2023/01/03

Religious perspectives on Jesus - Wikipedia

Religious perspectives on Jesus - Wikipedia

Religious perspectives on Jesus

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The religious perspectives on Jesus vary among world religions.[1] Jesus' teachings and the retelling of his life story have significantly influenced the course of human history, and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, even non-Christians.[1][2][3] He is considered by many to be one of the most influential persons to have ever lived, finding a significant place in numerous cultural contexts.[4]

Christianity teaches that Jesus is the Messiah (Christ) foretold in the Old Testament and the Son of God. Christians believe that through his death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[5] These teachings emphasize that as the willing Lamb of God, Jesus chose to suffer in Calvary as a sign of his full obedience to the will of his Father, as an "agent and servant of God".[6][7] Christians view Jesus as a role model, whose God-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.

In Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as Isa) is one of God's highest-ranked and most-beloved prophets. Islam considers Jesus to be neither the incarnation nor the Son of God. Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of monotheism (tawhid) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would be idolatry (shirk).

In the Druze faith, Jesus is considered one of God's important prophets and the Messiah.[8][9]

The Baháʼí Faith considers Jesus to be one of many manifestations of God, who are a series of personages who reflect the attributes of the divine into the human world. Baháʼís reject the idea that divinity was contained with a single human body.

Apart from his own disciples and followers, the Jews of Jesus' day generally rejected him as the Messiah, as do the great majority of Jews today. Mainstream Jewish scholars argue that Jesus neither fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. Sikhism views Jesus as a high-ranked Holy man or saint.

Other world religions such as Buddhism have no particular view on Jesus, and have but a minor intersection with Christianity. For non-religious perspectives on Jesus, see historical Jesus.

Christianity[edit]

Main article: Jesus in Christianity
See also: Ministry of Jesus, Parables of Jesus, Miracles of Jesus, and Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament

Christian views of Jesus are based on the teachings and beliefs as outlined in the Canonical gospels, New Testament letters, the Christian creeds, as well as specific denominational teachings. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and the Son of God.[10]

Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among major denominations, as stated in their catechetical or confessional texts.[11] Generally speaking, adhering to the Christian faith requires a belief that Jesus is the Son of God and the Messiah or Christ. Jesus refers to himself as the Son of God in the New Testament.[12]

Christians consider Jesus to be the Messiah (Christ) and believe that through his death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[5] These teachings emphasize that as the willing Lamb of God, Jesus chose to suffer in Calvary as a sign of his full obedience to the will of his Father, as an "agent and servant of God".[6][7] The choice Jesus made thus counter-positions him as a new man of morality and obedience, in contrast to Adam's disobedience.[13]

The five major milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus are his Baptism, Transfiguration, Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension.[14][15][16] These are usually bracketed by two other episodes: his Nativity at the beginning and the sending of the Paraclete at the end.[14][16] The gospel accounts of the teachings of Jesus are often presented in terms of specific categories involving his "works and words", e.g. his ministry, parables and miracles.[17][18] The words of Jesus include several sermons, in addition to parables that appear throughout the narrative of the Synoptic Gospels (the gospel of John includes no parables).

Christians not only attach theological significance to the works of Jesus, but also to his name. Devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity.[19][20] These devotions and feasts exist both in Eastern and Western Christianity.[20]

Incarnation[edit]

Further information: Incarnation (Christianity) and Christology

Most Christians believe that Jesus was both human and the Son of God. While there have been theological debate over the nature of Jesus, Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate, God the Son, and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to the Bible, God raised him from the dead.[21] He ascended to heaven, to the "right hand of God,"[22] and he will return again for the Last Judgment and the establishment of the Kingdom of God.[23]

Islam[edit]

Main article: Jesus in Islam
See also: Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam

In Islam, Jesus (Isa) is considered to be a messenger of God (Allah) and the Messiah (al-Masih) who was sent to guide the Descendants of Israel (Bani Isra'il) with a new scripture, the Gospel (Injil).[24][25]

The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often than Muhammad[26]—and emphasises that Jesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message.[27] Unlike Christian writings, the Quran does not describe Jesus as the son of God, but as one of four major human messengers (out of many prophets) sent by God throughout history to guide mankind.[28] Jesus is said to have lived a life of piety and generosity, and abstained from eating flesh of swine.

Muslims also believe that Jesus received a Gospel from God, called the Injil. However, Muslims hold that Jesus' original message was lost or altered and that the Christian New Testament does not accurately represent God's original message to mankind.[29]

Despite major differences, the Quran and New Testament overlap in other aspects of Jesus' life; both Muslims and Christians believe that Jesus was miraculously born without a human biological father by the will of God, and that his mother, Mary (Maryam in Arabic), is among the most saintly, pious, chaste and virtuous women ever.[30] The Quran also specifies that Jesus was able to perform miracles—though only by the will of God—including being able to raise the dead, restore sight to the blind and cure lepers.[31] One miracle attributed to Jesus in the Quran, but not in the New Testament, is his being able to speak at only a few days old, to defend his mother from accusations of adultery.[32] It also says that Jesus was a 'word' from God, since he was predicted to come in the Old Testament.

Most Muslims believe that he was neither killed nor crucified, but that God made it appear so to his enemies. With the noteworthy exception of Ahmadi Muslims who believe that Jesus was indeed put on the cross, survived the crucifixion and was not lifted bodily to the heaven, majority of Muslims believe that Jesus ascended bodily to heaven and is alive. Some Muslim scholars maintain that Jesus was indeed put up on the cross, but did not die on it; rather, he revived and then ascended bodily to heaven. Others say that it was actually Judas Iscariot who was mistakenly crucified by the Romans. Regardless, Muslims believe that Jesus is alive in heaven and will return to the world in the flesh to defeat the Antichrist, once the world has become filled with sin, deception and injustice, and then live out the rest of his natural life.[24]

Islam rejects the Trinitarian Christian view that Jesus was God incarnate or the son of God, that he was ever crucified or resurrected or that he ever atoned for the sins of mankind. The Quran says that Jesus himself, when asked by God if he said that people shall regard him and Mary as gods, will deny this.[Quran 5:116]

Judaism[edit]

Main article: Judaism's view of Jesus

Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus being God, or a person of a Trinity, or a mediator to God. Judaism also holds that Jesus is not the Messiah, arguing that he had not fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. According to Jewish tradition, there were no more prophets after Malachi, who lived centuries before Jesus and delivered his prophesies about 420 BC/BCE.[33]

According to Conservative Judaism, Jews who believe Jesus is the Messiah have "crossed the line out of the Jewish community".[34] Reform Judaism, the modern progressive movement, states "For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an apostate".[35]

Jesus in Jewish writings[edit]

See also: Jesus in the Talmud

The Babylonian Talmud include stories of Yeshu יֵשׁוּ; the vast majority of contemporary historians disregard these as sources on the historical Jesus.[36] Contemporary Talmud scholars view these as comments on the relationship between Judaism and Christians or other sectarians, rather than comments on the historical Jesus.[37][38]

The Mishneh Torah, an authoritative work of Jewish law, states in Hilkhot Melakhim 11:10–12 that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God".

Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would be Messiah and was killed by the court, was already prophesied by Daniel. So that it was said, "And the members of the outlaws of your nation would be carried to make a (prophetic) vision stand. And they stumbled."[Dan. 11:14] Because, is there a greater stumbling-block than this one? So that all of the prophets spoke that the Messiah redeems Israel, and saves them, and gathers their banished ones, and strengthens their commandments. And this one caused (nations) to destroy Israel by sword, and to scatter their remnant, and to humiliate them, and to exchange the Torah, and to make the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God. However, the thoughts of the Creator of the world — there is no force in a human to attain them because our ways are not God's ways, and our thoughts not God's thoughts. And all these things of Jesus the Nazarene, and of (Muhammad) the Ishmaelite who stood after him — there is no (purpose) but to straighten out the way for the King Messiah, and to restore all the world to serve God together. So that it is said, "Because then I will turn toward the nations (giving them) a clear lip, to call all of them in the name of God and to serve God (shoulder to shoulder as) one shoulder."[Zeph. 3:9] Look how all the world already becomes full of the things of the Messiah, and the things of the Torah, and the things of the commandments! And these things spread among the far islands and among the many nations uncircumcised of heart.[39]

Baháʼí Faith[edit]

The Baháʼí Faith consider Jesus to be a manifestation of God, who are a series of personages who reflect the attributes of the divine into the human world for the progress and advancement of human morals and civilization.[40] In Baháʼí belief, the Manifestations have always been sent by God, and always will, as part of the single progressive religion from God bringing more teachings through time to help humanity progress.[41] The Manifestations of God are taught to be "one and the same", and in their relationship to one another have both the station of unity and the station of distinction.[40] In this way each Manifestation of God manifested the Word of God and taught the same religion, with modifications for the particular audience's needs and culture. Bahá'u'lláh wrote that since each Manifestation of God has the same divine attributes, they can be seen as the spiritual "return" of all the previous Manifestations of God.[40] In this way, Baháʼís believe that Bahá'u'lláh is, in both respects, the return of Jesus.

Druze Faith[edit]

The Druze maqam of Al-masih (Jesus) in As-Suwayda Governorate.

In the Druze faith, Jesus is considered one of God's important prophets and the Messiah,[42][43] being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.[44][45] The Druze venerate Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" and his four disciples, who wrote the Gospels.[46] In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.[47]

According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of Ultimate Reason (Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd),[46] and regards Jesus and Hamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.[48] Druze believe that Hamza ibn Ali was a reincarnation of Jesus,[49] and that Hamza ibn Ali is the true Messiah, who directed the deeds of the messiah Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary", but when Jesus "the son of Joseph and Mary" strayed from the path of the true Messiah, Hamza filled the hearts of the Jews with hatred for him - and for that reason, they crucified him, according to the Druze manuscripts.[46][50] Despite this, Hamza ibn Ali took him down from the cross and allowed him to return to his family, in order to prepare men for the preaching of his religion.[46]

In an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din al-Muqtana,[51] probably written sometime between AD 1027 and AD 1042, accused the Jews of crucifying Jesus.[52]

Other[edit]

Traditionally, Buddhists as a group take no particular view on Jesus, and Buddhism and Christianity have but a minor intersection. However, some scholars have noted similarities between the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha and Jesus. These similarities might be attributed to Buddhist missionaries sent as early as Emperor Ashoka around 250 BCE in many of the Greek Seleucid kingdoms that existed then and then later became the same regions in which Christianity began.[53]

Jesus was seen as the saviour and bringer of gnosis by various Gnostic sects, such as the extinct Manichaeism.

The Vietnamese syncretic religion Cao Dai locates Jesus in the celestial Council of Great Spirits that directs the universe.[54]

In the Ahmadiyya Islamic view, Jesus survived the crucifixion and later travelled to India, where he lived as a prophet (and died) under the name of Yuz Asaf.

In Scientology, the teachings of Jesus are included among belief systems comprising those "earlier forms".[55] Jesus is classified as below the level of Operating Thetan, but as a "shade above" the Scientology state of "Clear".[55]

According to The Urantia Book, Jesus was one of numerous sons of God named Michael of Nebadon, who took on earthly incarnation.[56]

In Raëlism, Jesus and several other religious figures are considered prophets sent by an extraterrestrial race called the Elohim.[57][58]

The Religious Science movement considers Jesus to be a teacher of “Science of Mind”.[57][59]

The Lacandon people of Central America acknowledge Äkyantho', the god of foreigners. He has a son named Hesuklistos (Jesus Christ) who is supposed to be the god of the foreigners. They recognize that Hesuklistos is a god but do not feel he is worthy of worship as he is a minor god.[60]

Among the Malbars of the French island Réunion, a syncretism of Catholicism and Hinduism can develop. Krishna Janmashtami, the birth day of Krishna is considered to be the date of birth of Jesus Christ. [61]

Some Hindu religious and political leaders viewed Jesus as a spiritual teacher (Āchārya).[62]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 ISBN 1-4051-9362-X page 1 [1]
  2. ^ The Cambridge companion to Jesus edited by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 ISBN 0-521-79678-4 pages 156-157
  3. ^ The historical Christ and the Jesus of faith by C. Stephen Evans 1996, Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-826397-X page v
  4. ^ Bauckham, Richard (2011). Jesus: A Very Short Introduction. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0199575275.
  5. ^ Jump up to:a b Oxford Companion to the Bible p.649
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b The Christology of Anselm of Canterbury by Dániel Deme 2004 ISBN 0-7546-3779-4 pages 199-200
  7. ^ Jump up to:a b The Christology of the New Testament by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 page 79
  8. ^ Hitti, Philip K. (1928). The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. Library of Alexandria. p. 37. ISBN 9781465546623.
  9. ^ Dana, Nissim (2008). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Michigan University press. p. 17. ISBN 9781903900369.
  10. ^ Schreiner, Thomas R. (2008). New Testament Theology: Magnifying God in Christ. Baker Academic. pp. 23–37. ISBN 978-0-8010-2680-5.
  11. ^ Jackson, Gregory L. (1993). Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison. Christian News. pp. 11–17. ISBN 978-0-615-16635-3.
  12. ^ One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel by John Yueh-Han Yieh 2004 ISBN 3-11-018151-7 pages 240-241
  13. ^ Systematic Theology, Volume 2 by Wolfhart Pannenberg 2004 0567084663 ISBN pages 297-303
  14. ^ Jump up to:a b Essays in New Testament interpretation by Charles Francis Digby Moule 1982 ISBN 0-521-23783-1 page 63
  15. ^ The Melody of Faith: Theology in an Orthodox Key by Vigen Guroian 2010 ISBN 0-8028-6496-1 page 28
  16. ^ Jump up to:a b Scripture in tradition by John Breck 2001 ISBN 0-88141-226-0 page 12
  17. ^ The Bible Knowledge Commentary by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 0-88207-812-7 page 100
  18. ^ The words and works of Jesus Christ by J. Dwight Pentecost 2000 ISBN 978-0-310-30940-6 page 212
  19. ^ Outlines of dogmatic theology, Volume 2 by Sylvester Hunter 2010 ISBN 1-146-98633-5 page 443
  20. ^ Jump up to:a b Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 ISBN 0-8264-8011-X page 426
  21. ^ Acts 2:24, Romans 10:9, 1Cor 15:15, Acts 2:31-32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40-41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30-31, 1Cor 6:14, 2Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1Thess 1:10, Heb 13:20, 1Pet 1:3, 1:21
  22. ^ Mark 16:19, Luke 22:69, Acts 2:33, 5:31, 7:55-56, Romans 8:34, Eph 1:20, Col 3:1, Hebrews 1:3, 1:13, 10:12, 12:2, 1Peter 3:22
  23. ^ cf. John 14:1-3, Acts 1:10-11, Luke 21:27, Revelation 1:7
  24. ^ Jump up to:a b Glassé, Cyril (2008). Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 270–271. ISBN 978-0-7425-6296-7.
  25. ^ Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8.
  26. ^ Aboul-Enein, Youssef H. (2010). Militant Islamist Ideology: Understanding the Global Threat. Naval Institute Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-61251-015-6.
  27. ^ Fasching, Darrell J.; deChant, Dell (2001). Comparative Religious Ethics: A Narrative Approach. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 241, 274–275. ISBN 978-0-631-20125-0.
  28. ^ Annemarie Schimmel (1975). Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press. p. 202.
  29. ^ Paget, James C. (2001). "Quests for the historical Jesus". In Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. (ed.). Cambridge companion to Jesus. Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1.
  30. ^ Esposito, John. What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. New York: University Press, 2002. P31.
  31. ^ Morgan, Diane (2010). Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice. ABC-CLIO. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-0-313-36025-1.
  32. ^ Quran 19:27–33
  33. ^ Simmons, Shraga, "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus", Retrieved April 15, 2007; "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus", Ohr Samayach — Ask the Rabbi, Retrieved April 15, 2007; "Why do not Jews believe that Jesus was the Messiah?", AskMoses.com, Retrieved April 15, 2007
  34. ^ Waxman, Jonathan (2006). "Messianic Jews Are Not Jews". United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. Archived from the original on January 9, 2008. Retrieved January 15, 2008. Judaism has held that the Mashiach will come and usher in a new era; not that he will proclaim his arrival, die and wait centuries to finish his task. To continue to assert that Jesus was the Mashiach goes against the belief that the Mashiach will transform the world when he does come, not merely hint at a future transformation at some undefined time to come... Judaism rejects the claim that a new covenant was created with Jesus and asserts instead that the chain of Tradition reaching back to Moshe continues to make valid claims on our lives, and serve as more than mere window dressing.
  35. ^ Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68, "Question 18.3.4: Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?", faqs.org. Retrieved April 15, 2007.
  36. ^ Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition)
  37. ^ Daniel Boyarin, Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999
  38. ^ Jeffrey Rubenstein Rabbinic Stories (The Classics of Western Spirituality) New York: The Paulist Press, 2002
  39. ^ Hilchot Malachim (laws concerning kings) (Hebrew)", MechonMamre.org, Retrieved April 15, 2007
  40. ^ Jump up to:a b c Cole, Juan (1982). "The Concept of Manifestation in the Baháʼí Writings". Études Baháʼí Studies. monograph 9: 1–38 – via Bahá'í Library Online.
  41. ^ Smith, Peter (2000). "Progressive revelation". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 276–277. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
  42. ^ Hitti, Philip K. (1928). The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. Library of Alexandria. p. 37. ISBN 9781465546623.
  43. ^ Dana, Nissim (2008). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Michigan University press. p. 17. ISBN 9781903900369.
  44. ^ Hitti, Philip K. (1928). The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. Library of Alexandria. p. 37. ISBN 9781465546623.
  45. ^ Dana, Nissim (2008). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Michigan University press. p. 17. ISBN 9781903900369.
  46. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Dana, Nissim (2008). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Michigan University press. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9.
  47. ^ Swayd, Samy (2019). The A to Z of the Druzes. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 88. ISBN 9780810870024. Jesus is known in the Druze tradition as the “True Messiah” (al-Masih al-Haq), for he delivered what Druzes view as the true message. He is also referred to as the “Messiah of the Nations” (Masih al-Umam) because he was sent to the world as "Masih of Sins" because he is the one who forgives.
  48. ^ Crone, Patricia (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780691134840.
  49. ^ S. Sorenson, David (2008). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Routledge. p. 239. ISBN 9780429975042. They further believe that Hamza ibn Ali was a reincarnation of many prophets, including Christ, Plato, Aristotle.
  50. ^ Massignon, Louis (2019). The Passion of Al-Hallaj, Mystic and Martyr of Islam, Volume 1: The Life of Al-Hallaj. Princeton University Press. p. 594. ISBN 9780691610832.
  51. ^ Nettler, Ronald (2014). Muslim-Jewish Encounters. Routledge. p. 140. ISBN 9781134408542. ...One example of Druze anti—Jewish bias is contained in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din
  52. ^ L. Rogan, Eugene (2011). The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948. Cambridge University Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780521794763.
  53. ^ Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modern times" by Jerry H.Bentley (Oxford University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-19-507639-7
  54. ^ Blagov, Serguei A. (2001). "5: Caodaist Hierarchy and Ritials [sic]". Caodaism: Vietnamese Traditionalism and Its Leap Into Modernity. Nova Publishers. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-59033-150-7. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  55. ^ Jump up to:a b Rhodes, Ron (2001). The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions: The Essential Guide to Their History, Their Doctrine, and Our Response. Zondervan. pp. 155, 164. ISBN 0-310-23217-1.
  56. ^ House, Wayne (2000). Charts of Cults, Sects and Religious Movements. Zondervan. p. 262. ISBN 9780310385516.
  57. ^ Jump up to:a b Hutson, Steven (2006). What They Never Taught You in Sunday School: A Fresh Look at Following Jesus. City Boy Enterprises. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-59886-300-0.
  58. ^ Beyer, Catherine. "Raelian Movement". About.com. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
  59. ^ Ankerberg, John; Weldon, John. "What Does Religious Science Teach About Jesus?" (PDF). Ankerberg Theological Research Institute. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
  60. ^ McGee, Jon (2002) "Watching Lacandon Maya Lives," Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
  61. ^ Suryanarayan, V. (2018-10-12). "Tamils In Re-Union: Losing Cultural Identity – Analysis". Eurasia Review. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
  62. ^ "A Hindu's Jesus | Reform Magazine".

Further reading[edit]

Slade, Darren M. (January 2014). "Arabia Haeresium Ferax (Arabia Bearer of Heresies): Schismatic Christianity's Potential Influence on Muhammad and the Qur'an" (PDF). American Theological Inquiry. 7 (1): 43–53. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02.

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Deepak Chopra Presents India Authentic Volume 1 The Book of Shiva (V. 1) by Deepak Chopra, Saurav Mohapatra | PDF

Deepak Chopra Presents India Authentic Volume 1 The Book of Shiva (V. 1) by Deepak Chopra, Saurav Mohapatra | PDF


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The 15 Best Historical Epics of All Time

The 15 Best Historical Epics of All Time:

The 15 Best Historical Epics of All Time
BY
CHANCE MORGAN
UPDATED 1 DAY AGO
Journey into the past.

Characters from Schindler's List, Seven Samurai, The Northman, and Gladiator


 
The best historical epics continue to showcase the way cinema pushes the boundaries of what's possible to depict on the big screen, with new additions like 2022's All Quiet on the Western Front highlighting the way these remarkable films can span numerous genres. With ambitious set designs, numerous actors and incredible stories, historical epics are among the very best that the film industry has to offer.
A unique element of the cinematic arts is how film can give us a fully-formed look into a different time. By decorating a set and actors putting on some costumes, the audience can be transported hundreds or thousands of years into the past through epic movies.

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The Best Period Dramas And Historical Shows On Netflix Right Now

The historical epic is a staple of film, being part of the genre since the medium's inception. You have silent films such as Napoléonand Joan of Arc to modern films like Braveheartand The Northman. Many of these historical epic movies are shining examples of some of the most engaging stories ever put to the silver screen.

Updated on December 29th, 2022, by Hannah Saab:
The best historical epics continue to showcase the way cinema pushes the boundaries of what's possible to depict on the big screen, with new additions like 2022's All Quiet on the Western Front highlighting the way these remarkable films can span numerous genres. With ambitious set designs, numerous actors and incredible stories, historical epics are among the very best that the film industry has to offer.

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'The Northman' (2022)
Available to stream on Amazon Prime Video.
The Northman
Robert Eggers pulled off a miracle with The Northman. The indie auteur, known for his distinct visual style, got a studio to give him $90 million without sacrificing any aspect of what he's known for. The Northman is a weird, dark, intense Viking revenge movie that just screams Eggers.


The film is based on the ancient Viking tale of Amleth, which inspired Shakespeare's Hamlet. When King Aurvandill War-Raven (Ethan Hawke) is killed by his brother, Fjölnir (Claes Bang), who also takes his wife Gudrún (Nicole Kidman) as his Queen, his son Amleth (Alexander Skarsgård) swears to, "Avenge you, father. Save you, mother. Kill you, Fjölnir." Years later, after Fjölnir's reign has ended and Amleth has been long believed dead, Amleth infiltrates Fjölnir's life to meet his fate and get his revenge. The story may feel familiar because of how much of an impact the source material has had over the ages, but Eggers has made the definitive telling.


'The Last Duel' (2021)
Available to stream on Hulu and HBO Max.
The Last Duel
Based on the non-fiction book by the same name, Ridley Scott's The Last Duel tells an epic story of Medieval France that feels incredibly relevant in the 2020s.

When Marguerite (Jodie Comer) accuses Jacques Le Gris (Adam Driver) of rape, her self-righteous husband, Jean de Carrouges (Matt Damon), challenges Le Gris to a duel to the death to legally determine whether she is telling the truth or not.


What makes this underrated Ridley Scott gem truly special is its structure. The movie is told in three distinct sections, showing the events in question from each character's point of view. The differences emphasize the way that each of the characters sees the world. It's a one-of-a-kind historical epic that does not get the love it deserves upon its release.


'Spartacus' (1960)
Available to rent on Apple iTunes.
Spartacus
When you think of a classic Hollywood epic, chances are, you're going to think of Stanley Kubrick's Spartacus. It's a legendary part of film history. It helped build the profile of Kubrick, one of the greatest directors of all time, was written by famous, blacklisted screenwriter Dalton Trumbo, and features a top-tier cast including Laurence Olivier, Charles Laughton, and an iconic performance by Kirk Douglas as Spartacus himself.


The movie, set in 73 B.C., follows Thracian slave Spartacus as he leads a rebellion against the Roman government. It's a well-crafted story with a nice balance of action and complex political intrigue as Roman senators maneuver against Spartacus to maintain their control.


'Braveheart' (1995)
Available to stream on HBO Max.
Mel Gibson standing with a large group of men cheering before going to fight in Braveheart
Braveheart tells the story of William Wallace (Mel Gibson), a legendary Scottish warrior who fought for Scotland's freedom against the rule of King Edward I of England. There are few movies as epic and inspiring as Braveheart. Wallace's speech rallying the troops will live forever in cinematic history as one of the all-time great monologues.


Braveheart is incredibly well directed by Gibson, who won the Best Director Oscar for his work. The film also won Best Picture and three more, proving itself to be a cultural juggernaut due to the widespread acclaim from both critics and audiences.


'Ben-Hur' (1959)
Available to rent on Apple iTunes.
Ben-Hur
Ben-Hur is a bonafide classic of Hollywood cinema. The chariot scenes are some of the most memorable action sequences of all time, and Charlton Heston's performance as Judah Ben-Hur is one of the best of his entire career.


Historical epics are incredibly difficult to make. They require a precise understanding of historical context, high production value, and hard work. Ben-Hur pulled off each of these requirements, even under the restraints of making a blockbuster in the 1950s. Hollywood tried to remake Ben-Hur in 2016, but modern action movie sensibilities just don't match up to the craftsmanship of the original.

'Dances With Wolves' (1990)
Available to stream on HBO Max.
Dances WIth WolvesImage via Orion Pictures
Kevin Costner truly understands what makes cinema such a magical art form. He also understands the complexity of the American frontier, part of what makes him so compelling on the hit show Yellowstone. Dances With Wolves combines these two elements into what is undeniably Costner's masterpiece.


The film follows Lieutenant John Dunbar (Kevin Costner) as a Union soldier assigned to maintain a lonely outpost during the Civil War. While there, he meets and befriends a Native American tribe who take him in as one of their own. He then fights alongside them against the Union soldiers, trying to push them off of their land. It's a story that attempts to correct some of the lore surrounding America's Westward expansion and show it for what it really was.

'Les Misérables' (2012)
Available to stream on Netflix.
Les Miserables
There aren't many historical epics that double as musicals, but without a doubt, Les Misérables is the best one. This story, set during a turbulent time in 19th Century France, is one of the most potent and emotional musicals ever made.


Les Misérables follows Jean Valjean (Hugh Jackman) as he runs from the viscous Inspector Javert (Russell Crowe), who hunts him down for breaking his parole. Simultaneously, it follows Fantine (Anne Hathaway), a poor woman who turns to prostitution to care for her child. As the stories intersect, the characters sing about their love and passion at a time when it would be easy to give up hope.

'Seven Samurai' (1954)
Available to stream on HBO Max and The Criterion Channel.
Saven Samurai
Akira Kurosawa is one of the greatest filmmakers of all time, and Seven Samurai is one of his absolute best films. In fact, this movie is so beloved that it popularized the "assemble a team" plot structure that can be seen in other movies like The Magnificent Seven, The Dirty Dozen, and Star Wars. Filmmakers like George Lucas and Steven Spielberg have cited the film as a significant influence on their careers. The impact of Seven Samurai cannot be overstated.


The story centers on a small village that recruits seven unemployed samurai to help them defend themselves from bandits. The plot may be fairly simple, but it's emotional, and when the battle finally happens, it's nothing short of epic. Seven Samurai is undeniably the most iconic samurai movie of all time.

'Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon' (2000)
Available to stream on Hulu.
Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon is Ang Lee's multinational adaptation of the Chinese novel of the same name that became an instant blockbuster in the United States when it first premiered. American audiences were captivated by the story of love and adventure, regardless of the language barrier.


The film takes place in 19th century China and tells the story of Li Mu Bai (Chow Yun-Fat), who gives the legendary Green Destiny sword to young warrior Yu Shu Lien (Michelle Yeoh) to deliver to Governor Yu (Fazeng Li). However, when it is stolen from her, a game of cat and mouse becomes one of romance and redemption.


'Gladiator' (2000)
Available to stream on Netflix and Paramount+.
Gladiator
Ridley Scott's Gladiator is one of the most epic movies ever made. The legendary tale of Maximus (Russell Crowe) captivated audiences around the globe, becoming a box office hit and winning the coveted Best Picture Oscar at the 2001 Academy Awards.


Maximus sets out on an unstoppable mission for revenge when Emperor Commodus (Joaquin Phoenix) has his family killed and is subsequently enslaved. The story is epic in the truest sense of the word, with the scenes at the Colosseum showing the vast scope and scale in a way we've never seen before. This film is truly one for the ages, and is still among the best gladiator movies ever made.


'Titanic' (1997)
Available to stream on Pluto TV.
titanic
Director James Cameron's Titanic is a film that requires no introduction. Based on the true story of the eponymous ship's sinking, the award-winning epic disaster film follows the forbidden relationship that blossoms between Jack Dawson (Leonardo DiCaprio) and Rose DeWitt Bukater (Kate Winslet). The maritime accident claims multiple lives, and the devastation is emphasized by the main characters' doomed romance.


The classic film, which became a career-defining one for its leading stars, is still the subject of numerous parodies and homages in pop culture. It's an excellent example of a historical disaster-drama film done correctly, and it also held up incredibly well decades after its initial release.


'Schindler's List' (1993)
Available to stream on Showtime.
Schindler's List Still
Schindler's List, directed by Steven Spielberg, is one of the most iconic and internationally renowned portrayals of the Holocaust. Spielberg's legendary historical epic is based on Thomas Keneally's popular historical non-fiction book, Schindler's Ark. The stirring film is about Oskar Schindler's valiant rescue of Jewish immigrants, which he accomplished by recruiting them to work in his factories.


With its riveting and masterfully filmed scenes all depicted in black and white, audiences may recall one of the film's most unsettling moments. A brief scene shows a small kid wearing a bright red coat, which is subsequently seen again after she dies. It's a disturbing and crucial movie that's as relevant today as it was in 1993.


'Apocalypse Now' (1979)
Available to rent on Apple iTunes.
Martin Sheen in 'Apocalypse Now'Image via Omni Zoetrope
Director Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now is an epic masterpiece that transports viewers to the horrifying height of the Vietnam War. While the war film is primarily centered on a clandestine operation to murder a Green Beret Colonel, it accomplishes much more over the course of the movie.


The film is both a wild psychological journey and a portrayal of the harrowing situation in Vietnam at the time. It highlights how conflict can change individuals and juxtaposes the macabre with the country's lovely scenery. It's a frightening depiction of the crimes that are frequently committed on the frontlines, as well as the people who are permanently affected by their horrifying involvement in them.


'Lawrence Of Arabia' (1962)
Available to rent on Apple iTunes.
Lawrence of Arabia 
Lawrence of Arabia, directed by David Lean and based on the 1926 novel Seven Pillars of Wisdom, redefined the epic historical drama genre. It recounts the protagonist's daring WWII raids on Aqaba and Damascus, as well as his emotional turmoil as he tries to accept his role in the war.


The narrative, magnificent visuals, and flawless soundtrack of the film have influenced numerous directors and continue to have an impact on the industry as a whole. Although it has been criticized for inaccuracy, the film's wide renown far trumps any shortcomings.


'All Quiet on the Western Front' (2022)
Available to stream on Netflix.
Felix Kammerer in All Quiet on the Western FrontImage via Netflix
All Quiet on the Western Front is already being recognized as one of the greatest war films ever made, and it does justice to Erich Maria Remarque's eponymous 1929 novel. The film follows 17-year-old Paul Bäumer (Felix Kammerer) as he enlists in the Imperial German Army alongside his school pals in 1917, three years into the First World War.


War is not what they expect, and the film wastes no time in presenting the horrors of the battlefield in a raw, harsh and really horrifying manner. With massive set pieces, excruciatingly long one-take shots and no shortage of violence and blood, it's a horrible, painful-to-watch film that, unfortunately, is both significant and timely today.
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Pauline Christianity - Wikipedia

Pauline Christianity - Wikipedia

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Artist depiction of Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas). Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his letters to a secretary.[1]

Pauline Christianity or Pauline theology (also Paulism or Paulanity),[2] otherwise referred to as Gentile Christianity,[3] is the theology and form of Christianity which developed from the beliefs and doctrines espoused by the Hellenistic-Jewish Apostle Paul through his writings and those New Testament writings traditionally attributed to him. 

Paul's beliefs were rooted in the earliest Jewish Christianity, but deviated from this Jewish Christianity in their emphasis on inclusion of the Gentiles into God's New Covenant, and his rejection of circumcision as an unnecessary token of upholding the Mosaic Law.[3][4][5]

Proto-orthodox Christianity, which is rooted in the first centuries of the history of Christianity, relies heavily on Pauline theology and beliefs, and considers them to be amplifications and explanations of the teachings of Jesus. 

Since the 18th century, a number of scholars have proposed that Paul's writings contain teachings that are different from the original teachings of Jesus and those of the earliest Jewish Christians, as documented in the canonical gospels, early Acts, and the rest of the New Testament, such as the Epistle of James.[citation needed]


Contents

Definition and etymology[edit]
Definition[edit]

Pauline Christianity or Pauline theology, also called "Paulism" or "Paulanity",[2] is the theology and Christianity which developed from the beliefs and doctrines espoused by Paul the Apostle through his writings. Paul's beliefs were strongly rooted in the earliest Jewish Christianity, but deviated from this Jewish Christianity in their emphasis on inclusion of the Gentiles into God's New Covenant, and his rejection of circumcision as an unnecessary token of upholding the Law.

Etymology[edit]

According to Hans Lietzmann, the term "Pauline Christianity" first came into use in the 20th century among scholars who proposed different strands of thought within Early Christianity, wherein Paul was a powerful influence.[6]

Marxist writer Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), who stressed the similarities between Primitive Christianity and Marxism, used the phrase 'Christo-Paulinism' not only to indicate Paul's greater importance, but also to distinguish between theological and ideological beliefs and the organization of the institutional Church.[7]

The expression is also used by modern Christian scholars, such as John Ziesler[8] and Christopher Mount,[9] whose interest is in the recovery of Christian origins, and the importance of Paul for paleo-orthodoxy, Christian reconstructionism and restorationism.

Paul and the inclusion of Gentiles[edit]

See also: Jewish Christian and Paul the Apostle and Judaism

The first Christians were Jews.[10] According to Paul and the author of the Acts of the Apostles, he initially persecuted those early Christians, but then converted, and, years later, was called to proselytise among Gentiles.

Inclusion of Gentiles[edit]

An early creed about Jesus' death and resurrection which Paul probably used was 1 Corinthians 15, verses 3–5 (plus possible additional verses). Probably originating from the Jerusalem apostolic community, the antiquity of the creed has been noted by many biblical scholars:[11]


For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received, that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, and that He was buried, and that He was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures, and that He appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve,...

There has been widespread acknowledgement of the view of W. D. Davies that the essential Jewishness of Paul's Christian perspective has been underplayed.[citation needed] In Davies' view, Paul replaced the Torah, the Jewish law or Law of Moses, with Christ.[dubious – discuss].

In the view of Daniel Boyarin, Paula Fredriksen and other notable NT scholars cited by them, writing with lived experience of the Jewish context, Paul did not replace Torah or Halakha with Christ for Jewish believers, but simply taught gentiles that observing the noachide covenant as righteous among the nations was sufficient (along with faith in Christ), to merit a share in the world to come. This was a view shared by the Pharisees and taught in the Talmud and Maimonides (with the except of the element of faith in Christ), but denied by (mostly gentile born) Judaizers who taught conversion to Judaism as a requisite for salvation.[citation needed] For example, his epistle to the Romans 13 teaches the obligations of a righteous gentile under the Noachide covenant, with Romans 14-15 expansive commentary on dietary ethics.

According to Christopher Rowland, "the problems with which he wrestles in his letters were probably typical of many which were facing the Christian sect during this period".[12]

According to Krister Stendahl, the main concern of Paul's writings on Jesus' role, and salvation by faith, is the problem of the inclusion of gentile (Greek) Torah observers into God's covenant.[13][14][15][web 1] The inclusion of Gentiles into early Christianity posed a problem for the Jewish identity of the early Christians. Many of the Jewish Christians were fully faithful religious Jews, only differing in their acceptance of Jesus as the Messiah. Observance of the Jewish commands, including circumcision, was regarded as a token of the membership of this covenant, and the early Jewish Christians insisted on keeping those observances.[16] The new converts did not follow all "Jewish Law" and refused to be circumcised,[17] as circumcision was considered repulsive during the period of Hellenization of the Eastern Mediterranean.[web 2][18]

Paul objected strongly to the insistence on keeping all of the Jewish commandments, considering it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith in Jesus.[19] For Paul, Jesus' death and resurrection solved this problem of the exclusion of the gentiles from God's covenant.[20] 'Dying for our sins' refers to the problem of gentile Torah-observers, who, despite their faithfulness, cannot fully observe commandments, including circumcision, and are therefore 'sinners', excluded from God's covenant.[21] Jesus' death and resurrection solved this problem of the exclusion of the gentiles from God's covenant, as indicated by Rom 3:21-26.[20]

Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Judaism of ca. 200 BCE until 200 CE, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.[web 3]


Split with Jewish Christianity[edit]
See also: Jewish Christian

There was a slowly growing chasm between Christians and Jews, rather than a sudden split. Even though it is commonly thought that Paul established a Gentile church, it took centuries for a complete break to manifest.[22]

Irenaeus, bishop of Lyon, wrote in the latter half of the 2nd century that the Ebionites rejected Paul as an apostate from the law, using only a version of the Gospel according to St. Matthew, known as the Gospel of the Ebionites.
Influence[edit]


This article may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (November 2021)


Paul had a strong influence on early Christianity, transmuting Jesus the Jewish messiah into the universal[note 1] savior. This thesis is founded on differences between the views of Paul and the earliest Jewish Christianity, and also between the picture of Paul in the Acts of the Apostles and his own writings. In this view, Paul is to be taken as pro-Hellenization or Romanization.


Scholarly views[edit]
See also: New Perspective on Paul

There are considerable differences of scholarly opinion concerning how far Paul did in fact influence Christian doctrine.[note 2]

According to the 19th-century German theologian Ferdinand Christian Baur, founder of the Tübingen school whose view was widely influential, Paul was utterly opposed to the disciples, based upon his view that Acts was late and unreliable and who contended that Catholic Christianity was a synthesis of the views of Paul and the Judaizing church in Jerusalem.[23] Since Adolf von Harnack, the Tübingen position has been generally abandoned.[24][page needed]

Ultradispensationalists such as E. W. Bullinger viewed the distinction abhorred by the Ebionites as positive and essential doctrine.[25][clarification needed]

Pauline Christianity was essentially based on Rome and made use of the administrative skills which Rome had honed. Its system of organization with a single bishop for each town was, in Bart Ehrman's view, the means by which it obtained its hegemony.[26]

Michael Goulder wrote widely on a theory of Christian origins that sees a fundamental opposition between Paul the Apostle on one side and the Jerusalem Christians Peter and James, Jesus' brother, on the other.[27] This has been seen as reviving a hypothesis proposed by 19th century Hegelian philosopher and theologian Ferdinand Christian Baur of the Tübingen school.[28]

Distortion[edit]

Some literary critics of Christianity argue that Paul distorted the original and true faith, or claim that Christianity is largely his invention. The former include such secular commentators[29] as the philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche and Bertrand Russell. 
Nietzsche's criticisms are based upon his moral objections to Paul's thought. Other writers, such as Slavoj Žižek and Alain Badiou, also agree with this interpretation, but hold much more positive opinions about Paul's theological influence.[citation needed]

Christian anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy, believe Paul distorted Jesus' teachings. Tolstoy claims Paul was instrumental in the church's "deviation" from Jesus' teaching and practices,[30] while Hennacy believed "Paul spoiled the message of Christ."[31]


Criticism of the "Pauline Christianity"-thesis[edit]

Christians themselves disagree as to how far there was tension between Paul and the Jerusalem Church. Roman Catholics, Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian Church of the East, and conservative Protestants, contend that Paul's writings were a legitimate interpretation of the Gospel. The idea that Paul invented Christianity is disputed by numerous Christian writers.[32][33][34][35]

According to Christopher Rowland, Pauline Christianity is the development of thinking about Jesus in a gentile missionary context. Rowland contends that "the extent of his influence on Christian thought has been overestimated",[36] concluding that Paul did not materially alter Jesus' teachings.

Hurtado notes that Paul regarded his Christological views and the Jerusalem Church's as essentially similar. According to Hurtado, this "work[s] against the claims by some scholars that Pauline Christianity represents a sharp departure from the religiousness of Judean 'Jesus movements'."[37]

As a pejorative term[edit]

The pejorative use of the expressions "Pauline Christianity", "Paulism," or "Paulanity," refers to the idea that Paul's supporters, as a distinct group, had an undue influence on the formation of the canon of scripture.[38][39] It is also sometimes used to refer to the notion that certain bishops, especially the Bishop of Rome, influenced the debates which determined the dogma of early Christianity, thus elevating a Pauline interpretation of the Gospel, to the detriment of other interpretations (including those held by the Gnostics and Marcionites).[40][41][42][43]


See also[edit]


Notes[edit]
^ In a wider meaning "catholic"
^ Among the most radical is G. A. Wells, a professor of German rather than of theology or history, whose view is that Jesus was a mythical figure and that Christianity was in good part invented by Paul.

References[edit]Citations to web-sources
  1. ^ Stephen Westerholm (2015), The New Perspective on Paul in Review, Direction, Spring 2015 · Vol. 44 No. 1 · pp. 4–15
  2. ^ "CIRCUMCISION - JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com.
  3. ^ Jordan Cooper, E.P. Sanders and the New Perspective on PaulCitations to printed sources
  4. ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. pp. 316–320. Harris cites Galatians 6:11, Romans 16:22, Colossians 4:18, 2 Thessalonians 3:17, Philemon 19. Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At this point [Galatians 6:11] the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thessalonians 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
  5. ^ Jump up to:a b Ide 1993, p. 25.
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b Klutz, Todd (2002) [2000]. "Part II: Christian Origins and Development – Paul and the Development of Gentile Christianity". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Routledge Worlds (1st ed.). New York and London: Routledge. pp. 178–190. ISBN 9781032199344.
  7. ^ Thiessen, Matthew (September 2014). Breytenbach, Cilliers; Thom, Johan (eds.). "Paul's Argument against Gentile Circumcision in Romans 2:17-29". Novum Testamentum. Leiden: Brill Publishers. 56 (4): 373–391. doi:10.1163/15685365-12341488. eISSN 1568-5365. ISSN 0048-1009. JSTOR 24735868.
  8. ^ Seifrid, Mark A. (1992). "'Justification by Faith' and The Disposition of Paul's Argument". Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme. Novum Testamentum, Supplements. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 210–211, 246–247. ISBN 90-04-09521-7. ISSN 0167-9732.
  9. ^ Lietzmann, Hans History of the Early Church Vol. 1 p. 206
  10. ^ James Leslie Houlden, Jesus in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1, ABC–CLIO, 2003, p. 595
  11. ^ Ziesler John, Pauline Christianity (OUP 2001) Zielsler comments "Pauline Christianity is the earliest for which we have direct documentary evidence..."
  12. ^ Mount, Christopher, Pauline Christianity – Luke, Acts and the Legacy of Paul, Brill, 2002
  13. ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 79-80.
  14. ^ see Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus—God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, The Early church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 66; R. E. Brown, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) p. 81; Thomas Sheehan, First Coming: How the Kingdom of God Became Christianity (New York: Random House, 1986) pp. 110, 118; Ulrich Wilckens, Resurrection translated A. M. Stewart (Edinburgh: Saint Andrew, 1977) p. 2; Hans Grass, Ostergeschen und Osterberichte, Second Edition (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1962) p. 96; Grass favors the origin in Damascus.
  15. ^ Rowland 1985, p. 196.
  16. ^ Stendahl 1963.
  17. ^ Dunn 1982, p. n.49.
  18. ^ Finlan 2004, p. 2.
  19. ^ McGrath 2006, p. 174.
  20. ^ Bokenkotter 2004, p. 19.
  21. ^ Hodges, Frederick, M. (2001). "The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme" (PDF). The Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 75 (Fall 2001): 375–405. doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. PMID 11568485. S2CID 29580193. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
  22. ^ McGrath 2006, p. 174-175.
  23. ^ Jump up to:a b Mack 1997, p. 91–92.
  24. ^ Mack 1997, p. 88–89, 92.
  25. ^ Dunn 1991.
  26. ^ Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi (Eng trans. 1873–5)
  27. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ed. F. L. Cross
  28. ^ "The Pauline Epistles. - Appendix to the Companion Bible". levendwater.org. Retrieved May 30, 2020.
  29. ^ Ehrman, Bart: Lost Christianities (OUP) p 175
  30. ^ See, for example, St. Paul versus St. Peter: A Tale of Two Missions (London: SCM, 1994) and Paul and the Competing Mission in Corinth (Library of Pauline Studies; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2001).
  31. ^ Steven C. Muir (26 June 2000). "Review of St. Paul versus St. Peter: A Tale of Two Missions" (PDF). Review of Biblical Literature. Retrieved 25 July 2007.
  32. ^ "Articles - People Who Have Understood Paul is Anti-Christ's Teachings - Oneness - True Faith". www.wizanda.com. Retrieved May 30, 2020.
  33. ^ Tolstoy, Leo (1882). Church and State. This deviation begins from the times of the Apostles and especially from that hankerer after mastership Paul
  34. ^ Hennacy, Ammon (1970). The Book of Ammon. Hennacy. p. 475. Paul and the Churches
  35. ^ David Wenham, "Paul: Follower of Jesus or Founder of Christianity?"
  36. ^ L. Michael White, "From Jesus to Christianity"
  37. ^ F. F. Bruce, "Paul & Jesus"
  38. ^ Machen, J. Gresham. "The Origin of Paul's Religion"
  39. ^ Rowland 1985, p. 194.
  40. ^ Hurtado 2005, p. 160.
  41. ^ Mount, Christopher N. (2002). Pauline Christianity : Luke-Acts and the legacy of Paul. Leiden: Brill. pp. 1–21. ISBN 9004124721. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  42. ^ Kirk, J. R. Daniel (2012-01-01). Jesus Have I Loved, but Paul?: A Narrative Approach to the Problem of Pauline Christianity. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-1-4412-3625-8. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  43. ^ Wilson, Stephen G. (1986). Anti-Judaism in early Christianity. Volume 2, Separation and polemic. Waterloo, Ont., Canada: Published for the Canadian Corp. for Studies in Religion by Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 088920196X.
  44. ^ Campbell, William (2005). "Perceptions of Compatibility Between Christianity and Judaism in Pauline Interpretation". Biblical Interpretation. 13 (3): 298–316. doi:10.1163/1568515054388137.
  45. ^ Zukowski, Jean (2009-01-01). "The Role and Status of the Catholic Church in the Church-State Relationship Within the Roman Empire from A.D. 306 to 814". Dissertations. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  46. ^ Burrows, William R. (2014). Transforming teaching for mission : educational theory and practice : the 2014 proceedings of the Association of Professors of Missions. Wilmore, Ky.: First Fruits Press. ISBN 9781621711582. Retrieved 2 June 2021.

Printed sources




Further reading[edit]

Adams, Edward and Horrell, David G. Christianity at Corinth: The Quest for the Pauline Church 2004
Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. Revelation and Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity
Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament 1997 ISBN 0-385-24767-2
Brown, Raymond E. Does the NT call Jesus God? Theological Studies #26, 1965
Charry, Ellen T. (1999), By the Renewing of Your Minds: The Pastoral Function of Christian Doctrine, Oxford University Press
Dunn, James D.G. The Theology of Paul the Apostle Eerdmans 1997 ISBN 0-8028-3844-8
Dunn, James D. G. The Apostle of the Heretics: Paul, Valentinus, and Marcion, in Porter, Stanley E.; Yoon, David, Paul and Gnosis BRILL 2016 ISBN 9789004316690
Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities: The Battle for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew 2003
Elsner, Jas. Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph: Oxford History of Early Non-Pauline Christianity 1998 ISBN 0-19-284201-3
Griffith-Jones, Robin. The Gospel According to Paul 2004.
Holland, Tom. Contours of Pauline Theology: A Radical New Survey on the Influences of Paul's Biblical Writings 2004 ISBN 1-85792-469-X
Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity 1986 ISBN 0-06-015582-5
Kim, Yung Suk. Christ's Body in Corinth: The Politics of a Metaphor 2008 ISBN 0-8006-6285-7
Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. 2011 ISBN 978-1-60899-793-0
MacDonald, Dennis Ronald. The Legend and the Apostle : The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon Philadelphia: Westminster Press 1983
Mount, Christopher N. Pauline Christianity: Luke-Acts and the Legacy of Paul 2001
Pagels, Elaine The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters Fortress Press 1975 ISBN 978-1-56338-039-6
Pietersen, Lloyd K. Polemic of the Pastorals: A Sociological Examination of the Development of Pauline Christianity 2004
Sanders, E. P. Jesus and Judaism 1987 ISBN 0-8006-2061-5
Sanders, E. P. Paul the Law and the Jewish People 1983
Sanders, E. P. Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion 1977 ISBN 0-8006-1899-8
Theissen, Gerd. The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: Essays on Corinth 2004
Westerholm, Stephen. Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The "Lutheran" Paul and His Critics 2003 ISBN 0-8028-4809-5
Wright, N. T. What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? 1997 ISBN 0-8028-4445-6
Wilson, A. N. Paul: The Mind of the Apostle 1997
Ziesler, John A. Pauline Christianity, Revised 1990 ISBN 0-19-826459-3


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