2021/11/28

화엄종 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전

화엄종 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전

화엄종

위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
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지역별 불교

화엄종(華嚴宗)은 《화엄경(華嚴經)》을 소의 경전으로 하는 불교 종파이다. 

  • 화엄종에는 중국의 화엄종 · 
  • 해동 화엄종이라고 불린 한국의 화엄종 · 
  • 일본의 화엄종이 있다. 

해동 화엄종은 원융종(圓融宗) · 부석종(浮石宗) · 의상종(義湘宗)이라고도 불리었다.[1][2]

중국의 화엄종은 제2대 조사인 지엄에 의해 기틀이 다져졌으며 승려인 심상(審祥: ?-742)이 시조라고 할 수 있다.[3]

화엄종의 교학을 화엄교학(華嚴敎學)이라고 하며, 

화엄교학은 《화엄경》을 근본 경전으로 하여 법장(法藏: 643-712)이 대성한 교학으로, 

지의(智顗: 538-597)가 대성한 천태교학(天台敎學)과 더불어 중국 불교의 대표적인 교학 중 하나를 이룬다. 화엄교학은 심원하고 광대한 불교의 세계관을 확립하였는데, 주요 교의로는 법계연기(法界緣起) · 십현문(十玄門) · 육상원융(六相圓融)이 있다.[4] 특히, 법계연기 중 사사무애법계(事事無礙法界)는 연기론의 극치로서 화엄교학의 특징을 이루는데, 중중무진(重重無盡)의 법계연기(法界緣起) 또는 법계무진연기(法界無盡緣起)라고도 불린다.[4][5]

오교십종(五敎十宗)은 중국 화엄종의 시조인 두순(杜順: 557-640)에 의해 기초가 놓인 것을 법장이 완성한 화엄종의 교판이다.[6]

중국의 화엄종[편집]

<nowiki /> 화엄경, 두순, 지엄, 의상 (신라), 법장 및 지론종 문서를 참고하십시오.

개요 및 특징[편집]

중국의 화엄종(華嚴宗)은 제2대 조사인 지엄에 의해 기틀이 잡히고 당나라 시대의 현수대사(賢首大師) 법장(法藏: 643-712)에 의해 699년에 더욱 발전한 종파이다.[7][8] 화엄종은 수나라 시대에 천태지의대사(智顗: 538-597)에 의해 개창된 천태종(天台宗)과 함께 중국 불교의 교리 발전 면에서 2대쌍벽을 이루었다.[7]

화엄의 교학은, 천태의 교학이 실천으로서의 지관(止觀)을 중시한 데 비해, 심원하고 광대한 불교의 세계관("중중무진(重重無盡)의 법계연기(法界緣起)")을 이론적으로 확립하였다는 특징이 있다.[4] 구체적인 실천으로서의 관법(觀法)은 천태종의 지관(止觀)에 양보하고 이론면에 편중하였기 때문에 화엄종은 살아 있는 종교로서의 생명력이 약간 부족했다.[4]

기초[편집]

인도 불교에서는 세친(世親: 320-400)이 《화엄경》 중 〈십지경(十地經)〉을 주석한 《십지경론(十地經論)》이 있었다.[7] 그리고 이 《십지경론》을 바탕으로 중국 남북조 시대(420-589) 중 북조에 해당하는 북위(386-534)에서 지론종이 일어났는데, 이와 같이 법장(643-712)에 의한 화엄종의 성립 이전부터 《화엄경》에 대한 연구가 왕성했다.[7]

중국에서 《화엄경》이 처음 한역된 것은 동진의 불타발타라(佛馱跋陀羅: 395-429)에 의해서인데, 그는 《육십화엄(六十華嚴)》을 408년부터 420년에 걸쳐서 번역하였다.[7][4] 그 후 《육십화엄》의 연구자가 많이 배출되었으나, 화엄교학(華嚴敎學)은 이들 경전 연구자들보다는 수나라(581-618) 시대와 당나라(618-907) 초기에 걸쳐 활약한 선관(禪觀)을 실천 수행하였던 두순(杜順: 557-640)에서 비롯되어, 지엄(智儼: 602-668)을 거쳐, 현수대사 법장(法藏: 643-712)에 의해 대성되었다.[4] 법장의 《화엄경탐현기(華嚴經探玄記)》·《화엄오교장(華嚴五敎章)》 등의 저작에 의해 한 종파로서의 기초가 확립되었다.[4]

성립[편집]

당 중종 때에 실차난타(實叉難陀)에 의해 《팔십화엄(八十華嚴)》이 695년부터 699년에 걸쳐서 번역되었다.[7] 법장(法藏: 643-712)은 699년 10월 측천무후의 청으로 불수기사에서 새로 번역된 《팔십화엄(八十華嚴)》을 강하여, 현수(賢首)라는 호를 받았으며 측천무후로부터 두터운 신임을 받았다.[8] 또한 이때 전후로 《화엄경탐현기(華嚴經探玄記)》 20권 (687-695), 《화엄오교장(華嚴五敎章)》 3권, 《화엄지귀(華嚴旨歸)》 ·《유심법계기(遊心法界記)》·《대승기신론의기(大乘起信論義記)》 등의 논서를 지어 화엄의 교리를 크게 밝히고 화엄종의 조직적 체계를 이루어 놓았다.[8]

한편 《화엄경(華嚴經)》은 699년의 화엄종의 성립 이후에도 다시 번역되었는데, 당 덕종 때에 반야삼장(般若三藏)이 《사십화엄(四十華嚴)》을 785년부터 798년에 걸쳐서 번역하였다.

한국의 화엄종[편집]

한국의 불교
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역사
사상
인물
종파 · 목록
대장경 · 소의경전
논서 · 주석서
사찰

개요 및 성립[편집]

<nowiki /> 이 부분의 본문은 의상 (신라)입니다.
<nowiki /> 화엄일승법계도, 원효, 윤필, 5교9산 및 5교양종 문서를 참고하십시오.

신라 시대에 의상(義湘: 625-702)이 당나라에 건너가 지엄(智儼: 602-668)의 문하에서 화엄학을 배운 후 문무왕 10년(670년)에 귀국하여 해동 화엄종을 개종하였다.[1] 이로써 의상은 해동 화엄종의 비조(鼻祖)가 되었는데, 그를 원효(元曉) · 윤필(潤筆)과 함께 화엄삼사(華嚴三師)라 한다.[1]

처음에는 원융종(圓融宗)이라 하였으나 뒤에 화엄종이라 개칭하였다.[1] 개산조인 의상은 영주 부석사(浮石寺)를 창건하여 화엄종의 근본도량으로 정하였으며, 때문에 화엄종은 부석종(浮石宗) 또는 의상종(義湘宗)이라고도 불렸다.[2]

신라 말에 4개의 종파(열반종 · 계율종 · 법성종 · 법상종)와 아울러 5교(五敎)라 일컫게 되고, 다시 구산선문(九山禪門)과 아울러 5교 9산이라 했다.[1] 고려 숙종 2년(1097년) 의천이 천태종을 열면서 9산은 조계종(曹溪宗)으로 통합하여 5교 양종(五敎兩宗)이 되었다.[1]

신라 시대[편집]

의상의 교화를 입은 3,000여 명의 제자들 중 오진(悟眞) · 지통(智通) · 표훈(表訓) · 진정(眞定) · 진장(眞藏) · 도융(道融) · 양원(良源) · 상원(相源) · 능화(能和) · 의적(義寂)의 화엄십성(華嚴十聖)이 배출되었다.[2]

부석사의 창립 후에는 의상의 제자 혹은 그 법손(法孫)들에 의해 창건된 절로 원주의 비바라사(毘婆羅寺) · 가야산의 해인사(海印寺) · 동래의 범어사(梵魚寺) · 비슬의 옥천사(玉泉寺) · 남원의 화엄사(華嚴寺) 등이 화엄 십대사찰(華嚴十大寺刹)에 속하게 되었다.[2] 이러한 것을 보면 남북국 시대 신라에서 화엄종의 교세가 대단했다는 것을 알 수 있다.[2] 특히 해인사는 의상의 법손인 신림(神琳)의 제자 순응(順應)에 의하여 창건되었고, 화엄사는 의상(625-702)의 법손인 연기(緣起)에 의해 창건되었다.[9] (화엄사의 창건에 대해서는 다른 설이 있는데, 신라 진흥왕(재위 540-576) 때의 고승인 연기(緣起)가 진흥왕 5년(544)에 창건했다는 설[10][11]과 인도의 승려였던 연기(緣起)가 백제 성왕(재위: 523-554) 22년(544)에 창건했다는 설[12]이 있다.)

신라 말까지 계속하여 뛰어난 화엄종의 승려들이 나왔는데 숭복사(崇福寺)의 쾌언(快言)과 세달사(世達寺)의 신림(神琳)이 유명하였다.[2] 또한 법융(法融) · 범체(梵體) · 융질(融質) · 담림(曇林)도 화엄종의 강백(講伯: 경론을 강의한 승려)이었다.[2]

고려 시대[편집]

<nowiki /> 균여 문서를 참고하십시오.

신라 말기에 형성되기 시작한 9산선문은 고려에 와서 이엄(利嚴: 866-932)의 수미산파의 성립으로 마침내 완성되었다.[13] 이러한 선법(禪法)의 영향으로 교종의 교학이 빛을 잃은 듯했으나 화엄종의 화엄교학만은 그 세력을 잃지 않았다.[13] 남북국 시대 때 의상이 화엄 사상을 널리 펼친 이래 화엄종의 화엄교학은 끊임없이 연구되어 고려에 계승되었다.[13] 화엄종의 화엄교학은 고려 시대 전체를 통해 선종이나 교종을 막론하고 널리 연구되었다.[13] 그 이유는 화엄교학의 사상이 대승보살의 실천적 행동을 강조한 사상이었기 때문이었다.[13]

고려 광종(光宗: 재위 949-975) 때는 균여(均如: 923-973)가 화엄종의 교세를 크게 떨쳤다.[2] 그는 수도에 힘쓰는 한편 불교의 대중화에 힘을 기울였다.[14] 균여는 《보현십종원생가(普賢十種願生歌)》(약칭 《보현십원가(普賢十願歌)》)라는 열한 수의 향가를 지어 노래 속에 불교의 교리를 쉽게 풀어 넣음으로써 대중이 불교에 쉽게 접할 수 있도록 했다.[14] 그의 《보현십원가》는 대승보살의 실천적 행동을 강조한 화엄교학의 사상을 근간으로 성립된 것이었다.[13] 또한 그는 당시 남악(南岳) · 북악(北岳)의 양파로 분열된 화엄학을 통일시키려고 하였으며, 불교의 종파 간에 통합에도 힘을 기울여 종파간의 분쟁을 종식시켰다.[14][15][16]

연산의 개태사(開泰寺) · 개성의 귀법사(歸法寺)와 법수사(法水寺) · 묘향산의 보현사(普賢寺) · 합천의 반야사(般若寺)와 홍호사(弘護寺)가 고려 시대에 화엄종 교단에 속하였다.[2]

조선 시대[편집]

<nowiki /> 숭유억불정책 문서를 참고하십시오.

조선 태종 6년에는 화엄종과 도문종이 합쳐서 총 43사(寺)로 폐합되었다.

대한민국[편집]

화엄종의 종지는, 부처의 최초 깨달음의 상태인 화엄경 사상을 바탕으로 삼고, 종조(宗祖)는 원효를 받들고, 실천행에 있어서는 화엄경 보현보살 행원품에 의하여 모든 중생을 근기에 따라 알맞은 방편으로 깨우쳐주며, 항상 남을 위하는 마음으로 행동하여 결국 수억겁 윤회고의 모든 괴로움의 원인인 무명의 혹을 떼어내고 본래면목 청정무구(本來面目淸淨無垢)한 상락아정(常樂我靜) -“번뇌망상이 일어나지 않고 늘 편안한 불국정토”- 이 모든 국토 모든 중생들의 삶이 되는 것을 큰 목적으로 삼는다 하였다. 화엄종은 우리나라에서 독특한 존재성을 가지고 있다.

원효는 스스로 화엄경의 근본이치를 밝혀내어, 한 종을 이루었으니 이것이 바로 우리나라의 독창적인 화엄종의 효시가 되는것이다. 종(宗)의 이름마저도 인도나 당나라에 없는 분황종(芬皇宗)이라 공칭(公稱)하였고, 지금도 현존해 있는 경주시 분황사는 분황종의 총본산 이였으며 원효가 오래 주석하던 곳이다. 또 다른 화엄종파는 의상이 당나라의 화엄종 제2조인 지엄대사의 지도를 받고 신라로 돌아와 부석종을 창종하였지만, 고려말 조선 초 까지 종풍이 이어 지다가 조선시대 배불정책에 의한 강압적인 종파폐합으로 말미암아 교종계에 흡수되고 말았다.

근세에 들어서 회명일승 대법사의 유훈을 이어 능해월승 대종사가 면면히 이어 오던 분황.부석 양종의 종지, 종풍을 그대로 되살려 1966년도에 인천 약사사를 대본산으로 하는 화엄종(華嚴宗)을 창종(초대종정: 능해)하였고, 해원(二世종정)이 법통 이은어 법인 화엄승가장학재단(1978년)과 공익법인 대한불교화엄종장학회(1992년)를 설립하였으며 세,수81 세에 입적.

일본의 화엄종[편집]

성립 배경[편집]

<nowiki /> 이 부분의 본문은 남도육종입니다.

겐메이(元明) 천황(661-721)이 헤이조코(平城京: 지금의 나라시)로 천거한 직후부터 도성을 헤이안코(平安京: 지금의 교토)로 옮겨 갈 때까지의 80여 년간(710-794)을 나라 시대라고 한다.[3] 이 시대 중에서 쇼무(聖武) 천황의 시대(729-749)는 나라 시대 불교의 최고 전성기였다.[3]

쇼토쿠 태자(574-622) 시대부터 지배계급 가운데에는 불교를 국가 통일의 사상적 기반으로 생각하는 사람이 있었다.[3] 이러한 생각은 율령국가의 성립과 더불어 더욱 강렬해졌다.[3] 쇼무 천황은 사회 동요가 심각해지자 불교의 힘을 빌려 사회를 안정시키려고 지방 각지에 절을 세웠다.[3] 쇼무 천황은 칙령을 내려 경전을 필사하게 하고 절마다 땅을 하사하였다.[3]

나라 시대에는 한국 및 중국에서 온 승려들과 중국으로 유학갔던 승려들이 돌아와 불교를 연구하였다.[3] 그 결과 삼론종 · 성실종 · 법상종 · 구사종 · 화엄종 · 율종의 남도육종(南都六宗)이 형성되었다.[3] 여기서의 "종(宗)"은 불교의 종파나 종단을 가리키는 것이 아니고, 학파와 유사한 집단을 가리키는 것이었다.[3] 나라 시대의 대사원에는 특정 한 종이 있는 것이 아니라 수많은 종이 함께 존재하였고, 한 승려가 여러 종을 겸하여 배우거나 연구할 수도 있었다.[3]

도다이사(東大寺)는 화엄종의 근본 도량이었다.[3]

성립 및 발전[편집]

736년에 중국 승려 도선(道璿: 702-760)이 일본으로 왔는데, 그는 율(律)을 강술한 동시에 《화엄경》도 강의하였다.[3]

또 당시 화엄종에 정통한 신라승 심상(審祥: ?-742)이 일본의 대안사(大安寺)에 머무르고 있었다.[3] 때마침 이를 알게 된 일본 승려 양변(良辨)은 화엄종을 융성시킬 목적으로 심상을 청해 《화엄경》의 강술을 청하였다.[3] 이것이 일본 화엄종의 시작으로, 일본 화엄종의 시조는 심상이라 할 수 있다.[3]

그러나 일본에 전래된 불교 종파 가운데 나라 시대에서 가장 성행한 것은 삼론종과 법상종이었다.[3] 비록 이후에 화엄종과 율종의 두 종이 전파되었지만, 이 두 종파는 유행한 시기가 비교적 짧기 때문에 가장 성행한 유파로 볼 수 없다.[3]

같이 보기[편집]

각주[편집]

  1. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 라 마 바 한국사 > 고대사회의 발전 > 통일신라와 발해 > 고대문화의 융성 > 화엄종, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
  2. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 종교·철학 > 한국의 종교 > 한국의 불교 > 한국불교의 종파 > 화엄종, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
  3. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 라 마 바 사 아 자 차 카 타 파 하 거 너 더 러 동양사상 > 동양의 사상 > 일본의 사상 > 불교사상 > 남도육종, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
  4. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 라 마 바 사 종교·철학 > 세계의 종교 > 불 교 > 불교의 사상 > 중국불교의 사상 > 화엄교학의 사상, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
  5. ↑ 운허 & 동국역경원. "法界緣起(법계연기)"[깨진 링크(과거 내용 찾기)], 《불교 사전》. 2011년 3월 21일에 확인.
  6. ↑ 종교·철학 > 세계의 종교 > 불 교 > 불교의 사상 > 중국불교의 사상 > 5교10종, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
  7. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 라 마 바 종교·철학 > 세계의 종교 > 불 교 > 불교의 분파 > 중국불교의 종파 > 화엄종, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
  8. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 운허 & 동국역경원. "賢首(현수)" Archived 2015년 6월 26일 - 웨이백 머신, 《불교 사전》. 2011년 3월 17일에 확인: "699년 10월 측천 무후의 청으로 불수기사에서 새로 번역된 『화엄경』을 강하여, 현수라는 호를 받고, 이로부터 무후의 신임이 두터웠다. 책을 지어 화엄의 교리를 크게 밝히고, 화엄종의 조직적 체계를 이루어 놓았다."
  9. ↑ 종교·철학 > 한국의 종교 > 한국의 불교 > 한국불교의 종파 > 화엄종, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》: "부석사의 창립을 본 후 의상의 제자 혹은 그 법손(法孫)들의 손을 거쳐 이룩된 절로 원주의 비바라사(毘婆羅寺), 가야의 해인사(海印寺), 동래 범어사(梵魚寺), 비슬의 옥천사(玉泉寺), 남원의 화엄사(華嚴寺) 등 10대 사찰이 있는 것을 보더라도 화엄종의 교단은 대단하였다. 특히 해인사는 의상의 법손 신림(神琳)의 제자 순응(順應)에 의하여 이룩되었고, 화엄사는 의상의 법손인 연기(緣起)조사가 이룩하였다."
  10. ↑ 동양사상 > 한국의 사상 > 삼국시대의 사상 > 삼국시대의 불교사상 > 연기, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》: "연기 緣起 신라 진흥왕 때의 고승. 전남 구례 화엄사(華嚴寺)를 창건하여 우리나라 화엄종의 시조가 되었다."
  11. ↑ 사회 I·문화재 > 문 화 재 > 중요 문화재 > 전라남도 > 화엄사, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》: "화엄사 華嚴寺 전라남도 구례군 마산면에 있는 절이다. 신라 진흥왕 5년(544)에 연기(緣起)가 창건한 것으로 화엄경(華嚴經)의 '화·엄' 두 글자를 따서 절 이름을 지었다."
  12. ↑ "화엄사 창건 연혁" Archived 2002년 2월 7일 - 웨이백 머신, 화엄사 공식 사이트. 2011년 3월 17일에 확인: "백제 성왕 22년(544)에 인도 스님이신 연기조사께서 대웅상적광전과 해회당을 짓고 화엄사를 창건 후, 백제 법왕(599)때 3천여 명의 스님들이 계시면서 화엄사상을 백제 땅에 꽃피웠습니다."
  13. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 라 마 바 종교·철학 > 한국의 종교 > 한국의 불교 > 한국불교의 역사 > 한국불교의 역사〔개설〕> 고려시대, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
  14. ↑ 이동:가 나 다 한국사 > 중세사회의 발전 > 귀족사회와 무인정권 > 귀족문화 > 균여, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
  15. ↑ 동양사상 > 한국의 사상 > 고려시대의 사상 > 고려시대의 불교사상 > 균여, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》
  16. ↑ 인명사전 > 한 국 인 명 > ㄱ > 균여, 《글로벌 세계 대백과사전》

참고 문헌[편집]



===

華厳宗

出典: フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』
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大足石刻の華厳三聖像（世界遺産）。

華厳宗（けごんしゅう）は、中国大乗仏教の宗派のひとつであり、杜順を開祖とする。『大方広仏華厳経』（『華厳経』）を所依の経典として、独自の教学体系を立てた宗派である。韓国、日本、ベトナムにも広まった。

日本仏教における華厳宗は、審祥により736年に伝えられた。南都六宗の一つ[1]。東大寺盧舎那仏像（奈良の大仏）が建立された。

華厳宗の本尊は、歴史上の仏を超えた絶対的な毘盧遮那仏と一体になっている。菩薩の修行の階梯を説いた「十地品」、善財童子の遍歴を描いた「入法界品」などが有名。東大寺の大仏も本経の教主・毘盧舎那仏であり、日本仏教の黎明期に重用されたが、大乗仏教の中でも独特の教学を持つため宗勢は徐々に衰えていった[注 1]。

歴史[編集]

開祖は杜順（557年-640年）、第2祖は智儼（602年-668年）、第3祖は法蔵（643年-712年）、第4祖は澄観（738年-839年）、第5祖は宗密（780年-839年）と相承されている。この中国の五祖の前に、2世紀頃のインドの馬鳴（アシュヴァゴーシャ）と龍樹（ナーガールジュナ）を加えて七祖とすることもある。また朝鮮半島（古代新羅）にも伝わり、義湘によって広められる。

日本における華厳宗は、第3祖法蔵門下の審祥によって736年に伝えられた。金鐘寺（後の東大寺）の良弁の招きを受けた審祥は、この寺において『華厳経』・『梵網経』に基づく講義を行い、その思想が反映されて東大寺盧舎那仏像（奈良の大仏）が建立（743年-749年）された。鎌倉仏教期には、明恵によって密教思想が取り込まれ、さらに凝然による教学の確立がなされている。法相宗や律宗と並ぶ、南都六宗の一つで、十三宗五十六派の一つである。

教学[編集]

時代的にも地域的にも広範なので、様々な変容がある。

重々無尽の縁起[編集]

華厳思想の中心になるのは、この世界の実相は個別具体的な事物が、相互に関係しあい（相即相入）無限に重なりあっているという考え方（重々無尽の縁起）である。この実相を4つの見方「四法界」に分ける。我々の通常のものの見方は事法界で、無自性・空の見方の理法界は仏の世界である。この両者を止揚した無自性・空の世界と具体的個物や現象が妨げあわず共存する理事無礙法界が、修行をすると顕れるが、これは天台の考え方で理と事を分けている点が不徹底である。この分裂をなくせば、最後に、理すなわち無自性・空も消え去り、ただ事物と事物が融通無碍に共存する事々無礙法界という仏の見方に到達し、これが本来の真実一如の世界である。

また、華厳では仏の立場になって見るので、三性説もまた唯識とは逆に、仏の側から順に円成実性、依他起性、遍計所執性と説かれる。

仏になることを目的とするのではなく、最初から仏の立場に自分を置いて考え、行動することを求めるのが華厳思想であるから、華厳経の一部の十地品に説かれるとおり、菩薩初地で信不退転となれば、あとは菩薩第十地までは自ずから到達するはずで、結局菩薩の初心にあるべき金剛の信が決定的に重要だと考える。

性起説[編集]

仏性についての考え方では天台宗が性具説を説き凡夫が次第に修行によって自らに十分備わっていない外来の仏性に救いとられて、目覚めさせられて行くと説くのに対し、華厳宗では性起説を説き、もともと衆生には円満な仏性が備わっているという如来蔵の考え方をとり、それが信じられず自覚しようとしないので迷うのだと考える。

華厳経の位置づけ[編集]

天台宗の教相判釈（経典の内容を分析し、成立の順序や内容の高低を判定する）・五時八教の教判（天台大師智顗による）では、華厳経は最初に説かれ、仏のさとったままの言葉を記したもので、凡夫には理解しがたいものとしている。

著名な管長[編集]

詳細は「東大寺」を参照

脚注[編集]

注釈[編集]

  1. ^ 仏の立場を主観とした世界観や教学が当初は朝廷に歓迎されたものの、衆生を性善説的にみる点に於いて合致しなくなったとも考えられる。
  2. ^ 2期目、任期は2022年迄。再任は下記の清水公照以来。

出典[編集]

  1. ^ “南都六宗(なんとろくしゅう)とは - コトバンク”. 朝日新聞社. 2017年8月3日閲覧。
  2. ^ “東大寺で晋山式 再任の佐川別当、大仏殿で報告 -朝日新聞デジタル”. 朝日新聞社. 2019年12月22日閲覧。

参考文献[編集]

関連項目[編集]

外部リンク[編集]



===

Huayan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Huayan (disambiguation).
Huayan
Dazu.jpg
Three Worthies of Huayan – Dazu Rock Carvings, Chongqing, China
Chinese name
Chinese华严宗
Traditional Chinese華嚴宗
Vietnamese name
VietnameseHoa Nghiêm tông
Hán-Nôm華嚴宗
Korean name
Hangul화엄종
Hanja華嚴宗
Japanese name
Kanji華厳宗
Kanaけごん　しゅう
Sanskrit name
SanskritAvataṃsaka

The Huayan or Flower Garland school of Buddhism (traditional Chinese: 華嚴; ; pinyin: Huáyán, from Sanskrit: Avataṃsaka) is a tradition of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy that first flourished in China during the Tang dynasty. The Huayan worldview is based primarily on the Avatamsaka Sutra (Chinese: 華嚴經; pinyin: Huáyán jīng).[1] The name Flower Garland is meant to suggest the crowning glory of a Buddha's profound understanding of ultimate reality.

The Huayan School is known as Hwaeom in Korea, Kegon in Japan and Hoa Nghiêm in Vietnam. This tradition also had a strong influence on Chan Buddhism.[1]

Part of a series on
Chinese Buddhism
汉传佛教 / 漢傳佛教
Chinese: "Buddha"
History
Major figures
Traditions
Texts
Architecture
Bodhimaṇḍas
Culture

Origins and development[edit]

Aerial view of Huayan Temple, Datong, built during the Jin dynasty (1115–1234).

Origins[edit]

The earliest texts associated with the Avatamsaka sutra are the Dousha jing (Taisho 280), produced by Lokaksema in the latter part of the second century CE and the Pusa benye jing (T. 281), translated by Zhi Qian in the early to mid third century. There is evidence that these small Buddhavatamsaka sutras circulated on their own as individual scriptures.[2]

The translation of the large Avatamsaka sutra is often dated to the Southern Dynasties (420-589) when a translation team led by Gandharan master, Buddhabhadra worked on the sutra. There is also evidence of this sutra tradition in the Northern Dynasties (386-581) where a certain Xuangao (402-444) taught the Huayan samadhi.[3]

Patriarchs[edit]

The founding of the school is traditionally attributed to a series of five "patriarchs" who were instrumental in developing the schools' doctrines. These five are:[4][5]

  1. Dushun (Chinese: 杜順; Wade–Giles: Tu-Shun), responsible for the establishment of Huayan studies as a distinct field;
  2. Zhiyan (Chinese: 智儼; Wade–Giles: Chih-yen), considered to have established the basic doctrines of the sect;
  3. Fazang (Chinese: 法藏; Wade–Giles: Fa-tsang), considered to have rationalized the doctrine for greater acceptance by society;
  4. Chengguan (Chinese: 澄觀; Wade–Giles: Ch'eng-kuan), together with Zongmi, are understood to have further developed and transformed the teachings
  5. Guifeng Zongmi (Chinese: 圭峰宗密; Wade–Giles: Kuei-feng Tsung-mi), who is simultaneous a patriarch of the Chinese Chán tradition and who also incorporated Taoist and Confucian teachings.

The five monks later honored as Huayan patriarchs were erudite scholar-practitioners who connected Buddhism with Chinese traditional culture closely, creating a Buddhist historical trend in developing multiple facets while the tradition’s essence remained the same.[6] Based on their writings, exegeses, and oral teachings, these men each played a significant and distinct role in the development of the school, although there are certain aspects of this patriarchal scheme which are clearly contrived. For example, Chengguan was born 26 years after Fazang's death. According to Robert Gimello's dissertation on Chih-Yen (1976), "most if not all of the major themes of Huayen thought" can be found in the works of the second patriarch Chih-yen, particularly the classification of scriptures and theories on the Dharmadhatu. Thus he names the patriarch Chih-yen (602-668) as the crucial figure in the foundation of Huayan.[7] The tradition reached the height of its influence under Fazang, who was the Buddhist teacher of the Empress Wu Zetian (684–705).[8]

Another important figure in the development and popularization of Huayan thought was the lay scholar Li Tongxuan (Chinese: 李通玄, 635?-730), the author of the Huáyán lùn (Chinese: 華嚴論), a popular and lengthy commentary on the Avatamsaka sutra. Fazang's disciple Huiyuan (673-743) also wrote a commentary on the Avatamsaka.[9]

Some accounts of the school also like to extend its patriarch-ship earlier to Aśvaghoṣa and Nāgārjuna.

Stagnation[edit]

After the time of Zongmi and Li Tongxuan the Chinese school of Huayan generally stagnated in terms of new development, and then eventually began to decline. The school, which had been dependent upon the support it received from the government, suffered severely during the Buddhist purge of 841-845, initiated by Emperor Wuzong of Tang. The school stagnated even further in the confusion of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907-979) period after the fall of the Tang dynasty when some Huayan commentaries were lost.

Revival and Expansion[edit]

After the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, the Huayan lineage experienced a revival in the following Song dynasty (960-1279), and the few Huayan commentaries which had been dispersed were returned in 1085 by the Goryeo monk Uicheon. From the Song dynasty through the Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty to the modern period, Huayan philosophy continued to develop and new commentaries and rites were written and initiated, such as the "Rites on Practicing the Vows of Samantabhadra" (Chinese: 華嚴普賢行願修證儀; Pinyin: Huáyán Pǔxián Xíngyuàn Xiūzhèng Yí) and "Sagara-mudra Repentance Rites on the Flower Adornment Sutra" (Chinese: 華嚴經海印道場懺儀; Pinyin: Huáyánjīng Hǎiyìn Dàochǎng Chànyí). Throughout this period, much of Huayan's profound metaphysics, such as that of the Four Dharmadhātu (Chinese: 四法界; Pinyin: Sìfǎjiè) of interpenetration, was also integrated into the other Chinese Buddhist traditions.

Modern Era[edit]

In 1914, Huayan University, the first modern Buddhist monastic school, was founded in Shanghai to further systemize Huayan teachings to monastics and helped to expand the Huayan tradition into the rest of into East Asia, Taiwan, and the West. The university managed to foster a network of educated monks who focused on Huayan Buddhism during the 20th century. Through this network, the lineage of the Huayan tradition was transmitted to many monks, which helped to preserve the lineage down to the modern day via new Huayan-centred organizations that these monks would later found.[10]

Several new Huayan-centred Buddhist organizations have been established since the latter half of the 20th century. In contemporary times, the largest and oldest of the Huayan-centered organizations in Taiwan is the Huayan Lotus Society (Huayan Lianshe 華嚴蓮社), which was founded in 1952 by the monk Zhiguang and his disciple Nanting, who were both part of the network fostered by the Huayan University. Since its founding, the Huayan Lotus Society has been centered on the study and practice of the Huayan Sutra. It hosts a full recitation of the sutra twice each year, during the third and tenth months of the lunar calendar. Each year during the eleventh lunar month, the society also hosts a seven-day Huayan Buddha retreat (Huayan foqi 華嚴佛七), during which participants chant the names of the buddhas and bodhisattvas in the text. The society emphasizes the study of the Huayan Sutra by hosting regular lectures on it. In recent decades, these lectures have occurred on a weekly basis.[10] Like other Taiwanese Buddhist organization's, the Society has also diversified its propagation and educational activities over the years. It produces its own periodical and runs its own press. It also now runs a variety of educational programs, including a kindergarten, a vocational college, and short-term courses in Buddhism for college and primary-school students, and offers scholarships. One example is their founding of the Huayan Buddhist College (Huayan Zhuanzong Xueyuan 華嚴專宗學院) in 1975. They have also established branch temples overseas, most notably in California’s San Francisco Bay Area. In 1989, they expanded their outreach to the United States of America by formally establishing the Huayan Lotus Society of the United States (Meiguo Huayan Lianshe 美國華嚴蓮社). Like the parent organization in Taiwan, this branch holds weekly lectures on the Huayan Sutra and several annual Huayan Dharma Assemblies where it is chanted. It also holds monthly memorial services for the society’s spiritual forebears.[10]

In Mainland China, Huayan teachings began to be more widely re-propagated after the end of the Cultural Revolution. Various monks from the network of monks fostered by the original Huayan University, such as Zhenchan (真禪) and Mengcan (夢參), were the driving factors behind the re-propagation as they travelled widely throughout China as well as other countries such as the United States and lectured on Huayan teachings. In 1996, one of Mengcan's tonsured disciples, the monk Jimeng (繼夢), also known as Haiyun (海雲), founded the Huayan Studies Association (Huayan Xuehui 華嚴學會) in Taipei, which was followed in 1999 by the founding of the larger Caotangshan Great Huayan Temple (Caotangshan Da Huayansi 草堂山大華嚴寺). This temple hosts many Huayan-related activities, including a weekly Huayan Assembly. Since 2000, the association has grown internationally, with branches in Australia, Canada, and the United States.[10]

Texts[edit]

Avatamsaka Sutra, vol. 12, frontispiece in gold and silver text on indigo blue paper, mid 14th century

Avataṃsaka Sūtra[edit]

The Huayan school's worldview was inspired on the content of what it considered to be the supreme Buddhist revelation, the Avataṃsaka Sūtra (Flower Garland Sutra, Ch. Huāyán Jīng). The Avataṃsaka Sūtra is a compilation of sutras of various length, which originally circulated as their own sutras before being combined.[11] The earliest of these texts, the Ten Stages Sutra, maybe dates from the first century CE.[12] The Daśabhūmika Sūtra describes the ten stages on the Bodhisattva-path. The various sutras were probably joined together shortly before its translation into Chinese, at the beginning of the 5th century CE.[12][13]

According to Williams, the Avataṃsaka Sūtra is not a systematic philosophical work, but mentions various Mahayana teachings, including Madhyamaka śūnyatā teachings,[1] Yogacara ideas,[1] as well as mentioning a pure untainted awareness or consciousness (amalacitta).[14] It is filled with mystical and visionary imagery, focusing on the Buddha Vairocana, who is said to pervade every atom of the entire universe with his magical creations and emanations as a way to help all beings:[15]

In each dust-mote of these worlds

Are countless worlds and Buddhas...
From the tip of each hair of Buddha's body
Are revealed the indescribable Pure Lands...
The indescribable infinite Lands

All ensemble in a hair's tip [of Buddha].[16]

An important doctrine that the Huayan school drew from this sutra is the idea that all levels of reality are interrelated and interpenetrated, the idea that "inside everything is everything else". The sutra states:

They . . . perceive that the fields full of assemblies, the beings and aeons which are as many as all the dust particles, are all present in every particle of dust. They perceive that the many fields and assemblies and the beings and the aeons are all reflected in each particle of dust.[15]

In the Huayan school, this is depicted in the image of Indra's net. This "unity in totality allows every individual entity of the phenomenal world its uniqueness without attributing an inherent nature to anything".[16] According to Williams,

As a description of the way things are in our unenlightened world this seems incredible. But the dharmadhatu is the world as seen by the Buddha wherein there is no question of the world (an objectively real world ‘out there’) as distinct from meditative vision. Thus the sutra is less concerned with describing the world this way as with recounting the Bodhisattva’s attainments by which he can see the world in such a light, and the Bodhisattva’s miraculous powers by which, through his magical interventions in this world with no fixed hard boundaries, he can cause things to interpenetrate.[15]

Other texts[edit]

Other Mahayana texts such as the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana (Dasheng Qixin Lun 大乘起信論), which was a condensation of Chinese thought on awakening and ultimate reality, influenced Huayan masters like Fazang and Zongmi, who both wrote commentaries on the text.[17] The Lotus sutra was also seen as an important text in this school, though not as important as the Avatamsaka. The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment was particularly important for Zongmi.

The Huayen patriarchs wrote numerous commentaries and original treatises on the Mahayana sutras and Huayen philosophy. Fazang for example, wrote commentaries on the Avatamsaka, the Lankavatara Sutra and the Awakening of Faith.[18] One of the key Huayen treatises is On the Meditation of the Dharmadhātu attributed to the first patriarch Dushun.[19] Another is Fazang’s Treatise on the Golden Lion which is said to have been written to explain Huayen's view of interpenetration to Empress Wu.[20]

Peter N. Gregory notes that the Huayan commentarial tradition was:

"not primarily concerned with a careful exegesis of the original meaning of the scripture. Rather, what it discovered in the text was the justification for a number of ideas and metaphors in terms of which it elaborated its own body of doctrine. Many of the key Huayan doctrines that were inspired by the scripture (such as nature origination, the conditioned origination of the dharmadhatu, the samadhi of oceanic reflection, or the six aspects of all dharmas) played only a peripheral role in or had a tenuous connection with the actual Huayan sutra itself. The great commentaries written on the text by Fa-tsang and Ch'eng-kuan were not so much concerned with rendering a faithful and judicious interpretation of the words of the text as they were with using the text as a basis from which to advance a doctrinal agenda that was determined by the context of Sui-Tang Buddhism."[21]

Theory and practice[edit]

A 3D rendering of Indra's net.

Huayan thought is mainly focused on explaining the nature of the Dharmadhatu, the world as it is ultimately, from the point of view of a fully awakened being. It is often said to be the philosophical articulation of Chan meditation.[22] It is influenced by the Avatamsaka and Buddha nature literature as well as by the Chinese Yogacara and Madhyamaka schools. Patriarchs of the school such as Zongmi were also influenced by Chinese philosophy, particularly the classics of Taoism.[23]

Interpenetration[edit]

A key doctrine of Huayan is the mutual containment and interpenetration of all phenomena (dharmas) or "perfect interfusion" (yuanrong, 圓融). This is associated with what the Huayan sees as its unique contribution, the "dharmadhatu pratityasamutpada". This is described by Wei Daoru as the idea that "countless dharmas (all phenomena in the world) are representations of the wisdom of Buddha without exception" and that "they exist in a state of mutual dependence, interfusion and balance without any contradiction or conflict. This thought essentially argues that there is no relationship of cause and result among phenomena and that things are not formed sequentially. Instead, they constitute the world by the mutual interfusion of complete equality."[24]

According to this theory, any phenomenon exists only as part of the total nexus of reality, its existence depends on the total network of all other things, which are all equally connected to each other and contained in each other.[24]

The Huayan patriarchs used various metaphors to express this, such as Indra's net, a hall of mirrors and the world text. To illustrate the doctrine to Empress Wu, the patriarch Fazang:

"called for a candle and placed it surrounded by mirrors on every side. When lit, the candle was reflected in each mirror, and each of the reflections in every other mirror so that in any one mirror were the images of all the others."[25]

This Buddhist doctrine also includes the views that:[26]

  • "Practicing one teaching is practicing all teachings"
  • Ending one mental defilement is ending all of them
  • Truth (or reality) is understood as encompassing and interpenetrating falsehood (or illusion), and vice versa
  • Good is understood as encompassing and interpenetrating evil
  • Similarly, all mind-made distinctions are understood as "collapsing" in the enlightened understanding of emptiness (a tradition traced back to the Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna)

Li and Shi[edit]

Another important distinction used by Huayan patriarchs is that of li and shi, noumenon and phenomenon which was explained using the metaphor of gold and lions, or water and waves. According to Paul Williams:

First, noumenon and phenomena mutually interpenetrate and are (in a sense) identical. There is no opposition between the two. The one does not cancel out the other. Second, Fazang explains elsewhere that since all things arise interdependently (following Madhyamika), and since the links of interdependence expand throughout the entire universe and at all time (past, present, and future depend upon each other, which is to say the total dharmadhatu arises simultaneously), so in the totality of interdependence, the dharmadhatu, all phenomena are mutually interpenetrating and identical.[27]

Fourfold Dharmadhatu and meditation[edit]

The theory of the Fourfold Dharmadhatu (sifajie, 四法界) is explained in the "Meditative Perspectives on the Huayan Dharmadhatu" (Huayan Fajie Guanmen, 華嚴法界觀門) and its commentaries.[23] This theory is the central meditative framework for the Huayan tradition. Another key text is the "Cessation and Contemplation in the Five Teachings of Huayan" (Huayan wujiao zhiguan 華嚴五教止觀).[23] The Dharmadhatu is the goal of the bodhisattva's practice, the ultimate nature of reality which must be known or entered into (ru, 入). According to Fox, the Fourfold Dharmadhatu is "four cognitive approaches to the world, four ways of apprehending reality".The four ways of seeing reality are:[23] [28]

  1. All dharmas are seen as particular separate events or phenomena (shi 事). This is the mundane way of seeing.
  2. All events are an expression of li (理, the absolute, principle or noumenon), which is associated with the concepts of shunyata, “One Mind” (yi xin 一心) and Buddha nature
  3. Shi and Li interpenetrate (lishi wuai 理事無礙)
  4. All events interpenetrate (shishi wuai 事事無礙), "all distinct phenomenal dharmas interfuse and penetrate in all ways" (Zongmi).

The three levels of Huayan meditation on the Dharmadhatu correspond to the last three views of the Dharmadhatu are:[23]

  1. Meditation on “True Emptiness.”
  2. Illuminating the non-obstruction of principle and phenomena.
  3. Meditation on “universal pervasion and complete accommodation.”

According to Fox, "these dharmadhatus are not separate worlds – they are actually increasingly more holographic perspectives on a single phenomenological manifold...they more properly represent four types or orders of perspectives on experience."[23] Furthermore, for Huayan, this practice is the solution to the problem of samsara which lies in the "fixation or attachment to a particular perspective. What we think are the essences of objects are really therefore nothing but mere names, mere functional designations, and none of these contextual definitions need necessarily interfere with any of the others."[23]

Other practices[edit]

According to Paul Williams, the reading and recitation of the Avatamsaka sutra was also a central practice for the tradition, for monks and laity.[29]

Another practice which is highlighted in the Avatamsaka sutra is that of Buddhānusmṛti or nianfo-mindfulness of the Buddha.[30]

The tradition also mentions two key samadhis, the ocean-seal samadhi (Ch. haiyin sanmei) and the huayan samadhi (huayan sanmei).[31]

Layman Li Tongxuan developed a unique meditative practice based on the 9th chapter of the Avatamsaka sutra. The practice, named 'the contemplation of Buddhalight' (foguang guan), focused on tracing the universal light which is radiated by the Buddha in one's mind and expanding it further outwards.[32]

Sudden enlightenment[edit]

Huayan favored the teaching of sudden enlightenment. This is because the Buddha nature is already present in all sentient beings and also because their theory of interpenetration entails that Buddhahood is already present at the first stage of a Bodhisattva's path.[33] According to Li Tongxuan:

[T]he first access of faith in the mind of the practitioner is in itself the culmination of the entire path, the very realization of final Buddhahood.... ‘Faith’ or confidence in the possibility of enlightenment is nothing but enlightenment itself, in an anticipatory and causative modality.[34]

Buddhahood was seen as beyond language and stages of practice. Because practices cannot create something that is already not imminent, they were seen as simply revealing what was already there. The patriarch Zongmi formulated his own theory of awakening which was "immediate awakening followed by gradual cultivation" and the view that "immediate and gradual are not only not contradictory, but are actually complementary".[23]

Paradox[edit]

Huayan makes extensive use of paradox in argument and literary imagery. All three types of paradox originate in the tension between conventional and absolute truth. Huayan uses three types of paradox:

1. Emphasizing the concept of śūnyatā, first is asserted that a phenomenon X is empty, which implies that X is not X. An example from Fazang is the assertion:

[W]hen one understands that origination is without self-nature, then there is no origination.[35]

2. Reversing the first paradox by asserting that any empty phenomenon is an expression of the absolute non-duality between emptiness and form, or the identity between conditioned, relative reality and the ultimate truth of tathatā. This paradox is derived from two doctrinal sources:

Fazang's paradoxical assertion illustrates this second type:

When the great wisdom of perfect clarity gazes upon a minute hair, the universal sea of nature, the true source, is clearly manifest.[35]

3. The third variation of paradox is grounded in the Huayan doctrine of the "nonobstruction of all phenomena" (shih shih wu-ai(k)). Each phenomenon is perceived as interpenetrating with and containing all others. This paradoxical violation of the conventional order of time and space is exemplified by Fa-tsang's famous "Essay on the Golden Lion":

In each and every hair [of the lion] there is the golden lion. All of the lions contained in each and every hair simultaneously and suddenly penetrate into one hair. [Therefore], within each and every hair there are unlimited lions.[35]

Classification of Buddhist teachings[edit]

Buddhism was introduced into China in bits and pieces. When the knowledge of Buddhism grew larger, various schools attempted to get a grip on the Buddhist tradition by developing classifications of teachings,[17] such as the Five Periods and Eight Teachings of the Tiantai-school.

The Huayan school developed a fivefold classification:[36]

  1. The Hinayana-teachings, especially the Sarvastivadins
  2. The Mahayana-teachings, including Yogacara, Madhyamaka
  3. The "Final Teachings", based on the Tathagatagarbha-teachings, especially the Awakening of Faith
  4. The Sudden Teaching, "which 'revealed' (hsien) rather than verbalised the teaching"[36]
  5. The Complete, or Perfect, Teachings of the Avatamsaka-sutra and the Huayan school.

Huayan and Chan had doctrinal arguments regarding which would be the correct concept of sudden awakening. The teachings of the Chán-school were regarded as inferior by the Huayan teachers. The Chán-school polemitized against this classification, by devising its own rhetorics in defense.[37]

Influence[edit]

The doctrines of the Huayan school ended up having profound impact on the philosophical attitudes of East Asian Buddhism. According to Wei Daoru their theory of perfect interfusion was "gradually accepted by all Buddhist traditions and it eventually permeated all aspects of Chinese Buddhism."[24]

Chinese Chán was profoundly influenced by it, though Chán also defined itself by distinguishing itself from Huayan.[37] Tsung-mi, the Fifth Patriarch of the Huayan school, also occupies a prominent position in the history of Chán. During the Song, the Huayan metaphysics were completely assimilated by the Chán-school.[38]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Van Norden, Bryan; Jones, Nicholaos (2019). "Huayan Buddhism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Center for the Study of Language and Information.
  2. ^ Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page 110.
  3. ^ Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page 169.
  4. ^ Cook 1977, p. 24.
  5. ^ Imre 2007, p. 5.
  6. ^ Chengguan, Guo Cheen (2014). Translating Totality in Parts: Chengguan's commentaries and subcommentaries to the Avatamska Sutra. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. ISBN 978-0761863090.
  7. ^ Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page 3.
  8. ^ Lai 2003, p. 15.
  9. ^ Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page XV.
  10. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Hammerstrom, Erik J. (2020). The Huayan University network : the teaching and practice of Avataṃsaka Buddhism in twentieth-century China. New York. ISBN 978-0-231-55075-8. OCLC 1154101063.
  11. ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 132.
  12. ^ Jump up to:a b Dumoulin 2005, p. 46.
  13. ^ Gregory, Peter N. Tsung-Mi and the Sinification of Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, 2002, p. 9.
  14. ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 133.
  15. ^ Jump up to:a b c Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 136.
  16. ^ Jump up to:a b Dumoulin 2005, p. 47.
  17. ^ Jump up to:a b Lai 2003.
  18. ^ Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page 199.
  19. ^ Chang 1992, p. 207.
  20. ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, page 141.
  21. ^ Gregory, Peter N. Tsung-Mi and the Sinification of Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, 2002, p. 9-10.
  22. ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, page 139.
  23. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Fox, Alan. The Practice of Huayan Buddhism, http://www.fgu.edu.tw/~cbs/pdf/2013%E8%AB%96%E6%96%87%E9%9B%86/q16.pdf Archived 2017-09-10 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ^ Jump up to:a b c Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page 189.
  25. ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, page 140.
  26. ^ Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page 190-93.
  27. ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, page 143.
  28. ^ Garfield 2011, p. 76.
  29. ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, page 145.
  30. ^ Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page 224
  31. ^ Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page 226-227
  32. ^ Hamar, Imre (Editor). Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism (ASIATISCHE FORSCHUNGEN), 2007, page 228.
  33. ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, page 144.
  34. ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism the doctrinal foundations, 2nd edition, 2009, page 144-45.
  35. ^ Jump up to:a b c Wright 1982.
  36. ^ Jump up to:a b Buswell 1993, p. 233.
  37. ^ Jump up to:a b Buswell 1993.
  38. ^ Dumoulin 2005, p. 48.

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Cleary, Thomas (1995). Entry Into the Inconceivable: An Introduction to Hua-Yen Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press; Reprint edition. ISBN 0824816978 (Essays by Tang Dynasty Huayen masters)
  • Fa Zang (2014). "Rafter Dialogue" and "Essay on the Golden Lion," in Justin Tiwald and Bryan W. Van Norden, eds., Readings in Later Chinese Philosophy. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-1624661907
  • Gimello, Robert; Girard, Frédéric; Hamar, Imre (2012). Avataṃsaka Buddhism in East Asia: Huayan, Kegon, Flower Ornament Buddhism ; origins and adaptation of a visual culture, Asiatische Forschungen: Monographienreihe zur Geschichte, Kultur und Sprache der Völker Ost- u. Zentralasiens, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, ISBN 978-3-447-06678-5.
  • Gregory, Peter N. (1983). The place of the Sudden Teaching within the Hua-Yen tradition：an investigation of the process of doctrinal change, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 6 (1), 31 - 60
  • Haiyun Jimeng (2006). The Dawn of Enlightenment - The Opening Passage of Avatamsaka Sutra with a Commentary, Kongting Publishing. ISBN 986748410X
  • Hamar, Imre, ed. (2007), Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag
  • Prince, Tony (2020), Universal Enlightenment - An introduction to the Teachings and Practices of Huayen Buddhism (2nd edn.). Amazon Kindle Book. ASIN B08C37PG7G

External links[edit]


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