Komjathy, Daoist Tradition:
An Introduction 2013
by Louis Komjathy
by Louis Komjathy
Table of Contents
Part 1: Historical Overview
1. Approaching Daoism
2. The Daoist Tradition
Part 2: The Daoist Worldview
3. Ways to Affiliation
4. Community and Social Organization
5. Informing Views and Foundational Concerns
6. Cosmogony, Cosmology, and Theology
7. Virtue, Ethics and Conduct Guidelines
Part 3: Daoist Practice
8. Dietetics
9. Health and Longevity Practice
10. Meditation
11. Scriptures and Scripture Study
12. Ritual
Part 4: Place, Sacred Space and Material Culture
13. Temples and Sacred Sites
14. Material Culture
Part 5: Daoism in the Modern World
15. Daoism in the Modern World
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13 Temples and sacred sites
Place is centrally important in the Daoist tradition, and sacred sites have occupied a primary position throughout Daoist history and within the Daoist imagination. Daoist sacred sites may include hermitages, temples, or monasteries. They often include some form of Daoist community (see Chapter 4), and these communities have various commitments and engage in various forms of practice. Daoists have preferred mountain environs, though there are also examples of forest and seaside temples. Over time Daoist sacred sites acquire layers of historical and cultural meaning, and there is thus a Daoist history of specific places. For Daoists, a place’s sacrality is often connected to the lives of specific Daoists and Daoist communities who have lived there. Like Daoism itself, such places may, in turn, be encountered as inhabitant, as pilgrim, or as tourist, with the corresponding orientations, concerns, forms of participation, and degrees of adherence (see Chapter 3). In addition to drawing upon relevant scholarship, much of this chapter derives from my own field observations and experiences in mainland China over the last fifteen years, and is informed by direct experience with Daoists, place-specific Daoist communities, and sacred sites.
1] The importance of place
While Daoists have lived in a variety of environs, including urban settings, rural villages, and even wild places, there can be little debate that mountains have occupied a special place in the Daoist imagination. As Ge Hong (287– 347) informs us in his Baopuzi neipian (Inner Chapters of Master Embracing Simplicity; DZ 1185), “All of those cultivating the divine process and preparing medicines, as well as those fleeing political disorders and living as hermits, go to the mountains” (17.1a). In the Daoist tradition, mountains are seen as manifestations of the Dao, as portals into the sacred, as places to collect immortal substances, as ideal locations for self-cultivation, and so forth. Many Daoists have entered the mountains in order to engage in deeper Daoist practice. This perennial Daoist sentiment is echoed by Xue Tailai (1923–2001), one of the most prominent modern Huashan monastics and 24th-generation representative of the Huashan lineage: “Monks who live here [on Huashan] have to take care of visitors. We can’t concentrate on our practice. No one can accomplish anything this way. People who want to practice have to go deeper into the mountains” (Porter 1993: 80).
For many Daoists, mountains are places where the heavens (yang) and the earth (yin) come closest together and are thus regarded as ideal locations for religious activity. A human being who goes into the mountains may experience deepened practice, divine communications, and mystical experiences (see Chapter 3). This connection is so much the case that the Chinese character xian 仙 , translated as “ascendant,” “immortal,” or “transcendent,” consists of ren 人 (“human”) and shan 山 (“mountain”), and the phrase “to enter the mountains” (rushan) may refer not only to actual mountain seclusion, but also more broadly to engaging in Daoist meditation, or to ascending the altar during ritual (see Schipper 1993). To cultivate such a connection, of course, requires a particular orientation and intention (see Chapter 5). Paralleling certain contemporary forms of mountaineering, Daoist “cloud-wandering” (yunyou) and pilgrimage (chaosheng, lit., “revering the sacred”) often have been attempts to participate more completely in the Dao. We might think of this commitment as “mountain-based contemplative practice.”
Specific places have occupied a central position in Daoism (see Hahn 2000: 862–8), both as sources of revelation and particular communities and as later sacred sites and pilgrimage (and tourist) destinations. There is a strong “sense of place” among Daoists and Daoist communities. In some cases, this came from a perceived aesthetic, energetic, or divine quality of the place. In other cases, it originated in a particular set of experiences that occurred in the associated locale. Various Daoist revelations, mystical experiences, as well as important events and personages are associated with specific places. For example, Chapter 1 of the Zhuangzi tells of a “spirit being” (shenren) who lives on Gushe mountain: “He doesn’t eat the five grains, but sucks the wind, drinks the dew, climbs up on the clouds and mist, rides a flying dragon, and wanders beyond the four seas. By concentrating his spirit, he can protect creatures from sickness and plague and make the harvest plentiful.” Such characteristics became seminal in later Daoist ascetic, eremitic, and alchemical ideals.
Tradition also holds that Laozi (Master Lao; pseudo-historical) transmitted the Daode jing (Scripture on the Dao and Inner Power) to Yin Xi (pseudohistorical), the so-called “Guardian of the Pass,” at a specific place.
HANGU PASS
Laozi cultivated the Dao and inner power. He taught that one should efface oneself and be without fame in the world. After he had lived in Zhou for a long time, he saw that the Zhou was in decline. Then he departed. When he reached the pass [Hangu Pass], the keeper of the pass, Yin Xi, said, “We will see no more of you. I request that you write a book for us.” Laozi then wrote a book in two parts, discussing the Dao and inner power in 5,000 words. Thereupon, he departed. No one knows where he ended his life. (Shiji, Chapter 63)
Although modern scholarship has demonstrated the pseudo-historical nature of “Laozi” (see Chapter 2), the Shiji account is noteworthy for its emphasis on place-specific transmission. The pass in question was early on identified as Hangu Pass near Lingbao city, Henan province. During the fifth century, Daoists shifted the location of transmission to the Zhongnan (Southern Terminus) mountains in Shaanxi province. Located in Tayu village in Zhouzhi county, Louguan (Lookout Tower Monastery; a.k.a., Louguan tai; see below) rose to become a major Daoist center in northern China and, in the early sixth century, also served as a refuge for southern Daoists who were persecuted under Emperor Wu (r. 464–549) of the Liang dynasty (502–87) (Kohn 2003a: 41). Located in the foothills of the Zhongnan mountains and still a flourishing Quanzhen Daoist monastery today, Louguan was identified by Daoists as the place where Laozi transmitted the Daode jing to Yin Xi. This version of the transmission legend arose in the mid-fifth century through Yin Tong (398– 499?), a self-identified descendent of Yin Xi and owner of the Louguan estate. During the late fifth or early sixth century, a group of Daoists, primarily members of the Northern Celestial Masters, apparently lived within a monastic framework, specifically according to ethical guidelines, communal celibate living, and standardized daily schedule. Both of the famous Daoists Wang Daoyi (fl. 470s) and Wei Jie (496–569) also lived there. In that context, and especially during the Tang dynasty, Louguan, known primarily as Zongsheng gong (Palace of the Ancestral Sage) and Shuojing tai (Terrace of the Revealed Scripture) at the time, received a high degree of imperial patronage, partially because of the Tang ruling family’s imagined ancestral connection to Laozi (“Li Er”) and various miraculous events that occurred there (see Kohn and Kirkland 2000: 341–2). In combination with Bozhou (see below), Louguan’s close connection with Laozi, and with Laojun (Lord Lao) by extension, effectively elevated the site to the terrestrial location most proximal to the god. This is documented in texts such as the Xisheng jing (Scripture on the Western Ascension; DZ 666), wherein Laozi ascends to the heavens, reappears as the god Lord Lao, and bestows additional, secret Daoist instructions to Yin Xi (see Kohn 1991b). Louguan became a Quanzhen monastery during the early fourteenth century.1
In terms of the emergence of Daoism as an organized religious tradition, mountains have occupied a central place. Most of the major Daoist movements in Chinese history are associated with specific places and with mountains in particular. In 142 CE, Zhang Daoling (fl. 140s CE), the nominal founder of the Tianshi movement, received a revelation from Lord Lao, the deified Laozi, on Heming shan (Crane-Cry Mountain; see below). This mountain is currently identified as located in Heming village in Dayi county, Sichuan province, although there is also a mid-level temple, Tianshi dong (Celestial Master Grotto), on Qingcheng shan (Azure Wall Mountain; Guanxian, Sichuan) about which Qingcheng Daoists make similar claims. Here we find intra-Daoist competition for cultural capital and religious significance in a way that parallels earlier attempts to secure imperial patronage. In any case, Zhang Daoling and his patrilineal descendants established and maintained the early Tianshi movement as a regional religious community throughout Sichuan during the second and third centuries CE.
Other pivotal figures in Daoist history received revelations, attained mystical experiences, and engaged in important work at a variety of places. Kou Qianzhi (365–448), the founder of the Toba-Wei Daoist theocracy and the so-called New Celestial Masters (Northern Celestial Masters) movement, reportedly received two revelations from Lord Lao on Songshan (Mount Song; see Chapter 4), one of the Five Marchmounts discussed below. Thus three historically significant Daoist sacred sites, namely, Heming shan, Louguan tai, and Songshan, are associated with revelations from Lord Lao, including associated, revealed texts (see Chapter 12). Lu Xiujing (406–77), the compiler of the Lingbao scriptures and key contributor to the emergence of the first Daoist Canon, lived on Lushan (Jiujiang, Jiangxi; 8th minor grottoheaven) from 453 to 467. Here Lu established a hermitage and trained disciples. Lushan is also well known as one of the residences of the ordained Daoist priest and important Daoist poet Wu Yun (Zongxuan [Ancestral Mystery]; d. 778). Wu Yun lived most of his life as a poet-recluse on Maoshan, Tiantai shan, and Tianzhu shan, in addition to Lushan. Paralleling the life of Lu Xiujing, Tao Hongjing (456–536) established a quasi-monastic center on Maoshan (Mount Mao; Jurong, Jiangsu; 8th major grotto-heaven and 1st auspicious site). From his mountain headquarters there, Tao engaged in his important collection and redaction of the earlier Shangqing revelations, which became the basis of his Zhen’gao (Declarations of the Perfected; DZ 1016). Maoshan is so named because of its association with the three Mao brothers, who retired to its peaks during the Han dynasty, practiced there, ascended from its peaks as immortals, and were later venerated in the Shangqing tradition. Maoshan, in turn, became almost synonymous with early Shangqing, which originated there between the fourth and fifth centuries. Xu Hui (341-ca. 370), the son of Xu Mi (303–76), was among the first to retire to Maoshan in order to study the newly revealed scriptures.
Moving beyond the confines of early organized Daoism, Wang Zhe (Chongyang [Redoubled Yang]; 1113–70), the nominal founder of Quanzhen, and his early community are associated with a variety of places. First, Quanzhen traces its early inspiration to a variety of Wang Zhe’s mystical experiences, specifically mystical encounters with the immortals Zhongli Quan and Lü Dongbin. Wang’s first experience, which initiated his conversion process, occurred in Ganhe county, while his second experience, during which he received five secret transmissions, occurred in the town of Liquan. Both of these places are in Shaanxi, and it is noteworthy that the contemporary Daoist monastery Baxian gong (Temple of the Eight Immortals; Xi’an, Shaanxi) contains the Yuxian qiao (Bridge for Encountering Immortals), which commemorates Wang’s experiences. Wang eventually joined the Liujiang eremitic community, where he engaged in meditative seclusion as well as ascetic and alchemical praxis. This site is the current location of Chongyang gong (Palace of Chongyang) in Zu’an village in Huxian county, Shaanxi province. Because of the site’s close proximity to the Zhongnan mountains, Quanzhen is often associated with its densely forested peaks. Following Wang’s time at Liujiang, he moved to Shandong province. There he built the Quanzhen an (Hermitage of Complete Perfection; Muping, Shandong), which is no longer extant. In Shandong, Wang Zhe gathered many of his major senior Shandong disciples, and then took them to the Kunyu mountains near Weihai and Yantai, Shandong. The topographical features are noteworthy because, like certain Shaanxi landscapes such as Huashan, it is characterized by a landscape strewn with large granite boulders. Today there is a renovated Daoist monastery there, which was reportedly funded by a Taiwanese businessman originally from Shandong.
A work of this size cannot, of course, provide an exhaustive inventory and descriptive account, but these details allow a sufficient glimpse into the importance of place in Daoist history.
2] Standardized geographical schema
Throughout Chinese history, various systems for identifying and elevating sacred sites have been put forward. Some of these were adopted by Daoists, while others were uniquely Daoist expressions. Three systems in particular stand out: the Five Marchmounts (wuyue), the grotto-heavens (dongtian), and the auspicious sites (fudi ).
The Five Marchmounts system began under imperial auspices and seems to have been standardized by the Han dynasty. As time went on, these sacred peaks also became the residences of recluses with diverse religious and cultural commitments as well as the location of Buddhist and Daoist temples and monasteries. As James Robson has recently suggested (2009), it is important to consider these sacred sites from a “non-sectarian perspective,” perhaps better conceptualized as an integrated perspective. There were complex patterns of competition, negotiation, and cooperation on these and other Chinese mountains. In this context, it appears that Daoists first began to adopt and claim jurisdiction over the Five Marchmounts during the Period of Disunion (see Robson 2009: 46–52). This move was, at least partially, an attempt to increase Daoists’ cultural capital and political power, and drew on a uniquely Daoist understanding of these sites in which each of the Five Marchmounts has an esoteric and talismanic dimension. This is perhaps most clearly expressed in the Wuyue zhenxing tu (Diagram of the Perfect Forms of the Five Marchmounts), which Ge Hong discusses.
THE DIAGRAM OF THE PERFECT FORMS OF THE FIVE MARCHMOUNTS
Lord Zheng [Yin] told me that no Daoist book surpasses the
Sanhuang wen (Writings of the Three Sovereigns) and Wuyue
zhenxing tu in importance. These books are the honored secrets of ancient immortals and can only be obtained by those with the title of “immortal.” They are only transmitted every forty years. When they are transmitted, an oath must be taken and sealed by smearing the blood of a sacrificial victim on the lips [a blood oath]. Presents are also exchanged. All of the famous mountains and the Five Marchmounts have these texts, but they are stored in the darkened recesses of stone caves. If those destined to attain the Dao enter mountains and sincerely keep them in mind, then the mountain deity will respond and open the mountain, allowing them to see the texts. (Baopuzi neipian, DZ 1185, 19.8ab)
For those who are worthy to receive the transmission and who maintain their integrity in subsequent transmissions, the Wuyue zhenxing tu provides protection from potential harmful influences. Its magical nature also provides access into the hidden recesses of mountains.
There are, in turn, a variety of extant versions of the Wuyue zhenxing tu (see Boltz 2008d). As expressed in the fifteenth-century Wuyue guben zhenxing tu (Ancient Version of Diagram of the Perfect Forms of the Five Marchmounts; DZ 441), the “true” or “perfect forms” are represented in the figure below. Here the black shape, located in the square box, represents the mountain’s actual structure and central terrain; the lines and small inner points, intended to be red in color, indicate the sources and courses of the waterways; and the larger points, intended to be yellow in color, are grottos. In their more well-known expression, the “perfect forms” are preserved in a variety of steles and texts dating from the fourteenth century and later. An early seventeenth-century version preserved at Songshan and reproduced at the other marchmounts identifies the “perfect forms” as follows: eastern , southern , central , northern , and western (see Despeux 2000b; Little 2000a: 359). These representations are more talismanic, and are perhaps even derived from earlier cosmic diagrams. In this way, they parallel the Five Lingbao Talismans (Lingbao wufu xu, DZ 388) (see Chapters 12 and 13). In both cases, the five magical diagrams correspond to the five directions and provide magical protection. While the Five Lingbao Talismans correspond to primordial ethers that maintain the cosmic structure, the Five Perfect Forms are “energetic shapes” of the corresponding landforms. Interestingly, there are also associated practices. In addition to using the talismans for their invocatory and apotropaic power, both when entering mountains and when protecting a specific site, medieval Daoists also visualized their body’s five yin-organs as the Five Marchmounts and the Five Planets. One cannot but then wonder if the talismans were utilized as visual aids in Daoist visualization practices.
FIGURE 21 “Perfect Forms” of the Five Marchmounts (Southern
Orientation)
Source: Wuyue guben zhenxing tu, DZ 441
In their standardized expression, which again seems to have become established to some degree and with occasional variations during the Han dynasty, the Five Marchmounts are as follows:
(1) The Northern Marchmount of Hengshan(1) (Mount Heng; Datong, Shanxi). Meaning “stable mountain,”
Hengshan(1) has an elevation of 2,017 meters or 6,617 feet. This mountain is the highest of the five sacred peaks.
(2) The Southern Marchmount of Hengshan(2) (Mount Heng; Hengshan, Hunan). Meaning “balanced mountain,”
Hengshan(2) has an elevation of 1,290 meters or 4,232 feet.
(3) The Western Marchmount of Huashan (Mount Hua; Huayin, Shaanxi). Meaning “splendid” or “flower mountain,” Huashan has an elevation of 1,997 meters or 6,551 feet.
(4) The Eastern Marchmount of Taishan (Mount Tai; Tai’an, Shandong). Meaning “great,” “eminent,” or “tranquil mountain,” Taishan has an elevation of 1,545 meters or 5,068 feet.
(5) The Central Marchmount of Songshan (Mount Song, Zhenfeng, Henan). Meaning “lofty mountain,” Songshan has an elevation of 1,494 meters or 4,901 feet .
Hengshan(1), the Northern Marchmount, is characterized by densely forested hillsides and lush green cliffs. It consists of beautiful scenery, with forests and deep gorges overlooking a dry plain. Although there are some Daoist temples, its most famous and visited site is the Xuankong si (Suspended Monastery), a Buddhist temple built on stilts in the middle of a cliff.
Hengshan(2), the Southern Marchmount, is traditionally said to consist of seventy-two peaks, of which five are given special significance. These peaks stretch for some four hundred kilometers (approx. 250 miles), beginning at Huiyan (Returning Geese) peak and ending at Yuelu (Mountain Deer) peak. A heavily wooded mountain landscape, Hengshan(2) has towering peaks and picturesque scenery. The primary mountain consists of three Daoist temples, with associated communities at the base, mid-point, and summit. The basetemple is a renovated one, apparently funded by Hong Kong patrons. Hengshan(2) is associated with Wei Huacun (251–334; a.k.a. Nanyue furen), the early medieval female Tianshi libationer who was pivotal in the early Shangqing revelations. This mountain is also home to a recently established Daoist Kundao college (seminary for nuns) (see Wang 2008), which is intended to supply female monastic administrators to Daoist temples throughout China.
Huashan, the Western Marchmount, is characterized by nearly vertical granite cliffs rising above a densely forested plain. The mountain is so named because its five peaks are said to resemble a lotus flower. The pilgrimage route begins at the base-temple of Yuquan yuan (Temple of the Jade Spring), traverses through the river valley, to perilous stone steps and along a lengthy ridge, to eventually arrive at the summit. Huashan is primarily associated with the Daoist immortal Chen Tuan (d. 989), famous for his practice of Daoyin and “sleeping exercises” (shuigong) (see Chapter 10). It is the only Marchmount with a Daoist lineage named after it.
Taishan, the Eastern Marchmount, is the most famous of the set. It is characterized by sheer granite walls. The pilgrimage route weaves through a ravine to a steep flight of some thousand stone-steps of the Stairway to Heaven. Completing the arduous ascent, assuming one has not taken the cable-car or minibus, one arrives at the Bixia ci (Shrine for Bixia). This temple is dedicated to Bixia yuanjun (Primordial Goddess of Cerulean Mists; a.k.a. Jade Woman of Taishan), the divine daughter of the Eastern Thearch. The latter is believed to preside over the post-mortem fate of the dead, who in certain popular accounts reside in Taishan’s subterranean depths. Taishan was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.
Finally, Songshan, the Central Marchmount, is actually a large chain of mountains, usually divided into the Taishi and Shaoshi ranges. It primarily consists of boulder-like outcroppings with scattered vegetation. Although there is a local Daoist association, Songshan is primarily Buddhist. Its place in the popular imagination is dominated by Shaolin Temple, the reputed temple where Bodhidharma (sixth c.?), the nominal founder of Chan (Zen) Buddhism, attained enlightenment and the birthplace of acrobatic Shaolin Gongfu (Kung Fu) (see Shahar 2008).
Unlike the Five Marchmounts system, the second major geographical schema is uniquely Daoist. This is the Daoist notion of dongtian, meaning “grotto-heaven” or “cavern-haven.” Dong specifically denotes caves or caverns, and here we should pause to recognize the importance of caves in the Daoist imagination. Many Daoist hermits lived in such mountain environs, both temporarily and permanently. Some of the best examples of actual Daoist cave-hermitages may be found on Huashan (see Porter 1993; Chen 2003). “Grotto-heavens” in particular are a Daoist technical designation. It appears that the earliest dongtian system consisted of thirty-six places (Verellen 1995: 275), which would parallel the early medieval Daoist cosmological and theological system of thirty-six heavens (see Chapter 6). However, in its most mature and influential expression, the system is a Tang dynasty development and includes ten major grottos and thirty-six minor grottos. This early standardization may be found in the work of Sima Chengzhen (647–735), the
12th Shangqing Patriarch, and of Du Guangting (850–933), the important Tang scholastic and liturgist (Verellen 1995: 275). Developing the cosmogonic account from Chapter 3 of the second century BCE Huainanzi (Book of the Huainan Masters) (see Chapter 6 herein), Du Guangting writes a description of the cavern-heavens.
THE COSMOGONIC FORMATION OF THE GROTTO-HEAVENS
When the heavens and earth divided, and the clear separated from the turbid, they produced the great rivers by melting and the lofty mountains by congealing. Above they arrayed the stellar mansions; below they stored the grotto-heavens. With their affairs administered by great sages and superior Perfected, they contain numinous palaces and divine residences, jade halls and gold terraces. Consisting of coalesced qi, these are soaring structures of accumulated clouds. (Dongtian fudi yuedu mingshan ji, DZ 599, preface)
From a Daoist perspective, the grotto-heavens are secret worlds hidden within famous mountains and beautiful places. They are basically terrestrial paradises where one gains greater access to sacred and divine transmissions. They are portals into the numinous presence of the Dao. The ten major grottoheavens with their associated mountains are as follows:
(1) Xiaoyao qingxu. Located on Mount Wangwu (Jiyuan, Henan)
(2) Dayou kongming. Located on Mount Weiyu (Huangyan, Zhejiang)
(3) Taixuan zongzhen. Located on Mount Xicheng (Ankang, Shaanxi)
(4) Sanyuan jizhen. Located on Mount Xixuan (Huashan; Huayin, Shaanxi)
(5) Baoxian jiushi. Located on Mount Qingcheng (Guanxian, Sichuan)
(6) Shangqing yuping. Located on Mount Chicheng (Tiantai, Zhejiang)
(7) Zhuming huizhen. Located on Mount Luofu (Boluo, Guangdong)
(8) Jintan huayang. Located on Mount Gouqu (Jurong, Jiangsu)
(9) Youshen youxu. Located on Mount Linwu (Lake Taihu, Jiangsu)
(10) Chengde yinxuan. Located on Mount Guacang (Xianju, Zhejiang)
(Tiandi gongfu tu, DZ 1032, 27; Dongtian fudi yuedu mingshan ji, DZ 599, 3b–4b; cf. Yin 2005: 59–60)
In addition to the cosmological, mythical, and mystical dimensions, the wideranging geographical distribution of these sacred sites provides a glimpse into the degree to which Tang dynasty Daoism was a diverse and integrated religious tradition with national distribution and vast temple networks.
The ten major grotto-heavens are complemented by the thirty-six minor grotto-heavens and the seventy-two auspicious sites (fudi ) (see Verellen 1995, appendix; Yin 2005: 60–5; Miura 2008b: 370–1), with the latter being the last of the three major Daoist geographical schema. Like the grotto-heavens, the auspicious sites, also translated as “blessed lands” or “divine realms,” are a system for identifying important energetic and religious sites. Taken together, the three standardized geographical schema of the Five Marchmounts, grottoheavens, and auspicious lands reveal an esoteric, hidden, and mystical landscape within the visible one. Together they form an interconnected, subterranean network of subtle spatial channels circulating the numinous presence of the Dao, which recalls the ways in which rivers (terrestrial waterways) and meridians (corporeal waterways) overlap in Daoism (see Chapter 7). The Daoist geo-theological schema reveals the interpenetration of the “spiritual” and the “physical” in a Daoist view: landscapes are manifestations of the Dao and contain portals into the divine. The terrestrial (yin) thus is an entryway into the celestial (yang), and the celestial permeates the terrestrial. Here we may recall the Daoist panenhenic and panentheistic theological views discussed in Chapter 6.
3] Major temples and sacred sites
The designation of major Daoist sacred sites follows a discernable pattern. This involves the identification of the place, its transformation into a “sacred site,” and the eventual formation of a residential community and perhaps the construction of a more permanent temple or monastery. If the temple was important enough, such as in the case of Louguan, there were frequent restoration projects as well as accumulated honors, with imperial recognition and redesignation being the most prestigious. For example, the mountain in Sichuan named Heming shan (Crane Cry Mountain) became associated with a revelation from Laojun to Zhang Daoling. At this point the mountain became a Tianshi sacred site, and eventually a site sacred to Daoism as a whole. A Daoist temple was eventually built there, and in contemporary China it is inhabited by and under the control of the Quanzhen monastic order.
The earliest markers of Daoist sacred sites, however, were not temples and monasteries but rather platforms or open-air altars (tan; daotan). They usually consisted of several layers of tamped earth or bricks, one slightly narrower than the next, which allowed devotees and petitioners to ascend higher toward the sky and the gods. In the case of Daoism, such altars usually consisted of three levels, symbolizing cosmological forces and representing control of a vast and important mythological heritage (Hahn 2000: 685). While it is unclear when distinctively “sacred sites” with corresponding buildings first emerged in Daoism, the Zhuangzi does mention particular hermitages and mountain abodes. As Daoism moved from diffuse and loosely affiliated religious communities of master-disciple lineages to an organized religious tradition during the Later Han dynasty (see Chapters 2 and 4), Daoists began to establish shrines and temples. Within the context of the early Tianshi movement, it appears that the community tended to shrines and maintained communal hostels associated with the twenty-four parishes (zhi ) (see Kleeman 2008b). When the Celestial Master and libationers conducted purification rites and offered petitions (see Chapter 13), it appears that they did so in open-air, temporary altars, in a way that parallels much of contemporary Zhengyi ritual.
As we move into the Period of Disunion, there is a clear process of distribution and institutionalization, which included the establishment and occupation of temples. It was also during this period that Buddhism began to take a deeper root in the larger Chinese society, with increasing numbers of Han converts and the gradual emergence of Sinified forms of Buddhism (see Chapter 2). During this process of cultural interaction and cross-pollination, Daoists began to adopt a monastic model from Buddhism. During the late fifth and early sixth century, Daoists established the first Daoist monastery in the Zhongnan mountains. This was the above-mentioned Louguan monastery.
By the Tang dynasty, there was a national network of Daoist temples and monasteries, and a Daoist community consisting of hermits, ordained married priests, celibate monastics, and laity. This network remained relatively intact from the Tang dynasty into the late imperial period, and it continues to exist in our own time. Most of these temples were either on mountains or in close proximity to imperial capitals. The latter fact reveals a close connection between Daoism and the court, including high levels of prestige and patronage.
There are, in turn, a variety of technical terms used to designate Daoist sacred sites. Some of the most important technical designations are as follows: an, ci, dong, gong, guan(1), guan(2), miao, tai, and yuan (Hahn 2000: 686–8; Steinhardt 2000: 57–9; Wang 2006: 93–5). Of these, guan(2) and gong are the most common. With the exception of ci, miao, and yuan, which may also be used for Buddhist sites, each of the terms, as religious designations, indicates a Daoist place. An (lit., “hut”) refers to hermitages. It is also occasionally used to designate small temples, as in the case of Erxian an (Temple of the Two Immortals), the earlier name of Qingyang gong (see below). An parallels other Daoist technical terms and their associated practices of seclusion and solitary praxis. For example, early medieval Daoist communities used “pure chambers” (jingshi; jingshe), also translated as “chambers of quiescence” (see Boltz 2008b); late medieval Daoists engaged in retreats in “meditation enclosures” (huandu; lit., “enclosed and sealed off”) (see Komjathy 2007a), which were eventually integrated into temple architecture. Ci (“shrine”) and miao (“temple”) are more generic names for temples, usually with one primary altar and key deity and with a small number of residents. As we saw above, dong (lit., “cave) refers to mountain caverns, but more commonly appears as the technical designation of dongtian (“grotto-heavens”). Dong is occasionally used to denote a hermitage. Gong (lit., “palace”) is an imperial designation, usually bestowed by the emperor himself. Technically a term for a royal residence, it indicates a higher level of recognition and status. Gong may be temples or monasteries, and they usually have a larger footprint, more altars, and larger community. Technically speaking, after the end of the Qing dynasty and thus the dynastic system (1911), there can be no new gong. Guan(1) (lit., “hostel” or “hall”) is an early Daoist name for a community center; it was widely used before the emergence of Daoist monasticism. In that context, it was used for Daoist mountain communities, such as early medieval Maoshan, that were not celibate and did not function according to standardized rules (Hahn 2000: 687). The term was eventually replaced by guan(2) (lit., “watchtower” or “observatory”). Originally designating an astronomical observatory, and also referring to a specific type of Daoist meditation (see Chapter 11), guan(2) are Daoist monasteries, also referred to as “abbeys”, “belvederes”, or “cloisters” in order to distinguish them from their Buddhist counterparts referred to as si (“temple”). Daoist guan(2) tend to be large-scale sites inhabited by monastics, as in the case of Baiyun guan in Beijing. Daoist temples and monasteries usually consist of dian (“altars”) and tang (“halls”) dedicated to specific deities. Finally, tai (lit., “terrace” or “tower”) and yuan (lit., “courtyard”) may designate Daoist temples, although they refer to specific architectural features as well (Steinhardt 2000: 58–9). Thus, in the case of Louguan tai, the name indicates both the monastery’s architecture (“tower”) and a place to observe the constellations (“observatory”).
With these details in mind, we may now consider a few important and representative contemporary sites. All of the important Daoist sacred sites and most of the important temples are in mainland China. As discussed in Chapter 16, such sites are usually under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Tourism, Bureau of Religious Affairs, and of national, regional, and local Daoist associations. Although contemporary Daoism in mainland China technically consists of Zhengyi priests, Quanzhen monastics, and their communities, most of the major sacred sites and temples are overseen by the Quanzhen monastic order, especially by administrative monastics (monks and nuns) associated with its Longmen lineage. The number and geographical distribution of these
Daoist places are nearly limitless (see Silvers 2005: 189–207; Yin 2005: 57– 169; Wang 2006: 91–124). Some of the most important and prominent contemporary mainland Chinese Daoist temples with active communities are as follows:
Baxian gong (Eight Immortals Palace; Xi’an, Shaanxi), named after the famous Eight Immortals, who became central objects of popular devotion from the Yuan dynasty forward, and associated with Wang Zhe’s mystical experiences.
Baiyun guan (White Cloud Monastery; Beijing), the headquarters of Quanzhen and its Longmen lineage as well as of the Chinese Daoist Association (see Chapter 16).
Heming shan (Crane Cry Mountain; Dayi, Sichuan), associated with the original Tianshi revelation, but today inhabited by a Quanzhen monastic community.
Louguan tai (Lookout Tower Monastery; Zhouzhi, Shaanxi), associated with the supposed transmission of the Daode jing from Laozi to Yin Xi.
Jianfu gong (Palace for Establishing Happiness; base), Tianshi dong (Celestial Master Grotto; mid-level), and Shangqing gong (Palace of Highest Clarity; summit) at Qingcheng shan (Azure Wall Mountain; Guanxian, Sichuan), associated with the early Tianshi community and the fifth major grotto-heaven.
Qingyang gong (Palace of the Azure Ram; mistranslated as Black Sheep Temple), associated with a vision of Yin Xi wherein he saw the divinized Laozi as a boy leading a green ram.
Taiqing gong (Place of Great Clarity) and Shangqing gong (Palace of Highest Clarity) at Laoshan (Mount Lao; near Qingdao, Shandong).
Tianshi fu (Celestial Masters Mansion) at Longhu shan (Dragon-Tiger Mountain; near Yingtan, Jiangxi), the headquarters of the Celestial Master from at least the Tang dynasty into the early modern period.
Wanfu gong (Palace of Myriad Blessings) at Maoshan (Mount Mao; Jurong, Jiangsu), associated with early Shangqing and with the three Mao brothers and Tao Hongjing in particular.
Yuquan yuan (Temple of the Jade Spring) at Huashan (Mount Hua; near Huayin, Shaanxi), associated with the Huashan lineage of Quanzhen and with the immortal Chen Tuan, famous practitioner of Daoyin and sleep exercises, and Hao Datong in particular.
Zixiao gong (Palace of the Purple Empyrean) at Wudang shan (Mount Wudang; near Shiyan, Hubei), associated with the god Zhenwu (Perfect Warrior; a.k.a. Xuanwu [Mysterious Warrior]), Zhang Sanfeng (14th c.?), and the mythical origin of Chinese internal martial arts such as Taiji quan (T’ai-chi ch’üan; Great Ultimate Boxing).
While most of these are located in rural and mountain locations, Baxian gong, Baiyun guan, and Qingyang gong are urban sites. As mentioned, most of the sites are inhabited by Quanzhen monastics, but Longhu shan and Maoshan are specifically Zhengyi communities. At present, most of their dates of establishment and historical development are currently unknown.
There are, in turn, a variety of ways to categorize and analyze Daoist temples and sacred sites. They include giving attention to architecture and layout, historical significance, religious associations and symbolism, as well as associated deities and immortals. In the context of contemporary mainland Chinese Daoism, one of the most common frameworks centers on the three ancestral halls (zuting). The standard Quanzhen list includes Louguan tai, Chongyang gong, and Longmen dong. Under this reading, Louguan tai is identified as the birthplace of Daoism, as it is where Laozi supposedly transmitted the Daode jing to Yin Xi. Chongyang gong is the birthplace of Quanzhen, as it is where Wang Zhe established a hermitage and engaged in eremitic training. It is also where his body was interred. Longmen dong is the birthplace of the Longmen lineage, as it is where Qiu Chuji engaged in solitary religious praxis. There are also alternate lists, with Bozhou, the imagined birthplace of Laozi, sometimes replacing Louguan tai, and Baiyun guan, the monastic residence of Qiu Chuji beginning in 1223 and later of Wang Changyue, replacing Longmen dong. In any case, the standard list of the “three ancestral halls” is obviously a Quanzhen and Longmen construction. It demonstrates the degree to which Quanzhen dominants the contemporary Chinese religious landscape, especially in terms of political power and influence.
In terms of topography and architectural layout, the primary part of Louguan tai is a relatively modest temple on a small hill with its primary altar dedicated to Laozi. Its compound includes two steles with the two conventional divisions of Daode jing engraved on them. Although we do not have detailed studies of contemporary Daoist temples and monasteries, especially with respect to residents, when I last visited Louguan tai in June of 2011 there were approximately twenty Quanzhen monks living there. The temple complex was currently undergoing renovation, with a new temple compound constructed in front of the older site. Like other Daoist sites such as Qingcheng shan and Maoshan, Louguan tai, primarily under a mandate from the PRC Bureau of Tourism (see Chapter 16), has witnessed the recent construction of a giant statue of Laozi. Unfortunately, these golden statues are monstrous eyesores and blights on the surrounding landscape, and they represent a modernist sensibility that contradicts traditional Daoist aesthetics (see Chapter 15).
Chongyang gong is also a modest temple, although a Yuan dynasty map indicates that it was once a large and thriving monastery (see Chapter 1). There has been some recent restoration, but the temple feels more like an archaeological site than a living Daoist community. Its primary distinguishing features are the tomb of Wang Zhe and a variety of Yuan and Qing dynasty steles. As of 2011, there were eight Quanzhen monks living there.
Not to be confused with the famous Buddhist sacred site and UNESCO World Heritage Site (near Luoyang, Henan), Longmen dong is quite remote and rustic. Although some Chinese tour groups visit for the scenery, there is no electricity and few amenities. There are about six Quanzhen monastics living at Longmen dong, all of whom are Shaanxi natives who only speak Shaanxi dialect. The primary feature of Longmen dong is a thousand-foot granite wall with three altars carved in ascending order. As of 2011, the altars had been renovated and rededicated.
By way of conclusion, let us examine one of the most important and representative contemporary Daoist sacred sites (see Eberhard and Morrison 1973; Chen 2003). Located in the western part of Shaanxi province, Huashan (Mount Hua) is a 1,997 meter (6,551 foot) granite peak. As discussed above, Huashan is the Western Marchmount and is associated with the fourth major and fourth minor grotto-heavens. It is one of the only Daoist places with a Daoist lineage named after it. Like many Daoist mountain sites, Huashan has a complex and diverse layout and religious landscape. The base-temple and central monastery is Yuquan yuan (Temple of the Jade Spring). As of my last visit in 2011, there were approximately fifty Quanzhen monastics living in Yuquan yuan and its surrounding temples. Some of them were affiliated with the Longmen lineage, while others were connected to the Huashan lineage. Unlike the standard Daoist temple configuration (see Chapter 15), Yuquan yuan’s central altar is not dedicated to the Sanqing (Three Purities). Instead, there are two central altars: the first is dedicated to Hao Datong, while the second and successive altar is dedicated to Chen Tuan. These are the two patriarchs of the Huashan lineage. In addition to Yuquan yuan, there are other smaller temples and shrines outside its walls and along its horizontal axis. These include Chunyang guan (Monastery of Purified Yang), Xiangu guan (Monastery of the Immortal Maiden), and Quanzhen guan (Monastery of Complete Perfection). The latter is associated He Zhizhen (1212–99), a disciple of Hao Datong and possibly the actual founder of the Huashan lineage. Just outside Chunyang guan is a pagoda dedicated to Xue Tailai, who was quoted above. Above Yuquan yuan and along the ascent route, one encounters abandoned cave hermitages and active shrines. At the summit, there are technically five peaks and associated temples, but most of these are defunct and have been converted into hotels and guesthouses. Most of the dedicated Daoists actually live on the backside of the mountain, including various hermits in cave and mountain hermitages. In such a way, they perhaps embody the insight from Xue Tailai about dedicated Daoist practice: “People who want to practice have to go deeper into the mountains” (Porter 1993: 80).
FURTHER READING
Center for Daoist Studies. n.d. “Daoist Sacred Sites.” www.daoistcenter.org/basic.html [Accessed on June 1, 2012].
De Bruyn, Pierre-Henry. 2004. “Wudang shan: The Origins of a Major Center of Modern Taoism.” In Religion and Chinese Society, edited by John Lagerwey, 553–90. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.
Eberhard, Wolfgang, and Hedda Morrison. 1973. Hua Shan: The Sacred Mountain in West China. Hong Kong: Vetch and Lee.
Girardot, Norman, James Miller, and Liu Xiaogan, (eds) 2001. Daoism and Ecology: Ways within a Cosmic Landscape. Cambrdige, MA: Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard University Press.
Hahn, Thomas. 1988. “The Standard Taoist Mountain.” Cahiers d’ExtrêmeAsie 4: 145–56.
—2000. “Daoist Sacred Sites.” In Daoism Handbook, edited by Livia Kohn, 683–708. Leiden: Brill.
Lagerwey, John. 1992. “The Pilgrimage to Wu-tang Shan.” In Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China, edited by Susan Naquin and Chun-fang Yü, 293– 332. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Naquin, Susan, and Chun-fang Yü, (ed.) 1992. Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Porter, Bill. 1993. The Road to Heaven: Encounters with Chinese Hermits. San Francisco: Mercury House.
Qiao Yun. 2001. Taoist Buildings. Translated by Zhou Wenzheng. New York: Springer-Verlag Wien New York.
Robson, James. 2009. Power of Place: The Religious Landscape of the Southern Sacred Peak (Nanyue) in Medieval China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center.
Schafer, Edward. 1980. Mao Shan in T’ang Times. Boulder, CO: Society for the Study of Chinese Religions.
Silvers, Brock. 2005. The Taoist Manual: Applying Taoism to Daily Life. Nederland, CO: Sacred Mountain Press.
Verellen, Franciscus. 1995. “The Beyond Within: Grotto-Heavens (dongtian) in Taoist Ritual and Cosmology.” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 8: 265–90.
Vervoorn, Aat. 1990. “Cultural Strata of Hua Shan, the Holy Peak of the West.” Monumenta Serica 39: 1–30.
Yin Zhihua. 2005. Chinese Tourism: Taoism. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.
