Showing posts with label 퀘이커. Show all posts
Showing posts with label 퀘이커. Show all posts

2021/07/18

가르침과 배움의 영성To Know as We Are Known: Education as a Spiritual Journey: Palmer, Parker J

To Know as We Are Known: Education as a Spiritual Journey: 
가르침과 배움의 영성

To Know as We Are Known: Education as a Spiritual Journey Paperback – May 28, 1993
by Parker J. Palmer  (Author)
4.6 out of 5 stars    139 ratings

130 pages

This primer on authentic education explores how mind and heart can work together in the learning process. Moving beyond the bankruptcy of our current model of education, Parker Palmer finds the soul of education through a lifelong cultivation of the wisdom each of us possesses and can share to benefit others.


Editorial Reviews
Review
"A phenomenon in higher education."-- "The New York Times""An eye-opening critique of contemporary approaches . . . shows in concrete forms how to be a teacher and learner in the search for truth." -- Henri J. M. Nouwen"Palmer's book will engage anyone who's involved in teaching and learning either in secular or religious institutions . . . it compels us to underline and reflect at nearly every sentence and paragraph . . . it unfolds how exciting and joyful the search for knowledge is when guided by heart-seeking teachers." -- James Sparks, University of Wisconsin, Madison"Without a doubt the most inspiring book on education I have read in a long time." -- John H. Westerhoff III, Duke University
From the Publisher
A spirituality of education that challenges teachers to move beyond conventional ideas of instruction and learning to develop vital new teaching methods incorporating insights from traditional contemplative wisdom.
About the Author
Parker J. Palmer, a popular speaker and educator, is also the author of The Active Life. He received the 1993 award for "Outstanding Service to Higher Education" from the Council of Independent Colleges.

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.
Chapter One

Knowing Is Loving


The Violence of Our Knowledge

I have felt it myself. The glitter of nuclear weapons. It is irresistible if you come to them as a scientist. To feel it's there in your hands--to release the energy that fuels the stars. To let it do your bidding. To perform these miracles--to lift a million tons of rock into the sky. It is something that gives people an illusion of illimitable power and it is, in some ways, responsible for all our troubles, I would say--this what you might call technical arrogance that overcomes people when they see what they can do with their minds.1


These words were spoken by a celebrated physicist in The Day after Trinity, a film documentary about the team of American scientists who produced the first atomic bomb. "Trinity" was the ironic code name for that original explosion, and only on "the day after" did the scientists stop to analyze and agonize over the outcomes of their work.

The film is filled with images of horror. For me, the most horrifying is not that mushroom shape that appears in our dreams and lurks just over our waking horizon. Instead, it is the image of intelligent and educated people--the most intelligent and the best educated our society has produced-devoting themselves so enthusiastically to such demonic ends. They appear in the film as people possessed by a power beyond their control-not the power of the government that summoned their services, but the power of their knowledge itself. One scientist interviewed in the film reveals that "prior to the shot, back in the lab, there had been some speculation that it might be possible to explode the atmosphere--in which case the world disappears."2 But the "experiment" went on as scheduled, the irresistible outcome of the knowledge that made it possible.

Watching this film, reliving that history, I saw how our knowledge can carry us toward ends we want to renounce--but we renounce them only on "the day after." I understood then what Jonathan Schell says in The Fate of the Earth: "It is fundamental to the shape and character of the nuclear predicament that its origins lie in scientific knowledge rather than in social circumstances."3 I understood, too, what Robert Oppenheimer meant in his post-Hiroshima pronouncement, "The physicists have known sin."

We need images of hope to counteract our horror, knowledge of grace to counteract our knowledge of sin. That is what I want to offer in this book by describing a way of knowing and educating that might heal rather than wound us and our world. But in my spiritual life I have learned that hope and grace do not come cheap. They require honest self-scrutiny first, and then confession, an offering up of our own inner darkness to the source of forgiveness and transformation.

I am not a nuclear physicist, and I have never participated in a project with such vast implications as "Trinity," but I identify with those scientists. Their story is my story too, and when I am tempted to sit in judgment on them I am only evading the judgment that falls upon me. I value their confession of sin on a large scale because it helps me make my own confession of smaller but similar sins.

For all the differences between those scientists and me, we have one thing in common. We are well-educated people who have been schooled in a way of knowing that treats the world as an object to be dissected and manipulated, a way of knowing that gives us power over the world. With those scientists I have succumbed to the arrogance that comes when we see what our minds can do. The outcomes of my arrogance have been less than world-shaking because my powers are small. But in my own way I have used my knowledge to rearrange the world to satisfy my drive for power, distorting and deranging life rather than loving it for the gift it is.

In my late twenties, still impressed by what I could do with my mind, I wrote a book about how we know the world around us. (By grace, that book was never published--not, I suspect, because it was wrongheaded, but because my wrongheadedness was not packaged well enough to sell.) The themes of that book' may sound distant and abstract, but bear with me for a moment: I want to show how they shaped the way one educated person used his knowledge and lived his life.

In that book I argued that knowledge emerges as we impose a mental order on the chaos that surrounds us. The world, I said, presents itself to us as nothing more than a welter of sensory impressions--colors, tastes, smells, and textures; weights, heights, and lengths. To make sense of this chaos we use concepts to organize our impressions and theories to organize our concepts. The test of truth for any one of these mental constructs is simply how well it fits the data and helps us solve the intellectual or practical problem at hand.

Not only did my book imply that the world has no necessary shape or order of its own; it also suggested that the shape imposed on the world by our minds has no validity outside of a culture that happens to find that pattern congenial. Christians and Zen Buddhists, scientists and artists have different ways of ordering the world because they live in different cultures and have different problems to solve. By my scheme, knowing becomes an arbitrary process, subject only to the rules of whatever culture-game one happens to be playing at the time.

Looking back, I see how my theory of knowing helped form (or deform) my sense of who I was and how I was related to the world.


Customer Reviews: 4.6 out of 5 stars    139 ratings

Parker J. Palmer
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Biography
PARKER J. PALMER is a writer, teacher, and activist whose work speaks deeply to people in many walks of life. He is founder and Senior Partner Emeritus of the Center for Courage & Renewal. He holds a Ph.D. in sociology from the University of California at Berkeley, as well as 13 honorary doctorates, 2 Distinguished Achievement Awards from the National Educational Press Association, and an Award of Excellence from the Associated Church Press. In 1998, the Leadership Project, a national survey of 10,000 educators, named him one of the 30 most influential senior leaders in higher education and one of the 10 key agenda-setters of the past decade. In 2010, he was given the William Rainey Harper Award (previously won by Margaret Mead, Marshall McLuhan, Paulo Freire, and Elie Wiesel). In 2011, the Utne Reader named him as one of "25 Visionaries Who Are Changing Your World.” For two decades years, the Accrediting Commission for Graduate Medical Education has given annual Parker J. Palmer “Courage to Teach” and “Courage to Lead” Awards to directors of exemplary medical residency programs. "Living the Questions: Essays Inspired by the Work and Life of Parker J. Palmer," was published in 2005. Born and raised in the Chicago area, he lives in Madison, Wisconsin.
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Zach
5.0 out of 5 stars Phenomenal book on knowing (epistemology) and teaching!
Reviewed in the United States on August 4, 2019
Verified Purchase
Parker Palmer has written out a fascinating and engaging approach to teaching that unearths the epistemological foundation of that endeavor. Though his approach and points are not necessarily “Christian,” I think his religious background does provide some key values and practices that can uniquely enable and encourage the growth he is calling for in this book. One of the themes which cuts through the book is Palmer’s pushback against and objectivist approach to the world. He really advocates for a personal and relational approach to knowing. He talks about engaging truth in troth, in a sort of covenanted, promissory way that trusts and believes in the relationship with truth.

By the end of the book Palmer is saying some things which might almost feel reminiscent of the “monk in a cave” sort of mysterious talk about knowing and truth, but by the time he gets to those statements he’s established a foundational understanding of what knowing is, so the statements feel less “monkish” and more a pleading to know in this way.

One of the best aspects of this book is its length – it is not very long. The edition (1993) I had was barely 125 pages, with most chapters falling around the 15 page mark. The writing, though rich, is not too deep. This is a book I would highly recommend any teacher (especially high school teachers and above), and I think it would also provide some very good concepts and ideas (and practices) for pastors and church leaders/teachers. All in all, even if you are not a Christian, I think you can take away some really excellent things from this book about what it means to know (epistemology).
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thelifemosaic
4.0 out of 5 stars My First Parker Palmer Book and NOT My Last!
Reviewed in the United States on January 29, 2013
Verified Purchase
This is the first book I've read by Parker Palmer although I've read essays, chapter excerpts, and several authors who cite him several times over the years. I was excited to have a full work by Mr. Palmer to take in and I found it exceptional even if I perhaps found myself perplexed from time to time (I'm sure Mr. Palmer would say that's a good thing).

Immediately, Mr. Palmer presents a central metaphor of learning to do life "whole" by opening both the mind's eye which sees "a world of fact and reason" and the eye of the heart to see "a world warmed and transformed by the power of love." (Intro) A teacher, then, uses both eyes and becomes a "mediator between the knower and the unknown." (29) All throughout the book Palmer lends sound wisdom and keen insight into teaching in meaning-filled and meaning-creating ways. He reminds the reader of the need for a learning space to be one that has openness, boundaries, and hospitality. (70) Conventional classrooms offer hurdles of "hidden curriculum" to rethink such as focusing on someone else's (teacher's) vision of reality, a hesitation to be held up for inspection and scrutiny as the teacher / authority / expert, and a structure set up to build isolation easily and often. (34-39) No-brainer wisdom? Perhaps, yet Mr Parker presents these pieces in a whole that is unified in tone and written in accessible, beautiful prose that won't leave the reader saying, "I already knew that!" but instead, "Of course!"

This quote particularly struck me as something I've articulated several times in my life: "Several times in my teaching career I have become someone else's student, and each time the experience has had a marked impact on my own teaching. I was forcefully reminded that education is not just a cognitive process, not just the transmission of facts and reasons." (115) This duality is yet again a way Palmer hopes people will see the value in being a "whole person" seeing and living with both eyes open. It was as if Mr. Palmer looked at my life mixed with playing the student and the teacher role and said, "I know exactly what you mean."

As for occasionally feeling perplexed, I think I was surprised by how often I felt like the text was non-succinct even thought it has a relatively short page count and narrow focus. I had to fight moments when I was tempted to think, "Yes, you said that; please move on." One example is the story of Abba Felix which, while a great story, runs through the book more like a thick scratchy rope than a thread and while I was captivated by the many examples and stories in chapters 5-6 I had to push myself in earlier chapters. With that said, there are too many gems in this book to dismiss it as rough. Thanks for reading. 
4 people found this helpful
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Alex Tang
4.0 out of 5 stars Knowing as a Journey
Reviewed in the United States on January 18, 2006
Verified Purchase
In a time when the morale of the teaching profession in most countries is at an all time low, Palmer's book stand out as a beacon to warn and draw our attention to what education is truly about. The story about Abba Felix and that there are `no more words nowadays' stands at the heart of this book. In this short story about a Desert Father, Palmer has developed a spirituality of education in which obedience to God's words will lead to spiritual formation of the teacher and the student.

First, Palmer rightly pointed out that objectivism and the pursuit of knowledge without reflection is dangerous. His illustration with the Manhattan project is instructive. However, he should have included the societal, economic and cultural influences in his argument. One of the problems with education today is that instead of being a process of `reunification and reconstruction of broken selves and world', it became a means to obtaining `paper'qualifications. Education has been hijacked to be an instrument in which students can achieve economic success and teachers became clogs in the machine that produce thousands of graduates annually who are only skilled in passing examinations.

Second, he mentioned `a learning space' as an antidote to `objectivist' teaching methods. This learning space has openness, boundaries and hospitality. I wonder how Palmer would translate that into an Asian context. Openness, boundaries and hospitality will be difficult in a culture of shame (`saving face') and hierarchal respect for elders, social ranks and qualifications.

Finally, `transformation of teaching must begin in the transformed heart of the teacher'. Palmer listed the disciplines of studying widely, silence, solitude and prayer as important in bringing about this transformation. However Palmer painted a bland picture of a `generic' God as the focus of these disciplines. I would that he be more Trinitarian in his approach.
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8 people found this helpful
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Lucy Skywalker
5.0 out of 5 stars What a definition of teaching!
Reviewed in the United Kingdom on November 27, 2014
Verified Purchase
Here are the book's Contents:
1. Knowing Is Loving
2. Education as Spiritual Formation
3. The Teaching Behind the Teaching
4. What Is Truth?
5. To Teach Is to Create a Space . . .
6. . . . In Which Obedience to Truth Is Practiced
7. The Spiritual Formation of Teachers

"To teach is to create a space . . . in which Obedience to Truth is practiced" - this is the most stunning aphorism of teaching I've ever encountered. For that alone I would award five stars.

This is a much-needed statement that redeems the heart of teaching in a materialistic, state-dependent educational setup. This book gently and powerfully leads us to reconnect with our own lost / forgotten / unnoticed / denied / hidden heart. Only out of such a place of love of honesty and truth can one grow in understanding and stature as a teacher, keep studying the universe with passion - and keep sharing the precious journey of discovery with integrity.
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フィリップ&ティモシィー
5.0 out of 5 stars 「霊性」と「教育」を見事に関連付けた良書
Reviewed in Japan on October 16, 2008
Verified Purchase
近代教育学は「学習者が学ぶべき事柄を客観的に見つめる」ことを要請してきた。それを180度転換し、両者の人格的関係に気づいてこそ、本来の学習が成立するとした。「霊性の涵養」と「教育」の問題を見事に結びつけた良書。邦訳と照らし合わせると更に興味深い学びがなされる。
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가르침과 배움의 영성 (반양장)   
파커 J. 파머 (지은이),이종태 (옮긴이)IVP2014-12-12
원제 : To Know as We Are 

책소개오늘날 교육에서 영성의 새로운 회복을 제안한다. <삶이 내게 말을 걸어올 때>의 저자 파커 팔머가 오늘날 교육의 위기를 지배욕과 호기심에서 찾고 앎과 가르침과 배움의 영역에서 영성을 다시금 주목한다. 사막 교부들과 수도원, 퀘이커교도 등의 전통에서 영성 훈련을 찾아 소개하는 등 기독교적 지식관, 진리관, 교수 방법 등에 대한 통찰을 담고 있다.

그 외 그리스도인 교사의 영성 훈련과 실제 수업 진행을 위한 방법론적 예시 등 수업 운영에 대한 제안도 담고 있다. 2000년 출간된 책의 개정판이다.
목차
한국어판 서문
1993년판 서문_교육에서의 공동체 회복

감사의 글
들어가며

1. 안다는 것은 사랑한다는 것이다
2. 영성 형성으로서의 교육
3. 가르침 배후에 숨겨진 가르침
4. 진리란 무엇인가?
5. 가르침이란 공간을 창조하는 일이다
6. 진리에 대한 순종이 실천되는 공간
7. 가르치는 이의 영성 형성

인명·주제 색인

책속에서
교육의 영성에 대한 책, 그것도 기독교적 관점에서 쓰인 이 책이 무슨 이유로 그렇게 다양한 독자들에게 읽혔던 것일까? 나는 그것이 부분적으로, 이 책은 다른 전통들을 존중하며 그들로부터 배울 자세를 갖춘 영성을 제공한다는 사실 때문이기를 바란다. 그러나 나는 더 근본적인 이유가 있음을 알고 있다. 그것은 어떤 분야든 오늘날 모든 교육자들은 극심한 고통에 처해 있기 때문이다. 그 고통으로 인해 그들은 새로운 곳에서 도움을 찾게 되었던 것이다.…나는 교육 전체게 스며 있는 이러한 고통을 ‘단절의 고통’이라고 부른다. (...) 영적 전통은 그러한 고통중에 있는 우리에게 다른 곳에서는 발견되기 어려운 희망을 제공할 수 있다. - 본문 중에서  접기

추천글
가르침과 배움에 관한 현대 접근법들을 탁월하게 비평하는 이 책은, 어떻게 진리를 추구하는 교사와 학생이 될 수 있는지를 구체적으로 보여 준다. - 헨리 나우웬 
교육은 지식의 전달 수단이 아니라 인격적 관계를 맺는 영성의 과정임을 보여 주는 이 책은, 참된 교육을 갈망하는 교사와 학부모 그리고 학생들에게 길잡이가 되어 줄 것이다. - 한기채 (중앙성결교회 목사, 前 서울신학대학교 교수) 
저자가 주장하는 ‘영성 형성으로서의 교육’, ‘가르치는 이의 영성 형성’ 등의 내용이 오늘날 미국뿐 아니라 한국의 교육계, 특히 기독교 교육계에 큰 가르침과 깨우침을 줄 것이라 믿는다. - 이원설 (숭실재단 이사장, 한국기독교학교연맹 이사장) 
개인의 신앙과 교육 현장에서의 활동 사이의 괴리감으로 고민하는 이들에게 교육에 대한 깊은 성찰과 경험을 바탕으로 공동체와 사랑, 영성의 회복을 강조하고 있는 이 책은 도전과 자극이 되기에 충분히 탁월한 책이다. - 임종화 (영신여자실업고등학교 교사) 
오랜 세월 내가 읽은 교육에 관한 책 중 의심할 여지없이 가장 영감을 주는 책이다. - 존 웨스터호프 3세 (전 듀크대학교 신학부 교수) 

저자 및 역자소개
파커 J. 파머 (Parker J. Palmer) (지은이) 
저자파일
 
신간알리미 신청
미국 고등교육에서 가장 영향력 있는 인물이자, 왕성한 저술과 다양한 강연으로 미국 각계각층의 뜨거운 지지를 얻으며 시민들의 멘토로 추앙받는 사회운동가. 작가이자 교사, 활동가로서 그의 가르침은 교육, 의료, 종교, 법률, 자선 사업, 정치, 사회 변혁 등에서 커다란 영감을 주고 있다. UC 버클리에서 사회학 박사학위를 취득한 뒤 워싱턴 DC에서 5년 동안 공동체 조직가로 활동했으며 성인 학습자와 구도자를 위한 ‘퀘이커 삶-배움 공동체’에서 10년간 일했다. 저서로는 《가르칠 수 있는 용기》《비통한 자들을 위한 정치학》《모든 것의 가... 더보기
최근작 : <삶이 내게 말을 걸어올 때>,<일.창조.돌봄의 영성>,<모든 것의 가장자리에서> … 총 73종 (모두보기)
이종태 (옮긴이) 
저자파일
 
신간알리미 신청
한국외국어대학교 영어과를 졸업하고 장신대 신학대학원에서 신학을 공부했다. 미국 버클리 GTU(Graduate Theological Union)에서 기독교 영성학으로 철학박사(Ph. D.) 학위를 받았다. 《순전한 기독교》, 《고통의 문제》, 《시편 사색》, 《네 가지 사랑》, 《인간 폐지》(이상 홍성사), 《다윗: 현실에 뿌리박은 영성》, 《가르침과 배움의 영성》(이상 IVP), 《당신은 무엇을 믿는가》(복있는사람) 등 다수의 책을 번역했다.
최근작 : <진정한 종>,<핵심포인트 시청각 실물설교집>,<확실한 새신자 교육방법> … 총 117종 (모두보기)
출판사 소개
IVP 
출판사 페이지
  
신간알리미 신청

최근작 : <예수님의 기도 학교>,<IVP 1세기 기독교 시리즈 세트 - 전3권>,<하나님을 사랑한 사상가 10인>등 총 673종
대표분야 : 기독교(개신교) 4위 (브랜드 지수 1,505,096점) 
출판사 제공 책소개
“교육에 있어서 일대 사건과 같은 책이다!”-뉴욕 타임스

가르침과 배움의 영역에서 소외되었던 영성을 회복하라!
「비참한 자들을 위한 정치학」의 파커 파머가 지식이 소외되어 버린 우리 시대를 향해 주장하는 교육의 영성. 앎과 가르침과 배움은 단순한 학문 활동을 훨씬 넘어서는 의미를 가진다. 앎과 가르침과 배움은 깊은 인간적 의미를 지닌 활동, 위대한 인간적 목적을 가진 활동, 우리 자신과 이 세계의 변화에 기여하는 전인적 활동이다.

오늘날 교육의 위기를 지배욕과 호기심에서 비롯한 지식관에서 찾는 저자는, 이제 앎과 가르침과 배움의 영역에서 소외되어 왔던 영성을 새롭게 회복해야 함을 역설한다. 궁극적인 지혜의 근원으로서 사랑을 탐구하고, 오래 전 사막 교부들과 수도원, 퀘이커교도 등의 전통에서 영성 훈련을 찾아 소개하며, 실제 수업 진행을 위한 방법론적 예시 등을 담고 있는 본서는 오늘 메마른 시대에 교육의 길을 모색하는 교사들에게 열정을 회복해 주는 위로와 자극이 될 것이다.
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가르침과 배움의 영성 새창으로 보기
우리는 무엇을 가르치고 무엇을 배우는가. 우리는 어느 학문을 가르치고 배운다고 할 때, 무슨 내용(지식)을 어떤 방식으로 전달하는가를 중요하게 생각한다.주입식 교육에 익숙하기 때문이다. 우리 교육에 있어서 중요한 것은 정확한 암기력과 빠른 습득속도이다. 그런 사람들이 사회에서 인정을 받는다. 이런 교육이 잘못된 부분이 있다는 것을 우리는 알고 있다. 그러나 어디서부터 손대야 할지 몰라서 해오던 대로 계속 할 뿐이다.

진정한 앎이란, 지식 습득이 아니다. 그리고 교육의 목표도 그것이 되면 안 된다. ‘사랑’을 통해서 우리는 진짜 교육을 할 수 있다. 가르치는 학문을 사랑하고, 교사는 학생을, 학생을 교사를, 그리고 학생들 서로가 서로를 사랑할 때 진정한 앎이 일어난다.

나는 가르치는 자리에 있는 사람으로서 제대로 가르치고 있는지 고민하게 됐다. 나는 내가 가르치는 학문을 진정으로 사랑하는가. 나는 학생들을 진정으로 사랑하는가. 그리고 가르치는 그 학문이 진실한 지 고민하고 있는가. 삶으로 살아내고 있는가. 교육은 공동체적이고 상호소통이 일어나야 하는데, 일방적으로 전달만 하려고 하지 않는가. 많은 질문들이 내 안에서 맴돈다.

학생이 스스로 생각하고 학문과 자신을 만나게 할 수 있도록 주입식 교육을 하지 않아야겠다. 그래서 학생들이 마음을 열어서 학문을 받아들일 수 있도록 안전한 터를 제공하는 교육자가 되고 싶다. 사랑하지만 무르지 않고, 가르치지만 배울 줄 아는 사람이 되자. 늦은 밤이라 정리되지 않은 글이다. 그래도 삶에서 지속적으로 돌아보고 고민해볼만한 좋은 책이란 것은 틀림없다.
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가르침과 배움의 깊이 새창으로 보기
가르침과 배움의 공동체의 외피를 뚫고 들어가는 인식, 수업의 철학, 그 바탕을 생각하게 한다.
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리더들이 읽어야 할 책 새창으로 보기 구매
교수님 추천으로 이 책을 읽게 되었습니다. 읽는 동안 내내 감탄과 공감이 저를 흥분시켰고, 희열마저 느끼게 하였습니다. 진리가 무엇이고 진정한 교육이 무엇인지를 일깨워줄 뿐만 아니라 상담을 하는 저에게 지침서가 되기도 하였습니다. 마지막 페이지 마지막 글자를 읽고 책을 덮으면서 가슴이 뛰는 희열을 맛보았습니다. 그 감동에 사진을 찍고 주변 몇 사람에게 카톡을 보내면서 읽어보라고 권유를 하기도 했습니다. 교육자든 교육자 지망생이든, 상담자든 상담자 지망생이든 이 책에서 전달하는 진실의 메시지를 받아들인다면 자라나는 세대들의 앞날은 행복 그 자체일 것이라는 생각에 미리 가슴 벅참을 느꼈습니다. 부디 많은 사람들이 이 책에서 전달하고자 하는 교육의 참 길을 걸었으면 하는 바람으로 리뷰를 남깁니다. 말주변이 없어 책의 내용은 전달하지 못하고 읽으면서 느꼈던 감동만 적으면서 다 전달하지 못함에 아쉽기만 한 것이  지금의 제 심정입되니다.

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2021/07/09

강생 - 성육신 위키백과, Incarnation (Christianity)

강생 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전
강생
위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
(성육신에서 넘어옴)

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화신(化身 · Incarnation) 문서를 참조하십시오.
기독교



예수 그리스도[보이기]

기초[보이기]

경전[보이기]

기독교 신학[보이기]

기독교의 역사전통[보이기]

교파[보이기]

기독교 관련 설화[보이기]

기타 일반[보이기]


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강생(降生, incarnatio)기독교에서 쓰이는 용어로서, 하나님이 사람으로 나타나신 것 곧 무한한 존재이신 하나님이 유한한 존재인 사람이 된 사건을 가리킨다. 성육신(成肉身)이라고도 부른다. 기독교인들은 예수강생한 하나님 즉, 하나님의 현현(Epiphany)이라고 믿는다. 그래서 기독교의 전통적인 교회력에서는 사람이 되신 하나님인 예수가 자신을 드러내었음을 공현절로 기억하며, 예수는 참 인간이자 참 하나님(칼케돈 신조)이라는 교리를 갖고 있다.

  •  특히 예수의 인격은 삼위일체론에서 말하는 제2위(로고스)의 인격에 종속되어 있다는 것이 기독론(그리스도론)의 중요한 부분이다.
  • 기독교인들은 하나님이신 예수께서 인간의 구원을 위해서 사람이 되셨다고 믿는다.(니케아신조)

강생의 성서적 근거[편집]

성경적인 근거로서 말씀의 성육신 교리는 요한복음 1장 1절에서 찾는다. 말씀이신 하나님이 바로 육신을 입은 하나님의 아들로서 즉 하나님으로 땅에 오신 구원자이심을 말한다.

하나님이 구원을 이루신 
첫 번째 단계는 성육신으로서, 성서에서는 하나님이 사람안에 들어오셔서 처녀인 성모 마리아를 통하여 인간으로 태어나셨다고 말한다. 창조에서 하나님은 조물주이셨으나 성육신 전에는 어떠한 창조물 안에도 들어가지 않으셨다. 사람을 창조할 때에도 그분은 사람안에 생명의 호흡만을 불어 넣었다(창세기 2장 7절).

또한 욥기 33장 4절에 의하면 하나님의 호흡이 사람에게 생명을 준다. 그러나 하나님 자신이 사람 안으로 들어오신 것은 아니었다. 그러나 성육신으로 말미암아 하나님은 사람안으로 들어오심을 볼 수 있다. 그분은 먼저 잉태되셨고, 아홉달 동안 처녀의 태에 있었으며, 그 후에 태어나셨다.
요한복음서 1장 1절 태초에 말씀이 계시니라 . 이 말씀이 하나님과 함께 계셨으니 이 말씀은 곧 하나님이시니라


요한복음서 1장 14절 : 말씀이 육신이 되어 우리 가운데 거하시매 우리가 그의 영광을 보니, 아버지의 독생자의 영광이요, 은혜와 진리가 충만하더라.
— 개역개정판, 대한성서공회

요한복음서 1장 1절에 의하면 태초에 말씀이 계셨다고 말하며 이 말씀이 곧 하나님이시라고 말한다. 14절에서는 말씀이 육신이 되었다고 말한다. 위의 두 구절의 논리 구조를 볼 때에 하나님은 육신이 되었다. 이 구절에서 육신은 창세기 2장 이후, 즉 타락 이후의 사람에 대하여 말하는 단어이다. 이 육신이라는 단어는 항상 소극적인 의미를 지닌다. 육신은 타락된 사람을 말하는 것이고, 하나님의 아들이신 그리스도는 사람, 즉 육신이 되었다.
로마서 8장 3절 율법이 육신으로 말미암아 연약하여 할 수 없는 그것을 하나님은 하시나니, 곧 죄로 말미암아 자기 아들을 죄 있는 육신의 모양으로 보내어 육신에 죄를 정하사


로마서 8장 4절 육신을 따르지 않고 그 영을 따라 행하는 우리에게 율법의 요구가 이루어지게 하려 하심이니라
— 개역개정판, 대한성서공회

이것은 그분이 죄인이 되었다는 것을 의미하지는 않는다. 성서에서는 이 문제에 대하여 매우 주의하고 있다. 성서에 오직 요한복음 1장 14절만 있다면 하나님이 죄 있는 사람이 되었다고 생각했을지 모르지만, 성경에는 로마서 8장 3절이 있다. 여기에서는 하나님이 자기 아들을 [죄의 육신의 모양으로] 보내셨다고 말한다. 육신의 모양만 있었다는 것은 죄의 본성은 없었다는 의미이다. 로마서의 저자인 바울은 세가지 단어, 즉 모양과 육신과 죄로 이 구성을 규정했다. ... 성서에서는 [모양으로] 라는 말을 더함으로써 죄의 육신의 모양과 외양은 지녔지만 그리스도의 인성 안에 죄가 없음을 가리킨다.

영지주의와의 차이점[편집]

매우 단순화 하여 말하자면 영지주의란 신이 사람의 껍데기를 쓰고 나타났다는 방식의 사상이다. 그래서 영지주의적 생각을 할 경우 예를 들자면 예수는 그의 지적(知的) 활동력이 육체를 입지 않은 하나님의 지적 활동력과 동일했다는 결론이 나온다. 그러나 성육신 사상은 말 그대로 '사람으로 나타나신 하나님'을 가리킨다. 그렇기 때문에, 앞서 든 예를 따를 경우, 예수의 지적 활동력은 육체를 입지 않은 하나님의 모든 지적 능력을 발현하지는 못하였을 것이라는 결론을 내리게 된다. 물론 기독론에 따르면 부활한 예수의 새로운 육체는 그 전과는 달리 하나님으로서의 모든 인격적 활동을 발휘하는 데에 아무런 제약이 없는 것이라고 믿는다.

신조(Creed, 신앙 고백) 속의 성육신 언급[편집]

"우리 인간을 위하여, 우리의 구원을 위하여, 하늘에서 내려오셔서, 성령으로 또 동정녀 마리아께 혈육을 취하시고 사람이 되셨음을 믿으며" (니케아-콘스탄티노폴리스 신경)
"거룩한 교부들을 따라 우리는 한 분이시요 동일하신 우리 주 예수 그리스도를 고백하며 모두가 일치하여 가르치는 바는, 그 동일하신 분은 신성에서 완전하시며 동일하신 분이 인성에서도 완전하시며, 완전한 하나님이요 완전한 인간이십니다." (칼케돈신경)
"하나님의 외아들, 우리 주 예수 그리스도, 성령으로 동정녀 마리아에게 잉태되어 나시고" (사도신경)

같이 보기[편집]
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강생

말씀의 성육신 교리
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신학의 3갈래《역사신학
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Incarnation (Christianity)
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"First coming" redirects here. For the first coming of the messiah in Judaism, see Messiah in Judaism. For the birth of Jesus of Nazareth, see Nativity of Jesus. For general uses, see Incarnation.
Part of a series on
Christology



Christ (Messiah)

Son of God
God the Son

Kyrios
Logos
Incarnation
Pre-existence of Christ
Person of Christ
Hypostatic union
Love of Christ
Imitation of Christ
Knowledge of Christ
Intercession of Christ
Perfection of Christ
Threefold office
Lutheran Christology


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The incarnation illustrated with scenes from the Old Testaments and the Gospels, with the Trinity in the central column, by Fridolin Leiber, 19th century

The "Heavenly Trinity" joined to the "Earthly Trinity" through the incarnation of the Son, by Murillo, c. 1677[1]

In Christian theology, the incarnation is the belief that Jesus Christ, the second person of the Trinity, also known as God the Son or the Logos (Koine Greek for "word"), "was made flesh"[2] by being conceived in the womb of a woman, the Virgin Mary, also known as the Theotokos (Greek for "God-bearer"). The doctrine of the incarnation, then, entails that Jesus is fully God and fully human.

In the incarnation, as traditionally defined by those Churches that adhere to the Council of Chalcedon, the divine nature of the Son was united but not mixed with human nature[3] in one divine Person, Jesus Christ, who was both "truly God and truly man". This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians. Alternative views on the subject (see Ebionites and the Gospel of the Hebrews) have been proposed throughout the centuries, but all were rejected by Nicene Christianity.

The incarnation is commemorated and celebrated each year at Christmas, and also reference can be made to the Feast of the Annunciation; "different aspects of the mystery of the incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas and the Annunciation.[4]


Contents
1Etymology
2Description and development of the traditional doctrine
2.1Nicene Creed
2.2Apostles' Creed
2.3Ecumenical councils
2.4Effect
2.5Modern Protestantism
3Hymns and prayers
3.1Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic
3.2West Syriac Churches
4Alternative views
4.1Michael Servetus
4.2English Arians
4.3Jacob Bauthumley
4.4Socinian and Unitarian
4.5Oneness Pentecostalism
4.6Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism)
5Notes
6References
7External links
Etymology[edit source]

The noun incarnation derives from the ecclesiastical Latin verb incarno, itself derived from the prefix in- and caro, "flesh", meaning "to make into flesh" or, in the passive, "to be made flesh". The verb incarno does not occur in the Latin Bible but the term is drawn from the Gospel of John 1:14 "et Verbum caro factum est" (Vulgate), King James Version: "and the Word was made flesh".
Description and development of the traditional doctrine[edit source]

Incarnation refers to the act of a pre-existent divine person, the Son of God, in becoming a human being. While all Christians believed that Jesus was indeed the Unigenite Son of God,[5] "the divinity of Christ was a theologically charged topic for the Early Church."[6] Debate on this subject occurred during the first four centuries of Christianity, involving Jewish Christians, Gnostics, followers of Arius of Alexandria, and adherents of Pope Alexander of Alexandria, among others.

Ignatius of Antioch taught that "We have also as a Physician the Lord our God, Jesus the Christ, the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin."[7] Justin Martyr argued that the incarnate Word was pre-figured in Old Testament prophecies.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church discusses the Incarnation in paragraphs 461–463 and cites several Bible passages to assert its centrality (Philippians 2:5-8, Hebrews 10:5-7, 1 John 4:2, 1 Timothy 3:16).[8]
Nicene Creed[edit source]
Main article: Nicene Creed

The Nicene Creed is a statement of belief originating in two ecumenical councils, the First Council of Nicaea in 325, and the First Council of Constantinople in 381. As such, is it still relevant to most Christian churches today.[9] The Incarnation is always professed, though different Rites use different translations. The current translation of the Roman Catholic Church is: "For us men and for our salvation, he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he was born of the Virgin Mary, and became man."[10]
Apostles' Creed[edit source]
Main article: Apostles' Creed

The Apostles' Creed includes the article of faith "He was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary."[11] According to Pope John Paul II, by his incarnation Jesus is a figure of and has united himself to every human being, including the unborn at the moment of their life at conception.[12]
Ecumenical councils[edit source]
Main article: Ecumenical council

Eventually, teaching of Alexander, Athanasius, and the other Nicene Fathers, that the Son was consubstantial and coeternal with the Father, were defined as orthodox dogma. All divergent beliefs were defined as heresies. This included Docetism, Arianism, Nestorianism, and Sabellianism.

The most widely accepted definitions of the incarnation and the nature of Jesus were made by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the Council of Chalcedon in 451. These councils declared that Jesus was both fully God: begotten from, but not created by the Father; and fully man: taking his flesh and human nature from the Virgin Mary. These two natures, human and divine, were hypostatically united into the one personhood of Jesus Christ.[note 1] According to the Catholic Church, an ecumenical council's declarations are infallible, making the incarnation a dogma in the Catholic Church.[13]
Effect[edit source]

The incarnation implies three facts: (1) The Divine Person of Jesus Christ; (2) The Human Nature of Jesus Christ; (3) The Hypostatic Union of the Human with the Divine Nature in the Divine Person of Jesus Christ. Without diminishing his divinity, he added to it all that is involved in being human.[14] In Christian belief it is understood that Jesus was at the same time both fully God and fully human, two natures in one person.[15] The body of Christ was therefore subject to all the bodily weaknesses to which human nature is universally subject; such are hunger (Matthew.4:2), thirst (John 19:28), fatigue (John 4:6), pain, and death. They were the natural results of the human nature he assumed.[16]

The incarnation of Jesus is also one of the key factors which, alongside humans made in the image and likeness of God, forms Christian Anthropology. Specifically, incarnation is vital for understanding the concept of Divinisation of the Man, most well and elaborately developed in Orthodox Christianity and most well expressed by Church Fathers, such as St. Athanasius of Alexandria ("Therefore He was not man, and then became God, but He was God, and then became man, and that to deify us"[17]), St Cyril of Alexandria ("For we too are sons and gods by grace, and we have surely been brought to this wonderful and supernatural dignity since we have the Only Begotten Word of God dwelling within us."[18]) and numerous others.
Modern Protestantism[edit source]

The link between the incarnation and the atonement within systematic theology is complex. Within traditional models of the atonement, such as Substitution, Satisfaction or Christus Victor, Christ must be human in order for the sacrifice of the cross to be efficacious, for human sins to be "removed" and/or "conquered". In his work The Trinity and the Kingdom of God,[19] Jürgen Moltmann differentiated between what he called a "fortuitous" and a "necessary" incarnation.[20] The latter gives a soteriological emphasis to the incarnation: the Son of God became a man so that he could save us from our sins. The former, on the other hand, speaks of the incarnation as a fulfilment of the Love of God, of his desire to be present and living amidst humanity, to "walk in the garden" with us. Moltmann favours "fortuitous" incarnation primarily because he feels that to speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do an injustice to the life of Christ.
Hymns and prayers[edit source]
Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic[edit source]

The significance of the incarnation has been extensively discussed throughout Christian history, and is the subject of countless hymns and prayers. For instance, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (c. 400), as used by Eastern Orthodox Christians and Byzantine Catholics, includes this "Hymn to the Only Begotten Son":


O only begotten Son and Word of God,
Who, being immortal,
Deigned for our salvation
To become incarnate
Of the holy Theotokos and ever-virgin Mary,
And became man without change;
You were also crucified,
O Christ our God,
And by death have trampled Death,
Being one of the Holy Trinity,
Glorified with the Father and the Holy Spirit—
Save us!

Additionally, the Divine Liturgy of Saint James includes this chant of "Let All Mortal Flesh Keep Silence" in its offertory:


Let all mortal flesh be silent,
and stand with fear and trembling,
and meditate nothing earthly within itself:—
For the King of kings and Lord of lords,
Christ our God, comes forward to be sacrificed,
and to be given for food to the faithful;
and the bands of angels go before Him
with every power and dominion,
the many-eyed cherubim,
and the six-winged seraphim,
covering their faces,
and crying aloud the hymn,
Alleluia, Alleluia, Alleluia.[21]
West Syriac Churches[edit source]

The West Syriac Churches – Syriac Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox, Syro-Malankara Catholic, Syriac Catholic and Maronite Catholic – principally celebrating the Holy Qurbono of St. James (c. AD 60) have a similar ma‛neetho,[note 2] a poetic hymn, traditionally attributed to St. Severus, the Patriarch of Antioch (c. 465–538):


I exalt Thee, Lord and King,
Only-begotten Son and Word
of the heavenly Father,
immortal by nature, Thou came down by grace
for salvation
and life for all human race; was incarnate
of the holy
glorious, pure Virgin
Mary, Mother of God
and became man without any change;
was crucified for us.
O Christ, our God,
Who by Thy death trampled and slaughtered our death,
Who are One of the Holy Trinity,
worshipped and honored with
the Father and the Holy Spirit,
have mercy on us all.[22]
Alternative views[edit source]
Michael Servetus[edit source]

During the Reformation, Michael Servetus taught a theology of the incarnation that denied trinitarianism, insisting that classical trinitarians were essentially tritheists who had rejected Biblical monotheism in favor of Greek philosophy. The Son of God, Servetus asserted, is not an eternally existing being, but rather the more abstract Logos (a manifestation of the One True God, not a separate person) incarnate. For this reason, Servetus refused to call Christ the "eternal Son of God" preferring "the Son of the eternal God" instead.[23]

In describing Servetus' theology of the Logos, Andrew Dibb (2005) comments: "In Genesis God reveals Himself as the Creator. In John He reveals that He created by means of the Word, or Logos. Finally, also in John, He shows that this Logos became flesh and 'dwelt among us'. Creation took place by the spoken word, for God said 'Let there be...' The spoken word of Genesis, the Logos of John, and the Christ, are all one and the same."[24]

Condemned by both the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches on account of his heterodox Christology, Servetus was burnt at the stake for heresy in 1553, by the Reformed Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland. The French reformer John Calvin, who asserted he would ensure the death of Servetus if he set foot in Geneva because of his non-Reformed views on the Trinity and the sacrament of baptism, requested he be beheaded as a traitor rather than burned as a heretic, but the authorities insisted on executing Servetus by fire.[25]
English Arians[edit source]

Post-Reformation Arians such as William Whiston often held a view of the incarnation in keeping with the personal pre-existence of Christ. Whiston considered the incarnation to be of the Logos Who had pre-existed as "a Metaphysick existence, in potentia or in the like higher and sublimer Manner in the Father as His Wisdom or Word before His real Creation or Generation."[26]
Jacob Bauthumley[edit source]

Jacob Bauthumley rejected that God was "onely manifest in the flesh of Christ, or the man called Christ". Instead, he held that God "substantially dwells in the flesh of other men and creatures" rather than solely Christ.[27]
Socinian and Unitarian[edit source]

Servetus rejected Arianism because it denied Jesus' divinity[28] so it is certain that he would have also rejected Socinianism as a form of Arianism which both rejects that Jesus is God, and, also that Jesus consciously existed before his birth, which most Arian groups accept. Fausto Sozzini and writers of the Polish Brethren such as Samuel Przypkowski, Marcin Czechowic and Johann Ludwig von Wolzogen saw the incarnation as being primarily a function of fatherhood. Namely that Christ was literally both 'Son of Man' from his maternal side, and also literally 'Son of God' on his paternal side. The concept of the incarnation —"the Word became flesh and dwelt among us"— was understood as the literal word or logos of Ps. 33:6 having been made human by a virgin birth. Sozzini, Przypkowski and other Socinian writers were distinct from Servetus in stating that Jesus having "come down from heaven" was primarily in terms of Mary's miraculous conception and not in Jesus having in any literal sense been in heaven.[29][30] Today the number of churches with Socinian Christology is very small, the main group known for this are the Christadelphians, other groups include CoGGC and CGAF. Modern Socinian or "Biblical Unitarian" writers generally place emphasis on "made flesh" not just meaning "made a body", but incarnation (a term these groups would avoid) requiring Jesus having the temptable and mortal nature of His mother.[31]
Oneness Pentecostalism[edit source]

In contrast to the traditional view of the incarnation cited above, adherents of Oneness Pentecostalism believe in the doctrine of Oneness. Although both Oneness and traditional Christianity teach that God is a singular Spirit, Oneness adherents reject the idea that God is a Trinity of persons. Oneness doctrine teaches there is one God who manifests Himself in different ways, as opposed to a Trinity, where God is seen as one being consisting of three distinct persons.

To a Oneness Pentecostal, Jesus is seen as both fully divine and fully human. The term Father refers to God Himself, who caused the conception of the Son in Mary, thus becoming the father of the child she bore. The term Son refers to the fully human person, Jesus Christ; and the Holy Ghost refers to the manifestation of God's Spirit inside of and around His people. Thus the Father is not the Son – and this distinction is crucial – but is in the Son as the fullness of His divine nature.[32] Traditional Trinitarians believe that the Son always existed as the eternal second person of the Trinity; Oneness adherents believe that the Son did not come into being until the incarnation, when the one and only true God took on human form for the first, last and only time in history.[33]
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism)[edit source]


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Main articles: Mormonism and List of Latter Day Saint movement topics

According to Mormon theology two of the three distinct divine beings of their godhead have perfected, glorified, physical bodies, namely God the Father-Elohim and God the Son-Jehova. The Mormon godhead of Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are not said to be one in substance or essence; instead, they remain three separate beings, or personages.

This conception differs from the traditional Christian Trinity in which only one of the three divine persons, God the Son, had an incarnated physical body, and Jehova has not. It also differs totally from the Jewish tradition of ethical monotheism in which Elohim (Hebrew: אֱלֹהִים‎) is a completely different conception.
Notes[edit source]

^ The Seven Ecumenical Councils, from the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vols. 2–14 (CCEL.org) Contains detailed statements from each of these councils. The First Council of Nicaea, Council of Ephesus and Council of Chalcedon are the "First", "Third" and "Fourth" Ecumenical Councils, respectively.
^ (Syr.): A responsory, originally to a psalm, where each verse of a psalm had a response in poetic form. The text of this ma‛neetho dates back to the 6th century and is attributed in later sources to St. Severus, the Patriarch of Antioch (c. 465–538). The Byzantine Orthodox rite also has a similar hymn called a troparion and is attributed there to Emperor Justinian (c. 483-565)
References[edit source]

^ The Heavenly and Earthly Trinities on the site of the National Gallery in London.
^ McKim, Donald K. 1996. Westminster dictionary of theological terms. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 140.
^ "Thomas Aquinas, "Of the Incarnation as part of the Fitness of Things", Jacques Maritain Center, University of Notre Dame". Archived from the original on 2015-06-22. Retrieved 2008-07-28.
^ McNamara, Edward. "Advent Prayer and the Incarnation", Zenit, December 6, 2005
^ Artermi, Eirini, The Religious Policy of the Byzantine Emperors from the 1st to 4th Ecumenical Council, retrieved 25 March 2015
^ Perrine, Tim., "What do Christians believe about the Incarnation?", CCEL
^ Ignatius of Antioch. Letter to the Ephesians, Chapter VII
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraphs 461–463.
^ "Compare Christian Denominations: Belief and Theology". Religion Facts. March 5, 2005.
^ "THE PROFESSION OF FAITH". Vatican.va.
^ Catechism Credo
^ Evangelium Vitae, 104
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 85–90
^ Packer, J.I., "Incarnate Forever", Christianity Today, Vol. 48, No. 3, p.72, March 1, 2004
^ Welby, Justin. "Archbishop Justin addresses Muslim Council of Wales", The Archbishop of Canterbury, October 2, 2015
^ Drum, Walter. "The Incarnation". The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 20 Octobrt 2016
^ Athanasius, "Discourse I, Paragraph 39", Against the Arians, retrieved 2012-11-06
^ of Alexandria, Cyril (1995). On the Unity of Christ. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-88141-133-1.
^ Trinität und Reich Gottes. Zur Gotteslehre 1980
^ Moltmann, Jürgen (1993). The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God. Translated by Kohl. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press. p. 114. ISBN 9780060659066. |first2= missing |last2= (help)
^ Divine Liturgy of St. James. Translated by James Donaldson. From Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. (Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight.
^ [1]
^ 'De trinitatis erroribus', Book 7.
^ Andrew Dibb, Servetus, Swedenborg and the Nature of God, University Press of America, 2005, p 93. Online at Google Book Search
^ Cottret, Bernard (2000). John Calvin. Translated by McDonald, M. Wallace. Grand Rapids: W.B.Eerdmans. pp. 222–225.
^ James E. Force William Whiston, honest Newtonian 1985 p16
^ Bauthumley, Jacob (1650). The Light and Dark Sides of God, Or, A Plain and Brief Discourse of the Light Side. London, English Commonwealth. p. 11.
^ Restitución, p. 137.
^ George Huntston Williams The Radical Reformation
^ Roland H. Bainton. The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century
^ A.D. Norris, The Person of the Lord Jesus Christ, The Christadelphian, Birmingham 1982
^ {David K. Bernard (1994-09-30). The Oneness View of Jesus Christ (Kindle Locations 362-367). World Aflame Press. Kindle Edition.}
^ Oneness doctrine is explained in detail in UPCI minister Dr. David K. Bernard's The Oneness of God Archived 2008-02-16 at the Wayback Machine, David K. Bernard (1994-09-30);The Oneness View of Jesus Christ (Kindle Locations 362-367). World Aflame Press. Kindle Edition; David S. Norris (2013-11-12). I AM: A Oneness Pentecostal Theology (Kindle Locations 190-192). Word Aflame Press. Kindle Edition.

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "The Incarnation". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
External links[edit source]
'De trinitatis erroribus', by Michael Servetus (Non-Trinitarian)
On the Incarnation by Saint Athanasius of Alexandria. (Trinitarian)
The Oneness of God Homepage of Dr. David K. Bernard. (Oneness)
The Seven Ecumenical Councils, from the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vols. 2-14 (Trinitarian)
[2] by Artemi Eirini

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