origin story) and the Seven Grandfather Teachings. I was particularly interested in the ways she discussed land acknowledgment, which she says “is about listening, it is about remembering, and it is about rejecting invisibility.” Her engagement with her Potawatomi culture empowers her to reflect anew about her spirituality. She finds herself longing to pray as her Potawatomi ancestors and relatives pray, to “a sacred belonging that spans time and generations and is called by many names.”

Curtice grew up with a strong, strict Christian identity, and now her “spiritual Potawatomi tradition enhances the celebration of God as liberator and the person of Jesus as a partner in that liberation.” What she has experienced thus far in her Christianity is that “the church wants what is white in me, but not what is Native in me.” She believes that “the church has to see its complicity in white supremacy throughout the centuries,” and that “[i]f we are to believe that the inclusive love of God is real, we’d better start building a bigger table.” She shares reflections on what decolonizing Christianity can look like, including centering the voices of those currently on the margins.

Ultimately, this book is a reflection on what grounds and connects us with respect to the Earth and each other. Curtice believes that “Mother Earth [is] a living, breathing being that we learn from” and that “[t]he only way we can make our way home is to support one another on the journey.” She invites readers to “enter into the work of truth-telling, of keeping watch, of being people who will ask hard questions and hold grace in the difficult spaces.” She underscores the urgency of this moment as we consider how to be the best versions of ourselves and how to build better systems.

Lauren Brownlee is a member of Bethesda (Md.) Meeting, where she serves on the Peace and Social Justice Committee. She also supports the Growing Diverse Leadership Committee of Baltimore Yearly Meeting.
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Issue: February 2022
Quaker Book Reviews

Meeting for Business as Spiritual Rehearsal - Friends Journal

Meeting for Business as Spiritual Rehearsal - Friends Journal

Meeting for Business as Spiritual Rehearsal

Illustrations by tannikart

Although I knew little about Quakers when I first started attending a Quaker meeting, I quickly became comfortable with meeting for worship. The basic beliefs and testimonies of the Religious Society of Friends corresponded so closely to the spiritual beliefs I had evolved for myself that one could say I was a Quaker without really knowing it. I was so comfortable that I felt I could apply for membership after only two or three months. However, I knew that becoming a member meant making a commitment to participate in the full life of the community, not merely to show up for an hour on Sunday morning. To test whether I was prepared to do that I felt I had to start attending meeting for business.

I knew even less about meeting for business than I did about meeting for worship.  From the few books I’d read, I knew that there was no voting and that decisions were made by what I would have called “consensus,” but that’s probably about all I knew. The agendas for the meetings looked much the same as those for board or committee meetings at my office, and the business meetings themselves seemed very similar. Yes, there was a bit of silence at the beginning, but then items were presented and discussed, and eventually decisions were reached by what seemed to be unanimous consent, even though there was no voting. The process looked so similar to my work that it was natural for me to bring to these meetings the same attitude and approach I brought to meetings at my office. In those meetings my objective was to convince others that my approach to an issue was the right one and the one that should be followed. I was good at presenting my views, had strong opinions, enjoyed debate, and was verbally skillful at making my point and pointing out the weaknesses in other opinions. However, although no one complained about my behavior or eldered me or gave me any advice, I increasingly came to feel that this approach was not making me a constructive participant in meeting for business. 

Although meeting for business was properly called meeting for worship with attention to business, the “for worship” part had no impact on me until I began to think more rigorously about what I was doing in meeting for worship itself. That led me to conclude that worship was a more complicated process of spiritual practice than just sitting silently waiting for a divine message to appear. I described the idea of meeting for worship as spiritual practice in the essay “Wait and Watch,” published in Friends Journal in June 2006. 

In that essay, I used the word “practice” in the sense of its meaning “a repeated exercise in an activity requiring the development of a skill.” As examples, I mentioned the solitary practice of a musician or actor preparing for a concert or play, or the batting practice of a ball player in anticipation of the game. Similarly, I said, meeting for worship was an opportunity to practice and develop skills to make the performance of our daily lives more spiritually centered. In using those analogies, I forgot that there was an intermediary step between practice and performance: rehearsal. A rehearsal is an event where you take the skills you have learned in solitary practice and apply them together with others in a setting that simulates reality but is not the real situation. My Oxford American Dictionary uses the phrase “trial performance.” The most challenging aspect of a trial performance is learning to interact with others without forgetting the skills learned in solitary practice. A rehearsal provides the opportunity to do that in a safe environment, where the focus is on the process of working together. Only in the final dress rehearsal is the focus on the outcome expected to be achieved in the actual performance.  

If the way we live our daily lives—the way our lives speak from a spiritual center—is the equivalent of the actual performance, then meeting for worship with attention to business—the process of interacting with others in a spiritually centered way—is the intermediary step, the bridge between practice and performance that the concept of rehearsal implies. This led me to consider how the practices I’m learning in meeting for worship inform my behavior in meeting for worship with attention to business, with the following results.

Being Present

The first skill I am practicing in worship is being present. Being present means being fully aware of where I am and what I am doing in that moment. In meeting for worship, this comes from having adequate time to settle into silence and allow my mind to free itself of the distractions that constantly occupy it. Most meetings for business begin with a brief period of silent worship that is usually too brief for me. So, when I attend such meetings, I try to arrive at least five minutes early to give myself that extra time to set aside whatever I was doing that morning or whatever I hoped to be doing later that day.

The need for an extended period of silence was captured for me by a Quaker anecdote (intended to be humorous, I think) about a clerk who started a meeting for business by saying, “We have a long and complicated agenda, so we will need a longer period of silence.” The humor is that in a secular context, the chair of the meeting would say, “We have a complicated agenda, so let’s get started quickly.” (I’ve said that myself!) The opposite approach is a clear reminder that the best decisions, the ones that strive to seek the will of God in a matter, require as much focused attention as does sitting in worship waiting expectantly to hear or be inspired to give a spiritual message, and therefore they need to be grounded in an adequate amount of silence.

Being fully present is not only required at the start of a meeting but throughout its course. Here again, a practice from worship is relevant. In meetings for worship, we are expected to allow adequate time between two messages so that the first can be fully absorbed before a new idea is introduced. For the same reason, in a meeting for business it is appropriate to allow a few minutes of silence between agenda items. When this does not happen, I find it helps me make the transition from one item to another by consciously taking three deep breaths: the first to release the previous item, the second to bring myself into the present, and the third to open myself to a new issue. 

Patience

The second skill I practice in meeting for worship is patience: the patience to sit in silence, expectantly waiting to see if any divinely inspired word will come forth. Patience is even more necessary in meeting for business for several reasons. 

The Quaker process of decision making can be long and sometimes feel tedious. I am often impatient, feeling that the right decision is obvious and that we should make it and move on. This is clearly the result of my eagerness to move decisions along expeditiously in my daily work. But the most obvious decision is not always the right one. Pushing hastily for a decision tends to forget that the process is more important—the journey more important than the destination, you might say—so patience is needed to let the process unfold and allow time for the right decision to emerge. 

Quite often some items on the agenda interest me more than others. In those cases, patience is needed to enable me to listen attentively to the ones of less interest. Here again, however, a practice from meeting for worship is relevant. In meeting for worship, I am reminded to come without the expectation of either speaking or remaining silent. I should be open to however the Spirit leads me. The same applies to meeting for business. The fact that I feel I am not interested in a particular item may very well give me the detachment needed to see a way forward to a decision, whereas my ego involvement in other issues may make it difficult for me to see past my own opinion. Rather than be constrained by preconceived positions, I need to be engaged in the discussion but detached from the outcome and open to unexpected influences and ideas.

Remembering God

In a rehearsal for a play, there is usually a director; for a concert, there is a conductor; and for a baseball game, a coach. That is, there is always an independent entity with an overall vision of the desired outcome. In meeting for business, this independent entity is God, and that is essential for me to remember. 

“Remembering God” is a Muslim phrase I used in “Wait and Watch” to describe an attitude toward meeting for worship that also applies to meeting for business. Remembering God helps me to remember that we are searching for God’s way with respect to the matters under consideration—not my way or the way of others present—and helps me develop that detachment from outcomes I mentioned before. Remembering God reminds me that there is that of God in each individual present, which helps me listen to differing opinions in a non-judgmental manner. The fact that I am advised not to respond to a message in meeting for worship makes it easy to ignore messages that don’t seem relevant to me. However, this is more difficult in meeting for business, where remembering that of God in others is more essential. Being non-judgmental applies to both what is said and who is speaking, since I know I relate more to some people than others, and that can easily affect how I perceive their opinions. Remembering that God can use anyone to deliver the message needed at that moment helps me to be receptive to ideas from unexpected sources and to maintain that sense of detachment that allows a path forward to emerge.

Knowing When to Speak

Acritical skill I learn in worship is when to speak and when to remain silent: When is a message I feel inspired to give a true message, or when is it just an interesting thought or something meant solely for me? In “Wait and Watch,” I said that I had to feel compelled to speak and used the term “foreboding”—a feeling that I could not avoid this task even if I wanted to. Much the same is true for meeting for business and here the concept of “wait and watch” is most important. 

The phrase “wait and watch” comes from Jesus’s request to his three disciples when he went off to the garden to pray on his final night. He was asking them to stay awake and alert: to watch and listen for something that might happen, although he had no idea what it might be. Waiting and watching is good advice for me because my natural tendency is to state my opinion quickly in order to influence the discussion. But if I wait, someone else may express my point of view, and there is no need for me to speak at all. If I watch—in this case listen, and listen non-judgmentally—then I may change my mind about what I intended to say and either speak or not as seems appropriate, or be the one sufficiently detached to see a middle path through differing opinions that can lead to a decision. 

If I speak, I try to be guided by another practice from meeting for worship, which is not to start with or to frequently use the word “I.” If a message is truly inspired, it’s not mine; it is not coming from me but through me. In meeting for business not using the word “I” helps me to speak to the issue rather than to my opinion. I could say, “I think the seat cushions should be green,” or I could say, “Green might be a nice color for the cushions,” and make the same contribution in a more constructive way. 

One issue about speaking that is more difficult in meeting for business than in meeting for worship is what to do when I disagree with the decision that the meeting as a whole seems to favor. In worship, I can easily let messages that don’t speak to my condition pass by, but that is harder to do in meeting for business and, in some respects, may even be inappropriate. In those instances, I have first to ask myself if I have listened well to other opinions; is my disagreement coming from a clear spiritual place, or is it just my ego disappointed at not getting my own way? I may conclude that my lack of agreement needs to be noted but not feel so certain that I prevent a decision from moving forward; thus I am willing to stand aside, as it is called. But there have been a few times when I felt unable to stand aside. To take such a position is a terrible feeling for me and one that I approach with much of the same fear and trembling I often experience when speaking in worship. On some occasions, my reservations have brought forth similar reservations from others, and through further discussion, a new decision acceptable to all has been reached. But there have also been one or two instances when I stood alone or when I have participated in meetings where someone else was unable to stand aside. 

One of the truly wonderful things about the Quaker process of trying to discern the sense of the meeting is a willingness to take no action, even when there is only one voice that can’t come into unity with others. In those instances, a decision may be deferred with the expectation that all parties will consider the issue further and hopefully come back later and reach agreement. But I have also experienced situations where this was not the case, and complete unity could not be achieved on an issue that was essential for a meeting to address. Such a situation tests the commitment of the community to its individual members—which may involve a long period of struggle to discern a way forward—and the commitment of an individual member to participate in that struggle and remain a part of the community. There are times when such struggles may not result in agreements, in which case it is important to remember that sense of the meeting does not mean unanimity.

Meeting for worship and meeting for business are the twin pillars of Quaker practice. Just as it is not possible to give a good concert or stage a good play without both solitary practice and group rehearsal, so I believe it is not possible to develop the skills to lead a spiritually centered daily life without participating in both types of meetings. Viewing meeting for worship with attention to business as a spiritual rehearsal connection with meeting for worship that enables me to bring the skills I practice in one to bear upon the other. It reminds me that my interaction with others in a spiritually led manner is the real focus of such meetings, and that it is God, the great conductor, who is guiding the outcome, if we are willing to wait patiently and listen attentively for the movement of the Spirit within and among us.

John Andrew Gallery

Since discovering the Religious Society of Friends in 1990, John Andrew Gallery has pursued a ministry of writing. In addition to articles published in Friends Journal, he has published three Pendle Hill pamphlets, the most recent of which is Be Patterns: Reflections on Words of George Fox. Contact: Johnandrewgallery.com.

Friends and Patriotism - Friends Journal

Friends and Patriotism - Friends Journal

Friends and Patriotism

Photo by Jp Valery on Unsplash.

Originally published August 1, 1992

Every group has issues it would rather not discuss; Quakers are no exception. For unprogrammed Friends, these issues include sin and Christ. When programmed Friends force us to discuss them, we often do so unwillingly. Patriotism is another such issue, except that no Quaker group forces us to confront it. Our attitudes seem to range from suspicion of patriotism to a conviction that it is evil.

Perhaps this is so because most Quakers equate patriotism with nationalism, and thus associate patriotism with war and a “my country, right or wrong” attitude. But what patriotism really means is love not of country but what our country stands for: equality, liberty, democracy, and freedom. These values make our country different from most others and much more desirable to live in. It is these values that we ought to find Quakerly ways to celebrate.

Most Friends, however, seemingly despise everything our country does; all they can do is be highly critical, a position as extreme and as wrongheaded as blindly supporting our country in all cases. For example, Philips Moulton wrote in the July 1990 Friends Journal: “Naturally, we tend to idealize those our government opposes . . . and to denigrate the other side.” Moulton is a respected mainstream Quaker peace activist, and his statement is, I believe, representative of a great many Quakers; for them to oppose U.S. foreign policy—and most of its domestic policy—is as natural as breathing. Of course the United States has not always lived up to its ideals. But many Quakers have castigated our country without end while muting their criticism of other countries.

This behavior was understandable during the Vietnam years, when, for perhaps the first time in history, the United States was perpetrating more evil than any nation on earth. But our relationship to our country never changed once the war ended. We continued to criticize the United States, but we did not criticize other countries with the same force, except for a few who were supported by the United States. In other words, we did not criticize evil wherever we found it. For example, we hardly criticized the equally destructive Russian invasion of Afghanistan. We muted—perhaps subverted—our pacifism and lent support to military “freedom” movements in the Middle East, Central America, and Southern Africa. We criticized Iran under the oppressive Shah, who had U.S. support, but seldom criticize Iran under the far more oppressive “revolutionary” regime.

Now that Communism has collapsed of its own accord in so many areas of the world, removing the principal twentieth-century alternative to our way of life, perhaps it is time to rethink our attitude toward our own country. One way of doing this is to adopt a more balanced view of our country’s ideals and actions, perhaps realizing that our nation is more than a repository of evil.

Another way is to rethink our attitude toward our country’s laws. Many Friends seem to define civil disobedience as breaking any law they feel is morally wrong. Some will not pay war taxes, testifying that God has called them to resist. I would argue that paying taxes is a basic responsibility of citizenship, a function of my almost mystical relationship to my country. God calls me to pay my taxes much as God calls others to resist them.

A number of Quakers can even strongly support some sections of a law and break others; many wish us to react to the recent immigration act in this way. Imagine if all our citizens examined every section of every law, deciding what to obey and disobey. Soon, clearly, we would be plunged into anarchy.

None of this should be construed as an argument that Quakers should forego civil disobedience. But we should be very cautious indeed about breaking the law.

Quakers might also consider breaking our relationships with violent revolutionaries all over the world. We might even consider a moratorium on our work for “justice,” given that our work often entails supporting groups who reject the Quaker peace testimony. Instead, we might consider a return to the relief work we do so well. We could return to our traditional function of trying to mediate disputes instead of clearly supporting one side against the other. Both sides in a dispute then might welcome Quaker humanitarian aid.

We could rethink, too, our attitude toward patriotism, examining what is good about our country as well as what is not. We could, as a beginning, think about how we might celebrate the values our country has given us. Consider flying the flag on patriotic holidays and displaying the flag during meeting for worship on Sundays. Singing ministry might include “God Bless America” as well as “Simple Gifts.” On Memorial Day, one might offer ministry about the sometimes desirable results of wars. Had the Germans been allowed to invade our country during World War II, for example, all U.S. Jews would have been murdered as well as all Quakers who would not acquiesce to Nazism. As a Quaker from a Jewish background, I am thankful this invasion was resisted, even though war was necessary to prevent it.

When war does come, let us criticize our enemies as well as ourselves. Let us examine the cause of the war and the possible results. In the recent Persian Gulf War, it was almost impossible not to castigate Iraq for its behavior; nonetheless, many Friends were unwilling to do so. And some Friends had difficulty realizing the United States was fighting to protect its access to Middle East oil, without which our economy and possibly our government would disintegrate. I do not argue that we abandon the peace testimony. I do argue that we should realize the possible consequences if our country does not choose to fight, including the possibility that we might lose our country’s most cherished values.

Let us celebrate what we hold dear. Let us search for ways to praise our country as well as criticize it.