Showing posts with label Thoreau. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Thoreau. Show all posts

2022/11/27

The Master Works of Western Civilization

The Master Works of Western Civilization

The Master Works of Western Civilization

A hypertext-annotated compilation of lists of major works recommended by Drs. Adler and Eliot, Charles Van Doren, Anthony Burgess, Clifton Fadiman, the Easton Press, and many others

Contents

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The interactive version of the Master Works of Western Civilization Web page is now in the prototype stage. Features and data are still being added, but the page is interesting and useful as it now stands. Try it out.


Introduction

Several publishers, writers, and thinkers have drawn lists of the quintessential works of Western Civilization. This page presents several such lists along with links to the texts available on the Web.

The table below contains three of the lists. Other lists are collected below the table. Maybe someday I'll collate all these lists into a single table -- but you know how Web page work goes -- maybe I won't.

Dr. Mortimer Adler, who edited The Great Books of the Western World at the University of Chicago, believed that by reading his selections you would obtain a thorough liberal arts education.

For more information about books available on the Web and by FTP and gopher, see Carnegie-Mellon's On-Line Books, the service I used to generate many of the links on this page. collections of electronic textsProject Gutenberg has blazed the path for making classic literature available electronically and they are responsible for many texts referenced here.


The Master Works of Western Civilization

AuthorThe Great Books of the Western WorldThe Easton PressDr. Eliot
Ancient
God, Moses, Jesus, Paul et aliaThe Bible
Homer (c. 850 B.C.E. ?)The Iliad and The OdysseyThe Iliad and The Odyssey
Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.)Analects
Aeschylus (c. 525- c. 456 B.C.E.)PlaysPlays
Sophocles (c. 496-c. 405 B.C.E.)plays, including:Oedipus Rex
Herodotus (c. 485-425 B.C.E.)The History
Euripides (480 or 484-406 B.C.E.)plays, including:plays (see list at left)
Thucydides (c. 460-c. 400 B.C.E.)The History of the Peloponesian War
Hippocrates (c. 460?-377 or 359 B.C.E.)works, including Aphorisms
Aristophanes (c. 448- c. 388 B.C.E.)plays, includingThe Birds and The Frogs
Plato (c. 427-c. 347 B.C.E.)works, including:The Republic and SymposiumApologyCrito, and Phaedo
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)works, including:Politics
Euclid (taught c. 300 B.C.E.)The Elements
Archimedes (c. 287-212 B.C.E.)works
Apollonius of Perga (fl 250-220 B.C.E.)On Conic Sections
Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.)Letters
Nicomachus of GerasaIntroduction to Arithmetic
Lucretius (c. 99-55 B.C.E.)On the Nature of Things
Virgil (70-19 B.C.E.)The EcologuesThe Georgics, and The AeneidThe AeneidThe Aeneid
Livy (59 B.C.E.-17 C.E.)History of Early Rome
First through Fifth Centuries
Epictetus (c. 50-?)The DiscoursesGolden Sayings
Plutarch (c. 46-c. 120)The Lives of the Noble Grecians and RomansThe Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans
P. Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55-120)The Annals and The Histories
Pliny, the Younger (62-c. 114)Letters
Ptolemy (c. 90-168)The Almagest
Marcus Aurelius (121-180)The MeditationsMeditations
Galen (c. 130-201)On the Natural Faculties
Plotinus (205-270)The Six Enneads
Saint Augustine (354-430)ConfessionsThe City of God, and On Christian DoctrineConfessionsConfessions
Sixth through Tenth Centuries
Eleventh through Fourteenth Centuries
Omar Khayyam (c. 1050-c. 1123)The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)Summa Theologica
Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)The Divine ComedyThe Divine ComedyThe Divine Comedy
Boccaccio (1313-1375)The Decameron
Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1345-1400)The Canterbury Tales and Troilus and CressidaThe Canterbury TalesThe Canterbury Tales
Thomas à Kempis (1379-1471)The Imitation of Christ
Fifteenth Century
Nicolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)The PrinceThe Prince
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
Francois Rabelais (1494?-1553?)Gargantua and Pantagruel
Sixteenth Century
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533-1592)Essays
William Gilbert (1540-1603)On the Loadstone and Magnetic Bodies
Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616)The History of Don Quixote de la ManchaThe History of Don Quixote de la Mancha
Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)Advancement of LearningNovum Organum, and New AtlantisEssaysNew Atlantis and Essays
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)WorksWorks
Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)Doctor Faustus
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)Dialogues Concerning the Two New Sciences
Thomas Middleton (c. 1570-1627)The Changeling (see: The Plays of Thomas Middleton)
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)Epitome of Copernican Astronomy and The Harmonies of the World
Ben Jonson (1572-1637)Volpone
John Donne (1572?-1631)Poems, including Devotions
William Harvey (1578-1657)On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in AnimalsOn the Circulation of the Blood, and On the Generation of Animals
John Webster (c. 1580-c. 1625)The Duchess of Malfi
Francis Beaumont (1584-1616) & John Fletcher (1579-1625)The Maid's Tragedy
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Leviathan
Izaak Walton (1593-1683)The Compleat AnglerThe Life of John Donne, and The Life of George Herbert
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)Rules for the Direction of the MindDiscourse on the MethodMeditations on First PhilosophyObjections Against the Meditations and Replies, and The Geometry
Seventeenth Century
Thomas Browne (1605-1682)Religio Medici
John Milton (1608-1674)minor poems, Paradise LostSamson Agonistes, and AreopagiticaParadise LostAreopagitica and Tractate on Education
Moliere (1622-1673)Plays
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)works, including: Pensees and Provincial Letters
John Bunyan (1628-1688)Pilgrim's ProgressPilgrim's Progress
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1693)Treatise on Light
John Dryden (1631-1700)All for Love
John Locke (1632-1704)essays, including
Benedict de Spinoza (1632-1677)Ethics
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and Optics
William Penn (1644-1718)Fruits of Solitude
Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)Journal of the Plague Year and Robinson Crusoe
Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)Gulliver's TravelsGulliver's Travels
George Berkeley (1685-1753)The Principles of Human Knowledge A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge
Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)The Spirit of Laws
Francois Marie Arouet de Voltaire (1694-1778)Candide
Eighteenth Century
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)The Autobiography of Benjamin FranklinThe Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin
Henry Fielding (1707-1754)The History of Tom Jones, A FoundlingThe History of Tom Jones, A Foundling
David Hume (1711-1776)An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)A Discourse on the Origin of InequalityA Discourse on Political Economy, and The Social ContractConfessions
Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent.The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent.
Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)Tristam Shandy
John Woolmann (1720-1772)Journal of John Woolman
Adam Smith(1723-1790)An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of NationsAn Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)The Critique of Pure ReasonFundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, and other works
Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774)She Stoops to Conquer
Thomas Paine (1737-1809)Rights of Man
Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
James Boswell (1740-1795)The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794)Elements of Chemistry
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)FaustFaustFaust
Alexander Hamilton(1757-1804), James Madison (1751-1836), and John Jay (1745-1829)The FederalistThe Federalist
Robert Burns (1759-1796)Tam O'Shanter
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)The Philosophy of Right and The Philosophy of History [Also: Phenomenology of Mind]
Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832)Ivanhoe and Talisman
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1772-1837)Analytical Theory of Heat
Jane Austen (1775-1817)Pride and Prejudice
American State PapersThe Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, and The Constitution
Washington Irving (1783-1859)Alhambra
Stendhal (1783-1842)Red and the Black
The Brothers Grimm (Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm, 1785-1863, and Wilhelm Carl Grimm, 1786-1859)Grimm's Fairy Tales
James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851)The Last of the Mohicans
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)Experimental Researches in Electricity
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)The Cenci
John Keats (1795-1821)Poetical Works
Nineteenth Century
Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870)The Three Musketeers [Available on the Web is The Man in the Iron Mask.]
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)EssaysEssays and English Traits
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)The Scarlet Letter
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892)Becket
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)The Origin of Species [Also available on the Web is The Voyage of the Beagle.]The Origin of Species and The Descent of ManThe Origin of Species
Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849)Tales of Mystery and Imagination [See Selected Works of Poe.]
Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811-1896)Uncle Tom's Cabin Uncle Tom's Cabin
William M. Thackeray (1811-1863)Vanity Fair
Charles Dickens (1812-1870)David CopperfieldGreat Expectations, Short Stories, and A Tale of Two Cities [Also available by Dickens on the Web are: A Christmas CarolThe Chimes, and The Cricket on the Hearth.]
Robert Browning (1812-1889)poems, several of which are in Dramatic Lyrics [Also see: Introduction to Robert Browning.]A Blot in the 'Scutcheon
Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855)Jane Eyre
Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)Walden
Ivan Turgenev (1818-1883)Fathers and Sons
Emily Bronte (1818-1848)Wuthering Heights
Karl Marx (1818-1883)Capital
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)Manifesto of the Communist Party
Walt Whitman (1819-1891)Leaves of Grass
George Eliot (1819-1880)The Mill on the Floss [Also available on the Web are Middlemarch: a study of provincial life and Silas Marner: The Weaver of Raveloe.]
Herman Melville (1819-1891)Moby Dick; or, the WhaleMoby Dick; or, the Whale
Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867)Flowers of Evil
Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880)Madame Bovary
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881)The Brothers KaramzovThe Brothers Karamzov and Crime and Punishment
Count Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)War and PeaceAnna Karenina and War and Peace
Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906)plays, including Peer Gynt and The Wild Duck
Jules Verne (1828-1905)Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea
Sir Richard Burton (1829-1890)Tales from the Arabian NightsTales from the Arabian Nights
Lewis Carroll (1832-1898)Alice's Adventures in Wonderland [Also available on the Web are:
Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888)Little Women
Mark Twain (1835-1910)Huckleberry Finn
Samuel Butler (1835-1902)The Way of All Flesh
Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)Jude the Obscure and Return of the Native
William James (1842-1910)The Principles of Psychology
Henry James (1843-1916)Portrait of a Lady
Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894)Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Treasure Island
Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893)Tales
Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)Short Stories [Also available on the Web are The Importance of Being EarnestThe Picture of Dorian Gray, and Poems.]
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)The Origin and Development of PsychoanalysisSelected Papers on HysteriaThe Sexual Enlightenment of ChildrenThe Future Prospects of Psychoanalytic Therapy, and other essays
George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)plays
Joseph Conrad (1857-1924)Heart of Darkness and Lord Jim [Also available on the Web are: The Secret AgentThe Secret Sharer, and The Shadow Line.]
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930)The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes
Anton Chekkov (1860-1904)plays
Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936)The Jungle Book
William Butler Yeats (1865-1939)poems
Stephen Crane (1871-1900)The Red Badge of Courage
Jack London (1876-1916)Sea Wolf
James Joyce (1882-1941)A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
Aldous Huxley (1894-1963)Brave New World
Twentieth Century
John Steinbeck (1902-1968)Of Mice and Men

Other Reading Lists

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  • A Recommended Reading List

    from Appendix A of How to Read a Book, by Mortimer Adler and Charles Van Doren The Liberal Studies Great Books Program at Malaspina University-College bases its program on the list of Drs. Adler and Van Doren.
    1. Homer (9th Century B.C.?)
      Iliad
      Odyssey
    2. The Old Testament
    3. Aeschylus (c.525-456 B.C.)
      Tragedies
    4. Sophocles (c.495-406 B.C.)
      Tragedies
    5. Herodotus (c.484-425 B.C.)
      History
    6. Euripides (c.485-406 B.C.)
      Tragedies
    7. Thucydides (c.460-400 B.C.)
      History of the Peloponnesian War
    8. Hippocrates (c.460-377? B.C.)
      Medical Writings
    9. Aristophanes (c.448-380 B.C.)
      Comedies
    10. Plato (c.427-347 B.C.)
      Dialogues
    11. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
      Works
    12. Epicurus (c.341-270 B.C.)
      ``Letter to Herodotus'' ``Letter to Menoecus''
    13. Euclid (fl.c. 300 B.C.)
      Elements
    14. Archimedes (c.287-212 B.C.)
      Works
    15. Apollonius of Perga (fl.c.240 B.C.)
      Conic Sections
    16. Cicero (106-43 B.C.)
      Works
    17. Lucretius (c.95-55 B.C.)
      On the Nature of Things
    18. Virgil (70-19 B.C.)
      Works
    19. Horace (65-8 B.C.)
      Works
    20. Livy (59 B.C.--A.D. 17)
      History of Rome
    21. Ovid (43 B.C.--A.D. 17)
      Works
    22. Plutarch (c.45-120)
      Parallel Lives
      Moralia
    23. Tacitus (c.55-117)
      Histories
      Annals
      Agricola
      Germania
    24. Nicomachus of Gerasa (fl.c. 100 A.D.)
      Introduction to Arithmetic
    25. Epictetus (c.60-120)
      Discourses
      Encheiridion
    26. Ptolemy (c.100-170; fl. 127-151)
      Almagest
    27. Lucian (c.120-c.190)
      Works
    28. Marcus Aurelius (121-180)
      Meditations
    29. Galen (C. 130-200)
      On the Natural Faculties
    30. The New Testament
    31. Plotinus (205-270)
      The Enneads
    32. St. Augustine (354-430)
      On the Teacher
      Confessions
      City of God
      On Christian Doctrine
    33. The Song of Roland
      (12th century?)

    34. The Nibelungenlied
      (13th century?)

      (Volsunga Saga
      as Scandinavian version)
    35. The Saga of Burnt Njal
    36. St. Thomas Aquinas (c.1225-1274)
      Summa Theologica
    37. Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)
      The New Life
      On Monarchy
      The Divine Comedy
    38. Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1340-1400)
      Troilus and Criseyde
      The Canterbury Tales
    39. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
      Notebooks
    40. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
      The Prince
      Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy
    41. Desiderius Erasmus (c.1469-1536)
      The Praise of Folly
    42. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
      On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
    43. Sir Thomas More (c.1478-1535)
      Utopia
    44. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
      Table Talk
      Three Treatises
    45. Francois Rabelais (c.1495-1553)
      Gargantua and Pantagruel
    46. John Calvin (1509-1564)
      Institutes of the Christian Religion
    47. Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)
      Essays
    48. William Gilbert (1540-1603)
      On the Loadstone and Magnetic Bodies
    49. Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616)
      Don Quixote
    50. Edmund Spenser (c.1552-1599)
      Prothalamion
      The Faerie Queene
    51. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
      Essays
      Advancement of Learning
      Novum Organum
      New Atlantis
    52. William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
      Poetry and Plays
    53. Galieo Galilei (1564-1642)
      The Starry Messenger
      Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences
    54. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
      Epitome of Copernican Astronomy
      Concerning the Harmonies of the World
    55. William Harvey (1578-1657)
      On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals
      On the Circulation of the Blood
      On the Generation of Animals
    56. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
      The Leviathan
    57. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
      Rules for the Direction of the Mind
      Discourse on the Method
      Geometry
      Meditations on First Philosophy
    58. John Milton (1608-1674)
      Works
    59. Moliere (1622-1673)
      Comedies
    60. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
      The Provincial Letters
      Pensees
      Scientific Treatises
    61. Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695)
      Treatise on Light
    62. Benedict de Spinoza (1632-1677)
      Ethics
    63. John Locke (1632-1704)
      Letter Concerning Toleration
      ``Of Civil Government''
      Essay Concerning Human Understanding
      Thoughts Concerning Education
    64. Jean Baptiste Racine (1639-1699)
      Tragedies
    65. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
      Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
      Optics
    66. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)
      Discourse on Metaphysics
      New Essays Concerning Human Understanding
      Monadology
    67. Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)
      Robinson Crusoe
    68. Jonathon Swift (1667-1745)
      A Tale of a Tub
      Journal to Stella
      Gulliver's Travels
      A Modest Proposal
    69. William Congreve (1670-1729)
      The Way of the World
    70. George Berkeley (1685-1753)
      Principles of Human Knowledge
    71. Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
      Essay on Criticism
      Rape of the Lock
      Essay on Man
    72. Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
      Persian Letters
      Spirit of Laws
    73. Voltaire (1694-1778)
      Letters on the English
      Candide
      Philosophical Dictionary
    74. Henry Fielding (1707-1754)
      Joseph Andrews
      Tom Jones
    75. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)
      The Vanity of Human Wishes
      Dictionary
      Rasselas
      The Lives of the Poets
    76. David Hume (1711-1776)
      Treatise on Human Nature
      Essays Moral and Political
      An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding
    77. Jean Jaques Rousseau (1712-1778)
      On the Origin of Inequality
      On the Political Economy
      Emile
      The Social Contract
    78. Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)
      Tristram Shandy
      A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy
    79. Adam Smith (1723-1790)
      The Theory of Moral Sentiments
      Wealth of Nations
    80. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
      Critique of Pure Reason
      Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals
      Critique of Practical Reason
      The Science of Right
      Critique of Judgment
      Perpetual Peace
    81. Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)
      The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
      Autobiography
    82. James Boswell (1740-1795)
      Journal Life of Samuel Johnson, Ll.D.
    83. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794)
      Elements of Chemistry
    84. John Jay (1745-1829), James Madison (1751-1836), and Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804)
      Federalist Papers
      (together with Articles of Confederation, Constitution of the United States, and Declaration of Independence)
    85. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
      Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
      Theory of Fictions
    86. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)
      Faust
      Poetry and Truth
    87. Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1830)
      Analytical Theory of Heat
    88. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)
      Phenomenology of Spirit
      Philosophy of Right
      Lectures on the Philosophy of History
    89. William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
      Poems
    90. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)
      Poems Biographia Literaria
    91. Jane Austen (1775-1817)
      Pride and Prejudice
      Emma
    92. Karl von Clausewitz (1780-1831)
      On War
    93. Stendhal (1783-1842)
      The Red and the Black
      The Charterhouse of Parma
      On Love
    94. George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824)
      Don Juan
    95. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
      Studies in Pessimism
    96. Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
      Chemical History of a Candle
      Experimental Researches in Electricity
    97. Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
      Principles of Geology
    98. Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
      The Positive Philosophy
    99. Honore de Balzac (1799-1850)
      Pere Goriot
      Eugenie Grandet
    100. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)
      Representative Men
      Essays
      Journal
    101. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)
      The Scarlet Letter
    102. Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859)
      Democracy in America
    103. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
      A System of Logic
      On Liberty
      Representative Government
      Utilitarianism
      The Subjection of Women
      Autobiography
    104. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
      The Origin of Species
      The Descent of Man
      Autobiography
    105. Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
      Works
    106. Claude Bernard (1813-1878)
      Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine
    107. Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)
      Civil Disobedience
      Walden
    108. Karl Marx (1818-1883)
      Capital
      (together with Communist Manifesto)
    109. George Eliot (1819-1880)
      Adam Bede
      Middlemarch
    110. Herman Melville (1819-1891)
      Moby Dick
      Billy Budd
    111. Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881)
      Crime and Punishment
      The Idiot
      The Brothers Karamazov
    112. Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880)
      Madame Bovary
      Three Stories
    113. Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906)
      Plays
    114. Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)
      War and Peace
      Anna Karenina
      What is Art?
      Twenty-Three Tales
    115. Mark Twain (1835-1910)
      The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
      The Mysterious Stranger
    116. William James (1842-1910)
      The Principles of Psychology
      The Varieties of Religious Experience
      Pragamatism
      Essays in Radical Empiricism
    117. Henry James (1843-1916)
      The American
      The Ambassadors
    118. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900)
      Thus Spoke Zarathustra
      Beyond Good and Evil
      The Geneology of Morals
      The Will to Power
    119. Jules Henri Poincare (1854-1912)
      Science and Hypothesis
      Science and Method
    120. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
      The Interpretation of Dreams
      Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
      Civilization and Its Discontents
      New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
    121. George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)
      Plays and Prefaces
    122. Max Planck (1858-1947)
      Origin and Development of the Quantum Theory
      Where Is Science Going?
      Scientific Autobiography
    123. Henri Bergson (1859-1941)
      Time and Free Will
      Matter and Memory
      Creative Evolution
      The Two Sources of Morality and Religion
    124. John Dewey (1859-1952)
      How We Think
      Democracy and Education
      Experience and Nature
      Logic, the Theory of Inquiry
    125. Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947)
      An Introduction to Mathematics
      Science and the Modern World
      The Aims of Education and Other Essays
      Adventures of Ideas
    126. George Santayana (1863-1952)
      The Life of Reason
      Skepticism and Animal Faith
      Persons and Places
    127. Nikolai Lenin (1870-1924)
      The State and Revolution
    128. Marcel Proust (1871-1922)
      Remembrance of Things Past
    129. Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)
      The Problems of Philosophy
      The Analsysis of Mind
      An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth
      Human Knowledge; Its Scope and Limits
    130. Thomas Mann (1875-1955)
      The Magic Mountain
      Joseph and His Brothers
    131. Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
      The Meaning of Relativity
      On the Method of Theoretical Physics
      The Evolution of Physics (with L. Infeld)
    132. James Joyce (1882-1941)
      ``The Dead'' in Dubliners
      Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
      Ulysses
    133. Jaques Maritain (1882- )
      Art and Scholasticism
      The Degrees of Knowledge
      The Rights of Man and Natural Law
      True Humanism
    134. Franz Kafka (1883-1924)
      The Trial
      The Castle
    135. Arnold Toynbee (1889- )
      A Study of History
      Civilization on Trial
    136. Jean Paul Sartre (1905- )
      Nausea
      No Exit
      Being and Nothingness
    137. Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn (1918- )
      The First Circle
      The Cancer Ward

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  • The Library of America

    1. Herman Melville, TypeeOmooMardi
    2. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Tales and Sketches
    3. Walt Whitman, Poetry and Prose
    4. Harriet Beecher Stowe, Three Novels
    5. Mark Twain, Mississippi Writings
    6. Jack London, Novels and Stories
    7. Jack London, Novels and Social Writings
    8. William Dean Howells, Novels 1875-1886
    9. Herman Melville, RedburnWhite-JacketMoby Dick
    10. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Novels
    11. Francis Parkman, France and England in North America, vol. I
    12. Francis Parkman, France and England in North America, vol. II
    13. Henry James, Novels 1871-1880
    14. Henry Adams, NovelsMont Sant MichelThe Education
    15. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Essays and Lectures
    16. Washington Irving, History, Tales, and Sketches
    17. Thomas Jefferson, Writings
    18. Stephen Crane, Prose and Poetry
    19. Edgar Allan Poe, Poetry and Tales
    20. Edgar Allan Poe, Essays and Reviews
    21. Mark Twain, The Innocents AbroadRoughing It
    22. Henry James, Essays, American & English Writers
    23. Henry James, European Writers & The Prefaces
    24. Herman Melville, PierreIsrael Potter, The Confidence-ManTales, & Billy Budd
    25. William Faulkner, Novels 1930-1935
    26. James Fenimore Cooper, The Leatherstocking Tales vol. I
    27. James Fenimore Cooper, The Leatherstocking Tales vol. II
    28. Henry David Thoreau, A WeekWaldenThe Maine WoodsCape Cod
    29. Henry James, Novels 1881-1886
    30. Edith Wharton, Novels
    31. Henry Adams, History of the United States during the Administration of Jefferson
    32. Henry Adams, History of the United States during the Administration of Madison
    33. Frank Norris, Novels and Essays
    34. W.E.B. Du Bois, Writings
    35. Willa Cather, Early Novels and Stories
    36. Theodore Dreiser, Sister CarrieJennie GerhardtTwelve Men
    37. Benjamin Franklin, Writings
    38. William James, Writings 1902-1910
    39. Flannery O'Connor, Collected Works
    40. Eugene O'Neill, Complete Plays 1913-1920
    41. Eugene O'Neill, Complete Plays 1920-1931
    42. Eugene O'Neill, Complete Plays 1932-1943
    43. Henry James, Novels 1886-1890
    44. William Dean Howells, Novels 1886-1888
    45. Abraham Lincoln, Speeches and Writings 1832-1858
    46. Abraham Lincoln, Speeches and Writings 1859-1865
    47. Edith Wharton, Novellas and Other Writing
    48. William Faulkner, Novels 1936-1940
    49. Willa Cather, Later Novels
    50. Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs and Selected Letters
    51. William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs

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  • 99 Novels: The Best in English Since 1939, by Anthony Burgess

      1939

    1. Party Going, Henry Green
    2. After Many a Summer, Aldous Huxley
    3. Finnegans Wake, James Joyce
    4. At Swim-Two-Birds, Flann O'Brien

      1940

    5. The Power and the Glory, Graham Greene
    6. For Whom the Bell Tolls, Ernest Hemingway
    7. Strangers and Brothers (to 1970), C.P. Snow

      1941

    8. The Aerodrome, Rex Warner

      1944

    9. The Horse's Mouth, Joyce Cary
    10. The Razor's Edge, Somerset Maugham

      1945

    11. Brideshead Revisited, Evelyn Waugh

      1946

    12. Titus Groan, Mervyn Peake

      1947

    13. The Victim, Saul Bellow
    14. Under the Volcano, Malcolm Lowry

      1948

    15. The Heart of the Matter, Graham Greene
    16. Ape and Essence, Aldous Huxley
    17. The Naked and the Dead, Norman Mailer
    18. No Highway, Nevil Shute

      1949

    19. The Heat of the Day, Elizabeth Bowen
    20. Nineteen Eighty-Four, George Orwell
    21. The Body, William Sansom

      1950

    22. Scenes from Provincial Life, William Cooper
    23. The Disenchanted, Budd Schulberg

      1951

    24. A Dance to the Music of Time (to 1975), Anthony Powell
    25. The Catcher in the Rye, J.D. Salinger
    26. The Chronicle of Ancient Sunlight (to 1969), Henry Williamson
    27. The Caine Mutiny, Herman Wouk

      1952

    28. Invisible Man, Ralph Ellison
    29. The Old Man and the Sea, Ernest Hemingway
    30. The Groves of Academe, Mary McCarthy
    31. Wise Blood, Flannery O'Connor
    32. Sword of Honour (to 1961), Evelyn Waugh

      1953

    33. The Long Goodbye, Raymond Chandler

      1954

    34. Lucky Jim, Kingsley Amis

      1957

    35. Room at the Top, John Braine
    36. The Alexandria Quartet (to 1960), Lawrence Durrell
    37. The London Novels (to 1960), Colin MacInnes
    38. The Assistant, Bernard Malamud

      1958

    39. The Bell, Iris Murdoch
    40. Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, Alan Sillitoe
    41. The Once and Future King, T.H. White

      1959

    42. The Mansion, William Faulkner
    43. Goldfinger, Ian Fleming

      1960

    44. Facial Justice, L.P. Hartley
    45. The Balkans Trilogy (to 1965), Olivia Manning

      1961

    46. The Mighty and Their Fall, Ivy Compton-Burnett
    47. Catch-22, Joseph Heller
    48. The Fox in the Attic, Richard Hughes
    49. Riders in the Chariot, Patrick White
    50. The Old Men at the Zoo, Angus Wilson

      1962

    51. Another Country, James Baldwin
    52. An Error of Judgment, Pamela Hansford Johnson
    53. Island, Aldous Huxley
    54. The Golden Notebook, Doris Lessing
    55. Pale Fire, Vladimir Nabokov

      1963

    56. The Girls of Slender Means, Muriel Spark

      1964

    57. The Spire, William Golding
    58. Heartland, Wilson Harris
    59. A Single Man, Christopher Isherwood
    60. The Defence, Vladimir Nabokov
    61. Late Call, Angus Wilson

      1965

    62. The Lockwood Concern, John O'Hara
    63. The Mandelbaum Gate, Muriel Spark

      1966

    64. A Man of the People, Chinua Achebe
    65. The Anti-Death League, Kingsley Amis
    66. Giles Goat-Boy, John Barth
    67. The Late Bourgeois World, Nadine Gordimer
    68. The Last Gentleman, Walker Percy

      1967

    69. The Vendor of Sweets, R.K. Narayan

      1968

    70. The Image Men, J.B. Priestley
    71. Cocksure, Mordecai Richler
    72. Pavane, Keith Roberts

      1969

    73. The French Lieutenant's Woman, John Fowles
    74. Portnoy's Complaint, Philip Roth

      1970

    75. Bomber, Len Deighton

      1973

    76. Sweet Dreams, Michael Frayn
    77. Gravity's Rainbow, Thomas Pynchon

      1975

    78. Humboldt's Gift, Saul Bellow
    79. The History Man, Malcolm Bradbury

      1976

    80. The Doctor's Wife, Brian Moore
    81. Falstaff, Robert Nye

      1977

    82. How to Save Your Own Life, Erica Jong
    83. Farewell Companions, James Plunkett
    84. Staying On, Paul Scott

      1978

    85. The Coup, John Updike

      1979

    86. The Unlimited Dream Company, J.G. Ballard
    87. Dubin's Lives, Bernard Malamud
    88. A Bend in the River, V.S. Naipaul
    89. Sophie's Choice, William Stryon

      1980

    90. Life in the West, Brian Aldiss
    91. Riddley Walker, Russell Hoban
    92. How Far Can You Go?, David Lodge
    93. A Confederacy of Dunces, John Kennedy Toole

      1981

    94. Lanark, Alasdair Gray
    95. Darconville's Cat, Alexander Theroux
    96. The Mosquito Coast, Paul Theroux
    97. Creation, Gore Vidal

      1982

    98. The Rebel Angels, Robertson Davies

      1983

    99. Ancient Evenings, Norman Mailer

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  • The Lifetime Reading Plan, by Clifton Fadiman (3rd edition)

    The Beginning

    1. Homer, The Iliad
    2. Homer, The Odyssey
    3. Herodotus, The Histories
    4. Thucydides, The History of the Peloponnesian War
    5. Plato, Selected Works
    6. Aristotle, EthicsPolitics
    7. Aeschylus, The Oresteia
    8. Sophocles, Oedipus RexOedipus at ColonusAntigone
    9. Euripides, AlcestisMedeaHipploytusTrojan WomenElectraBacchae
    10. Lucretius, Of the Nature of Things
    11. Virgil, The Aeneid
    12. Marcus Aurelius, The Meditations

    The Middle Ages

    1. Saint Augustine, Confessions
    2. Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy
    3. Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales

    Plays

    1. William Shakespeare, Complete Works
    2. Moliere, Selected Plays
    3. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Faust
    4. Henrik Ibsen, Selected Plays
    5. George Bernard Shaw, Selcted Plays and Prefaces
    6. Anton Chekhov, Uncle VanyaThree SistersThe Cherry Orchard
    7. Eugene O'Neill, Mourning Becomes ElectraThe Iceman ComethLong Day's Journey into Night
    8. Samuel Beckett, Waiting for GodotEndgameKrapp's Last Tape
    9. Contemporary Drama, edited by E. Bradlee Watson and Benfield Pressey

    Narratives

    1. John Bunyan, Pilgrim's Progress
    2. Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe
    3. Jonathon Swift, Gulliver's TravelsA Modest ProposalMeditations upon a BroomstickResolutions when I Come to be Old
    4. Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy
    5. Henry Fielding, Tom Jones
    6. Jane Austen, Pride and PrejudiceEmma
    7. Emily Bronte, Wuthering Heights
    8. William Makepeace Thackeray, Vanity Fair
    9. Charles Dickens, Pickwick PapersDavid CopperfieldBleak HouseGreat ExpectationsHard TimesOur Mutual FriendLittle Dorrit
    10. George Eliot, The Mill on the FlossMiddlemarch
    11. Lewis Carroll, Alice's Adventures in WonderlandThrough the Looking Glass
    12. Thomas Hardy, The Mayor of Casterbridge
    13. Joseph Conrad, Nostromo
    14. E.M. Forster, A Passage to India
    15. James Joyce, Ulysses
    16. Virginia Woolf, Mrs. DallowayTo the LighthouseOrlandoThe Waves
    17. D.H. Lawrence, Sons and LoversWomen in Love
    18. Aldous Huxley, Brave New WorldCollected Essays
    19. George Orwell, Animal FarmNineteen Eighty-Four
    20. Thomas Mann, The Magic Mountain
    21. Franz Kafka, The TrialThe Castle, Selected Short Stories
    22. Francois Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel
    23. Voltaire, Candide and Selected Works
    24. Stendhal, The Red and the Black
    25. Honore de Balzac, Pere GoriotEugenie Grandet
    26. Gustave Flaubert, Madame Bovary
    27. Marcel Proust, Remembrance of Things Past
    28. Andre Malraux, Man's Fate
    29. Albert Camus, The PlagueThe Stranger
    30. Edgar Allan Poe, Short Stories and Other Works
    31. Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter, Selcted Tales
    32. Herman Melville, Moby DickBartleby the Scrivener
    33. Mark Twain, Huckleberry Finn
    34. Henry James, The Ambassadors
    35. William Faulkner, The Sound and the FuryAs I Lay Dying
    36. Ernest Hemingway, Short Stories
    37. Saul Bellow, The Adventures of Augie MarchHerzogHumboldt's Gift
    38. Miguel de Cervantes de Saavedra, Don Quixote
    39. Jorge Luis Borges, LabyrinthsDreamtigers
    40. Gabriel Garcia Marquez, One Hundred Years of Solitude
    41. Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol, Dead Souls
    42. Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev, Fathers and Sons
    43. Feodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky, Crime and PunishmentThe Brothers Karamazov
    44. Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy, War and Peace
    45. Vladimir Nabokov, LolitaPale FireSpeak, Memory
    46. Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn, The First CircleCancer Ward

    Philosophy, Psychology, Politics, Essays

    1. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan
    2. John Locke, Second Treatise of Government
    3. David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
    4. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty
    5. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto
    6. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra,

    Selected Other Works

    1. Sigmund Freud, Selected Works
    2. Niccolo Macchiavelli, The Prince
    3. Michel Eyquem de Montaigne, Selected Essays
    4. Rene Descartes, Discourse on Method
    5. Blaise Pascal, Thoughts
    6. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America
    7. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Selected Works
    8. Henry David Thoreau, WaldenCivil Disobedience
    9. William James, The Principles of PsychologyPragmatism and Four Essays from The Meaning of TruthThe Varieties of Religious Experience
    10. John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct
    11. George Santayana, Skepticism and Animal Faith, Selected Other Works

    Poetry

    1. John Donne, Selected Works
    2. John Milton, Paradise LostLycidasOn the Morning of Christ's NativitySonnetsAreopagitica
    3. William Blake, Selected Works
    4. William Wordsworth, The Prelude, Selected Shorter Poems, Preface to the Lyrical Ballads, 1800
    5. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Ancient MarinerChristabelKubla KhanBiographia LiterariaWritings on Shakespeare
    6. William Butler Yeats, Collected PoemsCollected PlaysThe Autobiography
    7. T.S. Eliot, Collected Poems and Collected Plays
    8. Walt Whitman, Selected Poems, Democratic Vistas, Preface to the first issue of Leaves of Grass (1855), A Backward Glance O'er Travel'd Roads
    9. Robert Frost, Collected Poems
    10. Poets of the English Language, edited by W.H. Auden and Norman Holmes Pearson
    11. The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, edited by Richard Ellmann and Robert O'Clair

    History, Biography, Autobiography

    1. Basic Documents in American History, edited by Richard B. Morris The Federalist Papers, edited by Clinton Rossiter
    2. Jean Jacques Rousseau, Confessions
    3. James Boswell, The Life of Samuel Johnson
    4. Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams
    5. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip IICivilization and Capitalism 15th-18th Century

    Annex

    1. William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West Will and Ariel Durant, The Story of Civilization
    2. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Oxford History of the American People Page Smith, A People's History of the United States
    3. Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the Modern World
    4. Alfred North Whitehead, An Introduction to Mathematics
    5. E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art
    6. Mortimer J. Adler and Charles Van Doren, How to Read a Book

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  • Recommended Reading in Great Literature, Lake Forest Library, Lake Forest, Illinois

    Ancient World

    1. The Bible
    2. Aristophanes, The Birds
    3. Aristotle, Poetics
    4. Homer, OdysseyIliad
    5. Horace, Odes, etc.
    6. Pindar, Olympians, etc.
    7. Plato, Republic
    8. Sophocles, Oedipus Rex
    9. Theocritus, Idylls
    10. Virgil, Aeneid, etc.
      For background & lighter reading
    11. E. Hamilton, Mythology, etc.
    12. M. Renault, The King Must Die, etc.
    13. J. William, Augustus

    Middle Ages

    1. Bede, History of the English Church and People
    2. Beowulf
    3. A.C. Cawley, Everyman & Miracle Plays
    4. G. Chaucer Canterbury Tales
    5. Dante, Divine Comedy
    6. W. Langland, Piers the Ploughman
    7. T. Malory, Le Morte d'Arthur
      For background & lighter reading
    8. Ackerman, Backgrounds to Medieval Literature
    9. J. Gardner, Grendel
    10. M. Stewart, The Crystal Cave, etc.
    11. T.H. White Once and Future King

    Renaissance & 17th Century

    1. M. Cervantes, Don Quixote
    2. J. Donne, Collected Poems
    3. J. Dryden, MacFlecknoe, etc.
    4. B. Jonson, Epigrams, Plays
    5. C. Marlowe, Poems, Doctor Faustus
    6. J. Milton, Paradise LostL'Allegro
    7. W. Shakespeare, Sonnets, Plays
    8. E. Spenser, Shephearde's Calender

    18th Century

    1. H. Fielding, Joseph Andrews
    2. T. Gray, Elegy in a Country Churchyard
    3. S. Johnson, Life of Milton, etc.
    4. A. Pope, Rape of the Lock, etc.
    5. J. Swift, Gulliver's Travels

    19th Century

      Poetry
    1. M. Arnold, Dover Beach
    2. R. Browning, Collected Works
    3. S.T. Coleridge, Ancient Mariner
    4. E. Dickinson, Collected Works
    5. J. Keats, Collected Works
    6. E.A. Poe, The Raven
    7. P.B. Shelley, Collected Works
    8. A. Tennyson, Idylls of the King, etc.
    9. W. Whitman, Leaves of Grass
    10. W. Wordsworth, Collected Works
      Prose
    11. J. Austen, Pride and Prejudice
    12. C. Bronte, Jane Eyre
    13. E. Bronte, Wuthering Heights
    14. L. Carroll, Alice in Wonderland
    15. W. Cather, My Antonia, etc.
    16. J. Cooper, Last of the Mohicans
    17. C. Dickens, Great Expectations, etc.
    18. F. Dostoyevsky, Crime & Punishment, etc.
    19. G. Eliot, Adam Bede
    20. R.W. Emerson, American Scholar, etc.
    21. G. Flaubert, Madame Bovary
    22. T. Hardy, Tess of the d'Urbervilles, etc.
    23. N. Hawthorne, Scarlet Letter, etc.
    24. W. Irving, Legend of Sleepy Hollow
    25. H. Melville, Billy BuddMoby Dick, etc.
    26. W. Scott, Ivanhoe, etc.
    27. W.M. Thackery, Vanity Fair
    28. H.D. Thoreau, Walden
    29. L. Tolstoy, War and Peace
    30. M. Twain, Huckleberry FinnRoughing It

    Late 19th & 20th Century

      Drama
    1. S. Becket, Waiting for Godot
    2. B. Brecht, Mother Courage
    3. A. Chekhov, Cherry Orchard
    4. L. Hansberry, A Raisin in the Sun
    5. H. Ibsen, A Doll's House, etc.
    6. A. Miller, Death of a Salesman
    7. E. O'Neill, Ah Wilderness, etc.
    8. Pirandello, Six Characters in Search...
    9. G.B. Shaw, PygmalionMajor Barbara, etc.
    10. A. Strindberg, Miss Julie, etc.
    11. J. Synge, Playboy of the Western World
    12. O. Wilde, The Importance of Being Ernest
    13. T. Wilder, Our TownSkin of Our Teeth
    14. T. Williams, Streetcar Named Desire
      Poetry
    15. W.H. Auden, Collected Works
    16. e.e. cummings, Collected Works
    17. T.S. Eliot, Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock
    18. R. Frost, Collected Works
    19. G.M. Hopkins, Collected Works
    20. A.E. Housman, Collected Works
    21. T. Roethke, Collected Works
    22. W.B. Yeats, Collected Works
      Essays, Short Stories, Expository Works
    23. J. Didion, Collected Works
    24. A. Dillard, Collected Works
    25. L. Eiseley, Immense Journey, etc.
    26. J. McPhee, Collected Works
    27. F. O'Connor, Collected Works
    28. Saki (Munro), Collected Short Stories
    29. L. Thomas, Collected Works
    30. J. Thurber, Carnival, etc.
    31. E.B. White, Essays
      Prose
    32. S. Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio
    33. J. Conrad, Lord JimHeart of Darkness
    34. W. Faulkner, Sound and the Fury
    35. F.S. Fitzgerald, Great Gatsby
    36. E.M. Forster, A Passage to India
    37. J. Galsworthy, Forsyte Saga
    38. E. Hemingway, The Sun also Rises
    39. A. Huxley, Brave New World
    40. H. James, The Ambassadors, etc.
    41. J. Joyce, Portrait of the Artist..., etc.
    42. D.H. Lawrence, Women in Love
    43. S. Lewis, Main Street
    44. J. Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath
    45. V. Woolf, To the Lighthouse
    46. R. Wright, Native Son

    Contemporary

      Prose
    1. K. Amis, Lucky Jim
    2. J. Baldwin, Go Tell it on the Mountain
    3. S. Beckett, Murphy
    4. J. Barth, The End of the Road
    5. R. Bradbury, The Martian Chronicles
    6. A. Burgess, EnderbyA Clockwork Orange
    7. A. Camus, OutsiderPlague
    8. R. Ellison, Invisible Man
    9. F.M. Ford, The Good Soldier
    10. J. Gardner, October Light
    11. W. Golding, Lord of the Flies
    12. J. Heller, Catch-22
    13. J. Herriot, All Creatures Great & Small
    14. J. Knowles, A Separate Peace
    15. H. Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird
    16. N. Mailer, Armies of the Night
    17. T. Morrison, Song of Solomon
    18. G. Orwell, Animal Farm1984
    19. A. Paton, Cry the Beloved Country
    20. J.D. Salinger, Catcher in the Rye
    21. J.R.R. Tolkien, Lord of the Rings
    22. J. Watson, The Double Helix

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  • Classics Revisited and More Classics Revisited by Kenneth Rexroth

      From Classics Revisited

    1. The Epic of Gilgamesh
    2. Homer, The Iliad
    3. Homer, The Odyssey
    4. Beowulf
    5. Njal's Saga
    6. Job
    7. The Mahabharata
    8. The Kalevala
    9. Sappho, Poems
    10. Aeschylus, The Oresteia
    11. Sophocles, The Theban Plays
    12. Euripides
    13. Herodotus, History
    14. Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War
    15. Plato, The Trial and Death of Socrates
    16. Plato, The Republic
    17. The Greek Anthology
    18. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things
    19. Livy, Early Rome
    20. Julius Caesar, The War in Gaul
    21. Petronius, The Satyricon
    22. Tacitus, Histories
    23. Plutarch, Parallel Lives
    24. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations
    25. Apuleius, The Golden Ass
    26. Medieval Latin Lyrics
    27. Tu Fu, Poems
    28. Classic Japanese Poetry
    29. Lady Murasaki, The Tale of Genji
    30. Chaucer, Canterbury Tales
    31. Rabelais, The Adventures of Gargantua and Pantagruel
    32. Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo
    33. Thomas More, Utopia
    34. Machiavelli, The Prince
    35. Malory, Le Morte d'Arthur
    36. Montaigne, Essays
    37. Cervantes, Don Quixote
    38. Shakespeare, Macbeth
    39. Shakespeare, The Tempest
    40. Webster, The Duchess of Malfi
    41. Ben Jonson, Volpone
    42. Izaak Walton, The Compleat Angler
    43. John Bunyan, Pilgrim's Progress
    44. Tsao Hsueh Chin, The Dream of the Red Chamber
    45. Giacomo Casanova, History of My Life
    46. Henry Fielding Tom Jones
    47. Laurence Sterne, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent.
    48. Restif de la Bretonne, Monsieur Nicolas
    49. Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
    50. Stendhal, The Red and the Black
    51. Baudelaire, Poems
    52. Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto
    53. Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass
    54. Dostoevsky, The Brothers Karamazov
    55. Gustave Flaubert, A Sentimental Education
    56. Tolstoy, War and Peace
    57. Rimbaud, Poems
    58. Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, Journal
    59. Mark Twain, Huckleberry Finn
    60. Chekhov, Plays

      From More Classics Revisited

    61. The Song of Songs
    62. Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching
    63. Euripides, Hippolytus
    64. Aristotle, Poetics
    65. Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius
    66. The Bhagavad-Gita
    67. Ssu-Ma Chien, Records of the Grand Historian of China
    68. Catullus
    69. Virgil, The Aeneid
    70. The Early Irish Epic
    71. Sei Shonagon, The Pillow Book
    72. Abelard and Heloise
    73. Heike Monogatari
    74. St. Thomas Aquinas
    75. The English and Scottish Popular Ballad
    76. Racine, Phedre
    77. Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe
    78. Daniel Defoe, Moll Flanders
    79. Jonathon Swift, Gulliver's Travels
    80. Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
    81. Choderlos de Laclos, Dangerous Acquaintances
    82. Gilbert White, A Natural History and Antiquity of Selbourne
    83. Robert Burns
    84. William Blake
    85. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
    86. Honore de Balzac
    87. The Journal of John Woolman
    88. Charles Dickens, The Pickwick Papers
    89. Francis Parkman, France and England in North America
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  • 2022/10/23

    ** [The Meaning of Life: Garfield: L34-35, 36 Dalai Lama

    LECTURE 34

    HH Dalai Lama XIV—A Modern Buddhist View ..............................120

    LECTURE 35

    HH Dalai Lama XIV—Discernment and Happiness........................124

    ===

    HH Dalai Lama XIV—A Modern Buddhist View

    Lecture 34




    [The Dalai Lama] has argued repeatedly that as far as he is concerned, it’s the deliverances of science that tell us about the fundamental nature of reality, not classical religious scriptures, and he has repeatedly said that where Buddhism or when any religion conÀ icts with science, we should go with science, not with the deliverances of religion.

    T

    he Dalai Lama’s view of the meaning of life is, of course, deeply inÀ ected and motivated by Buddhism, but he articulates it primarily as a modern secular vision, a vision with roots in ideas of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, democratic theory, and the importance of science. He follows Aristotle in seeing the universal goal of human life to be happiness, but that happiness can only be attained in the context of social interdependence. Like any Buddhist, the Dalai Lama sees the problem of life as constituted by suffering, whose modern sources he ¿ nds in consumer capitalism and industrialism. He sees the sources of happiness in purposive action in a human context.

    The Dalai Lama agrees with Aristotle that happiness, À ourishing, meets the criteria for the highest good in life: ¿ nality and self-suf¿ ciency. The components of happiness in a modern life include food, shelter, physical security, peace, education, access to health care, the opportunity for free expression of ideas, a certain amount of leisure, and possibility for personal development. The fact that people around the world are willing to ¿ ght to achieve these goals must mean that they are universal.

    Because the Dalai Lama’s is a Buddhist account of the nature of reality, it is rooted in the doctrine of dependent origination, in which all things are interdependent in three senses. The ¿ rst is causal dependence; everything occurs as a consequence of innumerable causes and conditions, and every event produces innumerable effects. The second form of interdependence is part-whole dependence; parts depend upon the whole for their nature and functioning, and wholes depend upon parts in order to exist. The third form of interdependence is dependence on conceptual imputation, that is, dependence of things for their identity and function on the way in which we think about them.

    The Dalai Lama argues that interdependence provides us with the deepest analysis of the fundamental nature of reality. Everything around us, in particular, our own lives and the lives of the communities in which we participate, is characterized by this threefold interdependence. Moreover, the Dalai Lama emphasizes that this is completely consistent with the deliverance of modern science. Physics, for example, demonstrates that everything is part of a uniform, causal whole and interdependent in all these ways. He



    argues that if our lives are to be meaningful, they must be grounded in reality, and given that interdependence is the fundamental nature of reality, a meaningful life is one that responds to and reÀ ects an appreciation of interdependence.

    For the Dalai Lama, human interdependence deserves special emphasis. Social reality develops for us distinctive kinds of partwhole interdependence because so much of our lives and our identities are determined by the wholes of which we’re parts. Conceptual imputation in the construction of identity and roles is also salient in human affairs in ways that it’s not in physical affairs. Our decisions that a particular person is a



    Interconnection also constitutes our happiness because so much of our happiness is social. We become happy when our actions actually match the goals and values we endorse. That’s often only possible socially because so many of our goals and so many of our values are collective social values.



    criminal versus an upright citizen, a colleague versus a competitor, and so on determine the nature of our relations, the nature of our lives, and the nature of our happiness.

    Each of the dimensions of interdependence is implicated in the arising of suffering and the production of happiness. All these forms of interdependence give us the possibility of having complex effects in our actions. Everything we do ripples through societies instantly and in countless ways and in ways that we can’t always control but that demand our reÀ ection. And because our actions have so many effects, we have obligations to make sure that

    those effects are bene¿ cial, and we have responsibilities to those who can be affected by our actions.

    According to the Dalai Lama, modern capitalism has brought Everything we do ripples through societies instantly and in countless ways and in ways that we can’t always control but that demand our reÀ ection.

    the original source of suffering— primal confusion that results in attraction and aversion—to new heights. Advertising, for example, creates both need and fear, attraction and aversion, and it isolates us in a marketplace with a given commodity, forcing a decision on whether or not we need something. The Dalai Lama thinks that commodi¿ cation has also infected politics because it creates politicians and ideas as commodities, then generates attraction or aversion. The mass media and mass culture are, thus, sources of confusion and suffering.

    Oddly, the sources of happiness in the modern world are similar to the sources of unhappiness. One such source is our interconnection with others, which enables us to produce both the material and the collective social goods we want and allows us to discover truth in learning from one another. This interconnection also brings us happiness in the form of social interactions and activities with friends and families. It offers us the opportunity to work out the kinds of social values and ideals we endorse and lead a life of integrity and authenticity. Ŷ

    Name to Know

    His Holiness the Dalai Lama XIV, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935): The Dalai Lama lineage in Tibet is regarded by Tibetans as a reincarnate lineage: Each successive Dalai Lama is recognized as a rebirth of his predecessor, and all are regarded by Tibetans as emanations of AvalalokiteĞvara, the Buddhist celestial bodhisattva of compassion.




    Suggested Reading


    • Prebish and Baumann, eds., Westward Dharma.


    Study Questions

    1. In what sense is the Dalai Lama’s diagnosis of modern life Buddhist? In what sense is it modern?

    2. What is the difference between the analysis of modernity presented by Gandhi and that presented by the Dalai Lama?

    ===

    HH Dalai Lama XIV—Discernment and Happiness

    Lecture 35


    The union of compassion and discernment is a union of moral perceptual skills—where, when we see a situation, we see the sources of suffering, we see the possibilities for happiness—and the interpersonal skills that allow us to see what kinds of interventions will be most useful and commit us to those kinds of interventions.

    A

    s we saw in the last lecture, dependent origination grounds the possibility of both suffering and happiness. For the Dalai Lama, the source of suffering in the modern world is the ideology of commodity fetishism, and the only solution to suffering is to develop a deep kind of compassion, an attitude that respects interdependence and commits us to the creation of happiness.

    The Dalai Lama notes that unhappiness doesn’t derive directly from external circumstances but from our emotional reactions to adversity. Such emotional reactions arise from both attachment and aversion and can be either individual or collective. The Dalai Lama thinks of emotions that cause suffering as pathologies; examples include greed, lust, hate, and so on. In some cases, such as when we speak of righteous anger, we mistake pathology for virtue, but as we’ve seen, anger never results in positive outcomes. If we’re going to understand the nature of suffering and happiness, we must be able to distinguish between bene¿ cial and pathological emotions.

    According to the Dalai Lama, pathological emotions are grounded in confusion, a misperception of reality. We see something else as the source of our unhappiness instead of ourselves; we see some object as necessary instead of simply an option. To cultivate positive emotions, we need a clear, accurate understanding of reality and not just on a theoretical or abstract level. We must seek instinctive, spontaneous responses to the world as causally dependent, part-whole dependent, and dependent on imputation. This instinctive cognitive habit is dif¿ cult to accomplish, and that’s why the notion of karunƗ—compassion—is so important. KarunƗ gives us commitment, that altruistic aspiration to act, impelling us to develop spontaneous ways of interacting with the world in place of our ordinary approaches. The use of moral imagination is important here because we need to be able to understand that the interests of others are, in a deep sense, just like our interests and that their pain is just like our pain.

    The Dalai Lama argues that the cultivation of compassion comes in two parts: the cultivation of restraint and the cultivation of virtue. By restraint, he means the holding back of instinctive negative reactions, actions of anger, greed, carelessness, and so forth. By virtue, he means developing a positive commitment to bene¿ t others. Restraint cuts off the roots

    To cultivate positive emotions, we need a clear, accurate understanding of reality and not just on a theoretical or abstract level. of suffering by prompting us to reÀ ect on the causes of pathological emotions, thus subverting primal confusion and ignorance. ReÀ ection also highlights the impermanence of the world, including the

    impermanence of the things that cause us to experience suffering and

    our own emotional reactions. Through reÀ ecting on selÀ essness, we’re able to suspend the ordinary cognitive habit of thinking of ourselves as subjects and everything else in the world as objects. That way of thinking reÀ ects the nature of reality as determined by a polar coordinate system with oneself at the center and everything else arrayed in terms of its relationship to the center. This conception gives rise to conÀ ict, but by reÀ ecting on selÀ essness, we come to take our own importance less seriously.

    Restraint keeps us from doing bad things, but it doesn’t by itself motivate us to do the things that are necessary for own happiness or the happiness of others. To do that, we need to cultivate generosity, the willingness to detach ourselves from our possessions. As ĝƗntideva reminded us, virtue also requires patience, not only with others but with ourselves. The moral development that we come to demand of ourselves when we adopt this understanding of the nature of our lives isn’t acquired in a moment.

    The concept of virtue that the Dalai Lama emphasizes requires attentive concern, mindfulness, discernment, and compassion. The dimension of attentiveness commits us to truly understanding the nature of the problem and the solutions that would rectify it. The dimension of concern is a commitment to take action. Mindfulness of our own emotional states enables us to focus on virtuous rather than nonvirtuous emotions. Discernment is necessary to allow us to understand the details of any particular situation: What are the causes, conditions, and effects? Finally, we need compassion in the sense of karunƗ, an altruistic commitment to act. For compassion to be genuine and ef¿ cacious, it must rest on discernment, a deep analytical understanding of suffering.

    The Dalai Lama emphasizes that this kind of compassion entails a Gandhian universal responsibility, a responsibility for the welfare of all, because there are no limitations on compassion. Any limitations could originate only in pathological distinctions between ourselves and others. Compassion must be rooted in the de-centering of the individual, which will make such distinctions impossible. What we’re seeing here is a modern version of the bodhisattva path: the altruistic resolution to act for the bene¿ t of all sentient beings. Ŷ




    Suggested Reading

    Study Questions

    1. In what sense is the Dalai Lama’s recommendation for a meaningful life different from those of Gandhi and Lame Deer? In what respects is it similar?

    2. Why is compassion, as opposed to a sense of duty, the foundation for a meaningful life in the modern world, according to the Dalai Lama?










    So, What Is the Meaning of Life?

    Lecture 36




    Often, one is led to ¿ nd super¿ cial similarities and to overemphasize those and, therefore, to lose a lot of the texture and detail that’s bequeathed to us by the textual traditions that we’ve been examining.

    W

    e’ve encountered a great deal of diversity in this course, but we can still point to certain recurrent themes. For example, almost every position we’ve considered has emphasized the importance of a

    connection between our own lives and some larger context, of temporality, of some ideal of human perfection, and of spontaneity. In conjunction with spontaneity, we’ve seen an emphasis on freedom. We’ve also seen the need to understand the nature of the world we live in and the nature of our own lives in order to live an authentic life. In this lecture, we examine each of these themes to see what general conclusions we might draw.

    The larger context required for a meaningful life has sometimes been conceived as a universal, divine, or cosmic context, as in the BhagavadGƯtƗ, the book of Job, and the Stoics. For the Daoists, this larger context is similar but more impersonal; it’s the context of the dao, the way of things. Sometimes, this context is a bit more narrow—a global context or a natural one. Lame Deer, for instance, emphasized that the context of our lives that matters most is that of nature, and the Dalai Lama, along with Aristotle, Confucius, and others, emphasizes a social context. In each case, the key to ¿ nding meaning in our lives is to ¿ rst identify the larger context in which our small lives make sense, then to understand how we can make our lives meaningful by connecting them to that context.

    With regard to temporality, the Stoics emphasized the eternality of the universe and the fact that the period of our existence is brief and bounded by in¿ nite gulfs of our absence. Buddhism also emphasizes a constant awareness of impermanence, the beauty of impermanence, and the urgency that impermanence gives to our lives. Tolstoy, Lame Deer, and Nietzsche pick up on the theme of mindfulness of death: At each moment in our lives, we need to be aware of our own mortality and ¿ nitude.

    In the texts we’ve examined, we’ve often seen the question of the meaning of life addressed in terms of an account of human perfection. Aristotle offered us an ideal of the perfect human life in the concept of eudaimonea, À ourishing, and tells us that this ideal can be achieved through a life of activity in accordance with virtue, through moral strength and

    practical wisdom, and through friendship. The Daoists and Zen Buddhists give us the sage as the ideal of perfection, one who pays attention to the empty spaces This spontaneity is motivated by the idea that our actions and values don’t need to be brought together arti¿ cially.

    and who lives spontaneously, effortlessly. ĝƗntideva and the

    Dalai Lama extend this account of perfection to encompass the cultivation of a certain kind of compassion, a commitment to altruistic action on behalf of others. For Kant and Mill, human life is focused on reason, discourse, and participation in liberal democratic societies. That ideal was challenged by Nietzsche, who emphasized that what makes our lives beautiful is our artistry and spontaneity, our ability to re-evaluate the values we’re taught and lead our lives in harmony with values we ourselves create.

    Many of the philosophers and theologians we’ve examined have urged us to cultivate spontaneity in our lives. This spontaneity is motivated by the idea that our actions and values don’t need to be brought together arti¿ cially. For Aristotle and Confucius, the model here is that of the artist, one who practices endlessly to achieve a second nature. For Daoism and Zen, the emphasis is on the need to pare away the arti¿ cial second nature and return to naturalness. Ultimately, Lame Deer tells us that we need to understand that we are fundamentally part of the biological world, a world of circles rather than squares.

    For the thinkers we’ve explored, a meaningful life necessarily entails freedom. The GƯtƗ emphasized the fact that freedom emerges from discipline, while the Daoists urged us to free ourselves from social standards. Hume and Kant emphasized the need to attain freedom from authority, an idea that Mill extended to an insistence on absolute freedom of thought. Nietzsche was concerned with freedom from philosophical ideas and from an intellectual tradition that makes creativity impossible. Gandhi emphasized selfmastery similar to that in the GƯtƗ, the kind of discipline that frees us from consumerism and other external constraints.

    The answer to our original question is deeply complex and conÀ icted; it requires us to cultivate an awareness of reality in all its complexity and adversity, to understand that our lives are ¿ nite, and to develop a commitment to achieving individual excellence and to creating meaning in the lives of others. Perhaps the ¿ rst step in ¿ nding meaning is to ask the question, then to engage, as we have done in this course, with the wide diversity of answers that have been given throughout history and around the world. Ŷ




    Study Questions

    1. What are the major dimensions along which accounts of the meaning of life differ from one another? How would one go about choosing one approach over another?

    2. What common insights survive these differences? Why do these ideas transcend the different approaches? Are they consistent with one another?






    ====

    Glossary




    ahimsa: Nonviolence, or refraining from harming others.

    Analects, The: The collection of sayings and dialogues attributed to Kongfuzi (Confucius). It relies on a set of key philosophical ideas, including:

    x ren: Humanity, warm-heartedness x li: Ritual propriety, etiquette x de: Virtue, integrity, moral rectitude

    x xiao: Filial piety; respect for, and obedience to, one’s parents, elders, and superiors x tian: Heaven, or the order of the universe

    x wu-wei: Inaction or spontaneous, effortless activity in contrast to studied, deliberate action aretƝ: Virtue or excellence.

    awarƝ: In Japanese Buddhist aesthetics, the particular beauty that derives from the impermanence of things, the beauty things have just before they fade.

    being-time: The intimate union of existence and temporality; the fact that to exist is to be impermanent yet to have a past and a future to which one is essentially connected and the fact that human existence is always experienced in relation to past, present, and future.

    bodhisattva: In Buddhism, one who has formed the altruistic aspiration to attain awakening for the bene¿ t of all sentient beings.

    Chaldeans (Book of Job): An ancient Near Eastern people who lived in Mesopotamia.

    depersonalization: Abstraction from one’s own personal interests or place in the world; taking a disinterested view of things.

    dharma: A word with many meanings the root of which means “to hold.” Meanings include duty, virtue, doctrine, entity, and reality, depending on context.

    Epicurean: A school of Greek and Roman philosophy following the teachings of Epicurus (4th3rd century B.C.E.). Central doctrines of the school were atomism, materialism, and an emphasis on the attainment of peace of mind through moderation and control of the emotions.

    ƝthikƝ/ethos: Behavior or conduct.

    eudaimonea: Human À ourishing, a good life, often translated as “happiness.”

    foundationalism: The doctrine that knowledge must rest on a basis. Examples of foundations of knowledge are perception and reason.

    Jainism: An Indian religion in which nonviolence is the central value.

    karunƗ: Compassion, the commitment to act to relieve the suffering of others.

    kratƝ: Moral strength, the ability to stick to one’s resolve in the face of temptation or fear.

    Krishna: An Indian manifestation of divinity.

    libertarianism: The belief that individuals should have the maximum personal liberty consistent with the liberty of others; resistance of the intrusion of the law into the private sphere. metaphysics: The study of the fundamental nature of reality.

    neo-VedƗnta: A late 19th- and early 20th-century philosophical movement in India grounded in a revival and reinterpretation of the ancient Indian texts collectively called the Vedas. Prominent neo-VedƗnta philosophers included Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, and Sri Aurobindo.

    phenomenology: Inner experience, or the theory of inner experience.

    phronesis: Practical wisdom, the ability to deliberate wisely about how to accomplish one’s goals.

    postmodernity: An ideological outlook that rejects the fundamental tenets of European modernism—the unity of the subject, the fact that knowledge constitutes a uni¿ ed system that rests on sure foundations, the conviction that civilization is progressive—in favor of a conviction that subjectivity is variable and often fragmented, a suspicion of uni¿ ed systems and a conviction that knowledge is socially constructed and À uid, and a suspicion of a single narrative of human progress. The term also refers to the social conditions that reÀ ect this view, namely, conditions in which fundamental claims are contested, societies are pluralistic, and values do not sustain a uni¿ ed view of knowledge or progress.

    Sabeans (Book of Job): An ancient Near Eastern tribe that lived near present-day Yemen.

    Samaj movements: The Arya and Brahmo Samajs (Samaj means “society”); two prominent modernist religious reform movements that swept India in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Both emphasized a return to classical Indian texts and ideas but also the abandonment of ritual, the rejection of caste, and an embrace of modernity and Indian nationalism.

    Sanskrit: The language of classical Indian scholarship, as opposed to Prakrits, classical vernacular languages.

    Sapere Aude!: Kant’s motto of enlightenment: “Dare to know!”

    satyƗgraha: A Gandhian term: holding on to, or insisting on, the truth. A refusal to act in accordance with any principle one does not endorse and a commitment to principled action and honesty.

    Sheol (Book of Job): The underworld, the place where the dead reside in the ancient Hebrew tradition.

    Ğramana: A wandering ascetic of ancient India.

    svadharma: One’s own particular duty or role in life, often in India tied to caste.

    swadeshi: Literally, one’s own country. Commitment to the value and practices of one’s own country or culture, to self-reliance, and to consuming only what is produced locally.

    swaraj: Self-rule. This can mean individual self-mastery or the selfgovernment of a people or nation. For Gandhi, these two senses were deeply connected. theophany: Revelation of the deity.

    Transcendentalists: A group of American philosophers, poets, and writers who looked to Asia for inspiration and who were oriented toward mystical values and concerns that transcend the mundane world. Emerson, Thoreau, and Whitman were prominent Transcendentalists.

    Utilitarianism: A moral theory according to which actions are right to the degree to which they promote happiness or pleasure and wrong to the degree that they promote unhappiness or pain.

    yoga: Discipline or spiritual practice. The Bhagavad-GƯtƗ enumerates three kinds of discipline, representing three aspects of life:

    x karma yoga: The discipline of action, the pursuit of divinity through action

    x jñƗna yoga: The discipline of knowledge, the pursuit of divinity through knowledge

    x bhakti yoga: The discipline of devotion, the pursuit of divinity through devotional practice



    ===============




    Biographical Notes



    Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.): Aristotle was born in Stageira and moved to Athens in his youth, where he was a prominent aristocrat. He studied under Plato at the Academy. After Plato’s death, he traveled in present-day Turkey, conducting scienti¿ c research. In 343 B.C.E., he was appointed tutor to Alexander the Great. In 335 B.C.E., he returned to Athens and established the Lyceum, where he taught for 12 years, probably his most philosophically creative period. He left Athens to avoid prosecution for impiety and died at age 62 in Chalcis. Aristotle, like Plato, wrote philosophical dialogues, but none of his original works survives; what we have instead are lecture notes from his students. He wrote and taught on virtually every academic subject, including the natural sciences, rhetoric, poetry, metaphysics, logic, ethics, and political philosophy. Aristotle was enormously inÀ uential in the development of Islamic philosophy and medieval European philosophy.

    Chuang Tzu (Zhuangzi) (perhaps c. 370–c. 300 B.C.E.): There is no consensus regarding the existence of Chuang Tzu, who may have been created as a ¿ ctional author of the text that bears his name. This text, however, may be the work of multiple authors over several centuries. It is said that he left a minor government position for a life as a hermit philosopher and that he once turned down a prime ministership.

    Confucius (Kongfuzi) (c. 551–479 B.C.E.): Confucius was born in the Chinese state of Lu (the present-day Shandong province of China) to a military family near the end of the Spring-Autumn period of Chinese history, a period that saw a great deal of warfare between small Chinese states. His father apparently died when Confucius was young, leaving the young boy and his concubine mother in poverty. Confucius clearly studied the Chinese classics with great success and spent most of his life as a low-level civil servant. He became famous as a teacher and spent much of his life traveling from state to state, teaching philosophy and politics. The texts by means of which we know Confucius’s thought are records of his conversations and teachings preserved by his disciples.



    His Holiness the Dalai Lama XIV, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935): The Dalai Lama lineage in Tibet is regarded by Tibetans as a reincarnate lineage: Each successive Dalai Lama is recognized as a rebirth of his predecessor, and all are regarded by Tibetans as emanations of AvalalokiteĞvara, the Buddhist celestial bodhisattva of compassion. Dalai Lamas are, hence, regarded by Tibetans as physical manifestations of compassion in the world. The Dalai Lama has traditionally been both the spiritual and political leader of Tibet. The present Dalai Lama was born in a small village in Amdo, in far northeastern Tibet. When he was 3 years old, he was recognized by a search party as the rebirth of the 13th Dalai Lama and brought to Lhasa for enthronement and education. In 1949, the Army of the People’s Republic of China entered Tibet, and despite his youth, the Dalai Lama assumed, at the age of 14, political leadership of Tibet. Shortly after this, he completed his monastic education and earned the highest academic degree conferred in Tibet, the geshe lharampa (a Ph.D. with highest honors). For 10 years, the Dalai Lama attempted to cooperate with the Chinese government in order to allow Chinese authority and modernization while preserving Tibetan cultural identity. But as Chinese repression grew more severe, Tibetan resistance increased. In 1959, the Tibetans rose up against Chinese occupation, and the Dalai Lama was forced to À ee into exile in India, followed by several hundred thousand Tibetan refugees. In India, the Dalai Lama has led a government-in-exile and overseen the establishment of Tibetan schools, orphanages, hospitals, social services, monastic institutions, universities, and ¿ nally, a democratic Tibetan government, stepping aside as head of government. He has opened a long-running dialogue with scientists and has published dozens of books, ranging from highly technical books on Buddhist philosophy to popular guides to happiness. The Dalai Lama has taught or spoken in countries around the world, always promoting nonviolent conÀ ict resolution, interfaith harmony, and a humanitarian social identity. In 1989, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace.

    Dǀgen (1200–1253): Dǀgen was the illegitimate son of a high-ranking Japanese courtier, who died when her son was 7 years old. Early in his life, Dǀgen joined the great Tendai monastery at Mt. Hiei. But he was dissatis¿ ed with Tendai philosophy, bothered by the problem of the need to seek awakening if all sentient beings are primordially awakened. He moved to a Zen temple in Japan, studying under the great Zen master Eisai until the latter’s death. In 1223, Dǀgen traveled to China to search for teachings that would resolve his remaining concerns. After visiting several monasteries, he encountered the Zen teacher Rujing, under whom he had his awakening experience. In 1228, Dǀgen returned to Japan with the Sǀtǀ Zen lineage inherited from Ruing; he taught at several important temples and wrote hundreds of essays, laying the philosophical foundations of Sǀtǀ Zen in Japan. He settled near the end of his life at Eiheji, which became the headquarters of the Sǀtǀ Zen lineage in Japan.

    Epictetus (55–135 C.E.): Little is known of the life of Epictetus, who was born a slave. He lived the ¿ rst part of his life in Rome but was exiled to Greece. He studied Stoic philosophy in his youth and, at some point, gained his freedom. He was a popular teacher and widely respected both as a Stoic philosopher and an orator. None of his writings, if ever there were any, survives. The fragments that constitute his corpus are, in fact, lecture notes.

    Gandhi, Mohandas K. (1869–1948): Gandhi was born in Porbandar, then a small princely state, in the modern state of Gujarat. His father was diwan of that state. Gandhi’s parents were both devout Hindus, but much of the surrounding community was Jain; hence, he grew up in a context of great piety and commitment to nonviolence. He was married at age 13. At age 18, he left India for London, where he studied law. While in England, he was active in the Vegetarian Society and came into contact with theosophists; thus, he developed a broader interest in world religions. Gandhi also studied liberal political theory and read Tolstoy and the American Transcendentalists. He returned to India in 1891 and, after some desultory practice, accepted a position in South Africa in 1893. In South Africa, Gandhi encountered ¿ rsthand the racial discrimination that pervaded the British Empire. Most famously, he was thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg when he refused to vacate the ¿ rst-class compartment for which he had a ticket. This event and others led Gandhi to lead massive nonviolent protests against discriminatory laws. In this context, he formulated his principle of satyƗgraha—insistence on the truth and principled nonviolence as the only ways to challenge overwhelming repression. Gandhi returned to India in 1915, joined the Indian National Congress, and became active, ¿ rst, in the congress’s efforts to resist unjust laws and policies, then in the independence movement. Gandhi led this movement to Indian independence through careful cultivation of nonviolent resistance and refusal to comply with British imperial rule. He led numerous public protests and was jailed regularly but maintained his paci¿ sm and tolerance. Gandhi was deeply opposed to the partition of India and deeply saddened by that eventuality and the violence that came in its wake. He was assassinated by a Hindu fundamentalist terrorist as he walked to prayers in 1948. Gandhi has been a major inÀ uence on such subsequent advocates of nonviolence and insistence on truth as the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, President Nelson Mandela of South Africa, and HH the Dalai Lama XIV.

    Hume, David (1711–1776): David Hume was a philosophical prodigy and a central ¿ gure of the Scottish Enlightenment. He entered the University of Edinburgh when he was 12 years old, rejecting the study of law for philosophy. After a brief career in business, he traveled to La Flèche, where in conversation with Jesuit philosophers and with access to an excellent library, he wrote his Treatise of Human Nature, published when he was 26 years of age. The Treatise is today recognized as one of the great masterpieces of Western philosophy but was ridiculed by critics at the time of its publication. Hume was undaunted and continued to publish philosophical essays, many of which were well-received, and his monumental History of England, a text that remained a standard history for more than a century after his death. He aspired to a chair in philosophy at Glasgow but was rejected as an atheist. Hume was widely admired as a humanist and as a scholar. He died in Edinburgh a very happy man.

    Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804): Immanuel Kant is almost universally regarded as the greatest of all European philosophers. He was born and spent his entire life in Königsberg (present-day Kalningrad) in Prussia. Indeed, he never ventured more than 100 miles from that city. Kant studied at the University of Königsberg, then spent his entire career teaching there. He was a proli¿ c writer, but most of the books of his early years are no longer inÀ uential. In 1781, however, he produced his masterpiece, The Critique of Pure Reason, one of the most profound philosophical investigations undertaken in the Western tradition. This was followed by both The Critique of Practical Reason and The Critique of Judgment, extending Kant’s philosophical system from epistemology and metaphysics to ethics, then to aesthetics and a number of smaller but important texts. It is fair to say that Kant completely transformed the face of European philosophy. He was the ¿ rst professor of philosophy to be an important philosopher in his own right; he developed the ¿ rst comprehensive European philosophical system since the Enlightenment; and he demonstrated that philosophy can take natural science seriously yet remain an autonomous domain of thought. Today, nobody can become a serious philosopher without ¿ rst studying the work of Kant.

    Lame Deer, John (1900–1976): John Lame Deer was a Lakota Sioux medicine man born on the Rosebud Reservation and educated in Bureau of Indian Affairs schools. In early adult life, he was a rodeo rider and led the rough life of that trade. After meeting the keeper of the medicine pipe of the Lakota people, he became a medicine man. The second half of his life was devoted to educating Lakota and other Americans about Lakota culture, to the revival of Lakota culture, and to the recovery of traditional Lakota land in the Black Hills.

    Lao Tzu (perhaps 6th, 5th, or even 4th century B.C.E.): There is no consensus about whether Lao Tzu (Laozi) ever existed. Many scholars regard him as a mythical ¿ gure constructed as the author of the Daodejing, which may well have developed under the hands of multiple authors over several centuries. Putative biographies locate his birth in Chu (Henan province) and state that he spent much of his adult life in Zhou, near present-day Luoyang, working in a library. He is said to have left the court and disappeared into the West.

    Marcus Aurelius (121–160 C.E.): Marcus Aurelius was the son of a wealthy, noble Roman family living in present-day Spain. Marcus was educated by eminent tutors and adopted, in 138, by the emperor Aurelius Antoninus (Pius), under whom he served as consul for some time. While in public service, Marcus continued to pursue his education, studying Greek, literature, philosophy, and rhetoric with some of the most prominent teachers in Rome. He also studied law, a subject for which he appears to have had little appetite. In 161, on the death of Antoninus Pius, Marcus assumed the throne as emperor of Rome along with his adopted brother Lucius, who died soon thereafter, leaving Marcus as sole emperor. His reign was marked by many border wars, all of which concluded satisfactorily for Rome. He was noted as a skilled legislator and judge and was apparently much occupied with administration. Marcus continued to pursue philosophy throughout his life and, on a visit to Athens, proclaimed himself “Protector of Philosophy.” He died while on tour in what is now Vienna.

    Mill, John Stuart (1806–1873): John Stuart Mill was the son of the historian James Mill, a close follower of the Utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham. Bentham and Mill developed a rigorous system of upbringing and education for the young John Stuart, who was isolated from other children and taught Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and algebra from age 3. By the time he was 10, he could read Plato in Greek and composed poetry in classical Greek. In his teens, Mill studied logic, rhetoric, history, and economics, but by age 20, he suffered a psychological collapse. Mill married Harriet Taylor, a brilliant young woman, and with her was a forceful advocate for the rights of women, for political liberty, and for a social policy aimed at the bene¿ t of the masses of ordinary people. Mill’s essays on political philosophy were widely read in his own time and are still inÀ uential today.

    Nietzsche, Friedrich (1844–1900): Nietzsche grew up in a middle-class Prussian family. He excelled in his studies, particularly in music and literature, and pursued theology and philology at the University of Bonn. Despite his parents’ piety, he dropped theology and devoted himself to classical philology. Under the inÀ uence of Arthur Schopenhauer, he also developed an intense interest in philosophy and science. In 1869, Nietzsche was appointed, at age 24, professor of philology at Basle. Nobody before or since has held such a chair at such a young age. Nietzsche held the chair for 10 years, before his health declined, and during that period, he began his philosophical work. He was a close friend of the composer Richard Wagner during his early days at Basle but became estranged from Wagner later, breaking with him over political and cultural issues. In 1879, Nietzsche resigned his chair because of ill health, and for the next 10 years, he traveled Europe and wrote almost all of his most inÀ uential philosophical books. By 1889, however, Nietzsche descended into madness. From that time, his sister and mother cared for him, and he was frequently hospitalized. He died in 1900.

    ĝƗntideva (8th century C.E.): We know almost nothing of the life of ĝƗntideva. All biographical sources agree that he was born a Brahmin, converted to Buddhism, and studied at Nalanda University in present-day Bihar state in India. He composed two principal works, Siksasamuccaya

    (“Collection of Teachings”) and BodhicƗryƗvatƗra (“How to Lead an Awakened Life”).

    Seneca (c. 4-65 CE): We know little of Seneca’s early life, although his was an inÀ uential family. One of his brothers was a proconsul, and Seneca himself became tutor to the emperor Nero. He studied Stoic philosophy with eminent teachers but seems to have been at odds with the court, nearly executed by Caligula and exiled by Claudius. Nonetheless, he returned to Rome to serve as Nero’s tutor and counselor. Once again, however, he fell into political disrepute and retired to write. Seneca was later accused of participating in a conspiracy to assassinate Nero and was ordered to commit suicide, which he did. He was a remarkable writer, and his letters and essays have been widely read and have inÀ uenced many subsequent ethicists and moral psychologists.

    Siddhartha Gautama (c. 500 B.C.E.–c. 420 B.C.E.): Siddhartha Gautama, more commonly known as ĝakyamuni Buddha or just the Buddha, was born in Lumbini to the royal family in the small state of Kapilavastu, in presentday Nepal. The precise dates of his life are uncertain, and he may have lived as much as 50 years earlier or later than the dates indicated here. What we know of his life derives from the record of his teachings and from frankly hagiographic biographies. He was raised in the royal palace as crown prince, but in his early 30s, he abandoned the palace for the life of a wandering ascetic. He studied for several years under a series of teachers and ¿ nally set off on a solitary quest for understanding, culminating in his experience of awakening at Bodh Gaya, in present-day Bihar state in India. Following that experience, he taught for about 50 years, wandering through what is now northern India and Nepal, attracting numerous disciples and the patronage of several powerful kings, and establishing a monastic community. He died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar in what is now Uttar Pradesh state.

    Tolstoy, Lev (Leo) (1828–1910): Count Leo Tolstoy was born into one of the most distinguished Russian noble families, but his own youth was undistinguished. He did poorly in school, dropped out of university, ran up huge gambling debts, and joined the army. Between 1857 and 1861, Tolstoy traveled extensively in Europe. During this time, he met eminent European writers and political thinkers, experienced the difference between liberal European states and the repressive Russian regime, and was exposed to new ideas about education. He returned to Russia an anarchist and a paci¿ st and with a passionate interest in the elevation of the serfs through education. He founded schools for his own serfs’ children and began to write the magni¿ cent novels for which he is so famous, novels critical of war, of the state, and of middle-class society. Tolstoy became a devout Christian and fused his Christianity with his commitment to nonviolence. He communicated with Gandhi and was inÀ uential in Gandhi’s own fusion of religious fervor, nonviolence, and criticisms of modernity and the state. At the end of his life, at age 82, Tolstoy renounced his wealth and left home to become a wandering ascetic, but he died of pneumonia shortly after setting out.