2019/12/29

10 홍주민 - 헤른후트와 본회퍼 그리고 나



헤른후트와 본회퍼 그리고 나




헤른후트와 본회퍼 그리고 나

홍주민 (juminhong@naver.com)
승인 2010.12.18 22:06


헤른후트(Herrnhut), 우리말로 '주님이 보호하시는 곳'을 의미한다. 헤른후트 공동체 운동은 지금으로부터 약 300년 전, 독일의 북동부에 위치한 한 자그마한 마을에서 시작되었다. 이 운동은 니콜라우스 루트비히 폰 친첸도르프(1700-1760)에 의해 시작된 창조적인 디아코니아 공동체 운동이다. 

섬김 공동체였던 초대교회를 이루고자 했던 그는 대학을 졸업하고 드레스덴에서 직장 생활을 하던 중, 그의 일생을 변화시킨 모라비아 교도들을 만난다. 이들은 체코 프라하에서 종교개혁 운동을 하다가 1415년에 화형당한 얀 후스의 후예들이었다. 친첸도르프는 이들에게 자신의 사유지를 제공하여 정착하도록 하는데, 이들은 그곳을 '헤른후트'라 칭하고 1727년경 200여 명의 모라비아 이주자들과 함께 공동체 생활을 시작한다.







▲ 헤른후트 공동체



이들에게 아주 독특한 형식의 말씀 묵상집이 전해 내려오는데, 바로 헤른후트 기도서이다. 이 기도서는 'Die Losungen(로중)'이라고 하는데 그 의미는 군사적인 용어로 '암호'라고 한다. 군인이 싸우러 나갈 때 암호는 적군과 대치 상황에서 아주 생명과 같은 것이다. 만약에 암호를 잘못 외우거나 모르면 생명의 위협을 가져올 수 있다. 이 기도서의 첫 주창자인 친첸도르프는 헤른후트 공동체원들이 매일매일의 삶 속에서 짧은 말씀이지만 생명과도 같은 소중한 말씀으로 영적 투쟁에서 승리할 것을 바라면서 로중 운동을 시작하였다.

필자는 2007년과 2009년 여름, 헤른후트 공동체를 방문한 적이 있다. 첫 방문 때 우연히 이 로중을 만드는 이들을 만날 수 있었는데, 그들은 나에게 지난 300여 년 동안 매일을 위한 구약성서 구절을 제비뽑기하여 뽑아내는 제비 함을 보여 주었다. 그 안에는 1,800개의 번호가 적혀 있는 제비가 있었고 한쪽에는 번호와 성서 구절이 적혀 있는 문건이 있었다. 아주 인상적이었다. 300여 년 전부터 컴퓨터의 도움이 없이 이러한 작업이 진행되었다는 사실과 그 과정 속에서 성서 구절이 반복되지 않는다는 것은 아주 경이로움을 자아냈다. 그들은 말하기를, 1년을 위해 뽑힌 제비는 다음 3년 동안 옆으로 놓이고 이 기간에는 이미 뽑힌 구절은 제외된다고 한다. 그런데 그들은 이 뽑힌 말씀을 주님께서 주신 말씀으로 받아들인다.

필자가 헤른후트 기도서를 접한 것은 십여 년 전 독일에 공부하러 갔던 유학 초년기였다. 독일에서는 서점에 다른 큐티 자료는 별로 없지만 이 기도서는 어디서나 찾아볼 수 있을 정도로 보편화되어 있다. 처음으로 필자가 이 로중을 접한 것은 독일어를 배우는 기간 중 독일 기독학생회에 참여하여 모임에 정기적으로 나가게 되면서였다. 매주 월요일 저녁 시간에 마인츠 구시가지에 있는 모임 장소에서 모였는데, 그 모임에 참여하는 이들은 독일 학생들도 있었지만 외국 학생들이 많았다. 전 세계에서 몰려온 친구들과 어울려 독일어로 인사를 나누고 교제하는 것은 이국땅에서의 외로움과 불안감을 떨치게 하는 데에 중요한 역할을 했다. 그런데 그 가운데 지금도 뚜렷하게 기억으로 남아 있는 것은 매번 모여서 말씀 묵상과 찬양을 하면서 접한 헤른후트 로중과의 만남이었다. 아주 짧은 말씀이지만 그 말씀을 읽고 돌아가면서 떠듬떠듬 자신의 가슴에 부딪힌 것을 독일어로 나누는 시간은 그 어떠한 설교보다도 더 강력한 메시지로 나를 휘감았다. 그때부터 가까이하게 된 로중은 이국땅에서 힘들었던 순간에 나를 무너지게 하는 힘들에 대항하는 '아주 작은 영적 무기'였다.








▲ 특히 행동하는 신학자로 20세기 후반에 개신교의 신학과 실천에 큰 영향을 끼친 디트리히 본회퍼는 헤른후트 기도서의 애독자였다.



이 로중은 슐라이에르마허, 본회퍼, 코트비츠, 비헤른 등 수많은 개신교인들에게 교단과 교파를 초월하여 지대한 영향을 끼쳐 왔다. 특히 행동하는 신학자로 20세기 후반에 개신교의 신학과 실천에 큰 영향을 끼친 디트리히 본회퍼는 헤른후트 기도서의 애독자였다. 본회퍼는 2차 세계대전 중 히틀러 암살 계획에 가담했다가 발각돼 2년 동안 감옥 생활을 하고 전쟁이 끝나기 직전 교수형에 숨진 인물이다. 그는 1933년 히틀러가 국가 사회주의를 주창하며 유대인 600만여 명을 학살하고 수천만 명의 희생자를 낸 2차 세계대전을 일으킨 전쟁광인 히틀러에게 항거한 것이다. 그는 히틀러를 '적그리스도'로 보고 이에 저항하는 '고백교회' 운동을 하면서 신앙을 지켜 나갔다.

1939년 7월 미국 유니언 신학교 초빙교수로 있던 본회퍼는 당시 그의 심경을 그의 책 '공동의 삶(Gemeinsames Leben)'에서 다음과 같이 기록한다. "헤른후트 기도서는 단순한 성경 말씀 구절에 그치지 않는다. 매일 주어지는 말씀은 우리에게 앞으로 나갈 길을 결정할 수 있게 한다." 본회퍼는 1939년 여름, 미국에서 기록한 일기문에 아주 분명한 필치로 자신이 미국에 계속 머물 것인지 아니면 독일로 돌아가야 하는지에 대해 로중 말씀을 읽으며 고민하는 흔적이 나온다. 그러한 고심을 하는 가운데 로중의 한 말씀이 그를 강타한다. "주님은 은을 정련하고 깨끗하게 하신다." 말라기서의 이 한 말씀을 읽고 덧붙여 옆에 기록한다. "나는 나를 더 이상 잘 알 수 없다. 하지만 주님은 나를 잘 알고 있다. 결국 모든 행동과 실천은 분명하게 될 것이다." 이 말씀과의 부딪침 이후, 본회퍼는 지체하지 않고 독일로 돌아온다. 그리고 저항 운동에 가담한 본회퍼는 1943년 4월 5일 체포되고, 1944년 전쟁이 끝나기 바로 직전에 교수형으로 처형된다.

본회퍼에게 헤른후트 기도서가 결정적인 역할을 한 것처럼 필자도 그동안 이 작은 기도서에 많은 빚을 지고 있다. 이 기도서의 매일의 말씀은 하루 동안 얼마 안 되는 말씀이지만 하루의 영의 양식으로 결코 부족하지 않다. 지난 300여 년 전부터 개신교 전통에서 가장 널리 활용되는 이 기도서가 51개 국어로 번역되어 지구상의 많은 이들이 동일한 말씀으로 힘을 얻고 있다. 필자는 헤른후트 기도서 2009년도 판부터 <말씀 그리고 하루>(한국디아코니아연구소)라는 제목으로 번역해 한국에 소개하고 있다. 필자는 이 작은 묵상 집을 통해 한국의 많은 그리스도인들이 좀 더 깊이 있는 말씀에 닻을 내리고 살아가기를 소망해 본다. 더 나아가 한국의 그리스도인들이 '행동하는 말씀'인 디아코니아를 조용히, 섬기면서, 사랑하면서 실천해 나가기를 희망해 본다.

"주님은 올바른 길을 보여 주시고자 당신 앞에 계십니다.

주님은 악한 사람들의 흉계로부터 지켜 주시려고 당신 등 뒤에 계십니다.

주님은 아래로 추락할 때에 궁지에서 벗어나게 하시려고 당신 밑에서 잡아 주십니다.

주님은 축복해 주시기 위해 당신 위에 계십니다(초대교회의 축복문)."






▲ 헤른후트 기도서



이 기도문은 2010년 헤른후트 기도서에 나오는 초대교회의 축복문이다. 어느덧 한 해가 기울고 있다. 이 한 해도 초대교회 그리스도인들의 기도문처럼 주님의 은총 가운데서 늘 강건한 삶을 살게 하신 주님께 감사드리며, 새로운 한 해에도 변함없는 주님의 은총이 늘 함께하기를 소망해 본다.

홍주민 / 한신대학교 외래교수

2019/12/28

오순절주의 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전



오순절주의 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전



오순절주의
위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.


오순절운동

배경

개신교
개혁교회
감리교
은사 방언
성결 운동
관련 인물

찰스 퍼햄
윌리엄 시모어
베니 힌
오럴 로버츠
마거릿 코트
교리

성령강림주일
간증
성령
사도행전
기적


오순절 운동(五旬節運動, Pentecostalism) 혹은 단일 교단은 없고 오순절 신학에 영향받은 여러 교단을 일괄해 통칭되는 오순절 교회(五旬節敎會)는 

  • 기독교에서 성령의 초자연스러운, 능력스러운 은사(헬라어로 카리스, 방언, 병 고침 등)를 강조하는 개신교의 신학상 갈래이고 
  • 이들의 첫 단계는 1906년 미국 캘리포니아주 아주사에 있었던 부흥 운동이 그 모체인데 1914년 오순절 교파 태동의 출발점이 되었다. 
  • 이들은 승천한 예수 그리스도가 선물로 약속했던 성령이 오순절에 임할 때(성령강림일) 사도들이 성령 충만함을 받고 각 다른 나라의 언어(방언)들로 말했다는 사도행전 제2 장의 사건이 현 시대에도 재현될 수 있다고 주장한다. 
  • 덧붙이자면 대한민국에서는 '오순절교회'라고 하면 '순복음교회'를 가리키는 말로 쓰이고 있다. 더불어 대한민국에서 최대 교회인 여의도 순복음교회가 소속된 교단이기도 하다. 
  • 신학적인 부분과 감리교와 매우 유사하고 상당히 똑같다. 감리교만큼 제법 진보적인 신학을 추구한다.

역사[편집]

1914년 미국 미주리주(Missouri) 스프링필드(Springfield)에서 조직되었으며, 
대한민국에는 1932년 8월 목사 박성산·배부근이 일본에서 귀국하여 五旬節 신앙 운동을 시작하고 해방과 함께 선교사 체스넛이 내한함으로써 선교가 본격으로 개시되었다.
1953년 4월 8일 제1 회 창립 총회를 함으로써 '기독교대한하나님의성회'가 발족되었다. 교리의 특색은 聖靈論에 중점을 둔다.

  • 한국에는 1932년 서빙고교회가 오순절교회의 첫 시작이며, 
  • 기독교대한하나님의성회 예수교대한하나님의성회 및 대한예수교복음교회가 오순절교회에 속한다. 
  • 종교에 딸린 체험을 강조하여 개신교 선교 특히, 로마가톨릭교의 뿌리가 깊은 중앙아메리카·남아메리카에서의 개신교 선교에 많이 공헌했다는 바람직한 평가도 있지만, 간증의 지나친 강조로 탓해 성서나 신학상 근거가 없는 주관적인 신앙을 가질 수 있다는 비판도 있다. 
  • 치료나 기적의 체험이 성서보다 권위 있게 작용할 수도 있는 문제가 있다. 
  • 은사적 결과과 주로 기복신앙으로 연결되어 문제점으로 노정한다. 
  • 한국 교회의 이런 은사주의의 지나친 강조는 정통 교회가 주장하는 성서 중심의 신앙에서 멀어질 소지가 있기에 비판이 대상이 되기도 한다.




오순절교회 - 나무위키

오순절교회 - 나무위키


오순절교회

최근 수정 시각: 

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Pentecostalism

1. 개요2. 교리
2.1. 정치 성향
3. 한국의 오순절교회

1. 개요[편집]

성령의 초자연적인 능력 등의 은사주의를 강조하는 개신교 내 교파 및 신학. '오순절 운동'이라는 명칭도 있다. 1914년 미국 스프링필드(Springfield)에서 조직된 것이 그 시작이다. 현재 대략 2억 8천만 교인[1]이 있다.

한국에서는 일제시대에도 선교가 있었으나 본격적인 선교는 해방과 함께 시작되었다. 교단으로는 1953년 4월 8일 제1회 창립총회를 개최한 '기독교대한하나님의성회'가 한국에서 처음 창립된 교단이다.

오순절(五旬節, Pentecost, Whitsunday) 이란 예수가 부활한 유월절(逾越節) 다음날로부터 50일 째 되는 날을 말하는데 그 날 사도들이 모인 곳에 예수가 약속한 대로 성령(聖靈)이 강림하고 이에 힘입어 그때부터 사도들이 예수의 가르침을 전도하는 전도활동을 시작한 것을 기념하여 그날을 성령강림일 또는 오순절 이라고 부른다. 말하자면 기독교나 교회가 탄생한 생일이라고 볼 수 있다. 오순이란 한국식으로 열흘을 1순(旬)이라고 부르는데 5순이면 50일을 말한다.

오늘날 아프리카, 남미, 아시아 등 개도국이나 신흥공업국들을 중심으로 가장 성장 추세를 보이는 개신교 교파들 중 하나이기도 하다. 종교기독교개신교 문서에서도 알 수 있듯 제3세계 개신교 성장은 괄목할 만할 수준인데 그 대부분이 교파가 바로 오순절교회이다.[2]

기독교가 감소 추세인 서유럽이라고 오순절교회가 없는 것은 아니다. 스웨덴에서 교회 출석률이 높은 스몰란드 지역도 오순절교회의 교세가 강하며 국교회인 루터교회는 스웨덴 내 타 지방 평균과 비슷하다. 노르웨이 남서부의 아렌달과 남부 해안 (Sørlandet)도 바이블벨트로 인식되는 경향이 있는데, 이 지역에서도 오순절교회 신자가 많은 편이다. 기독교세가 감소 추세인 서유럽에서도 오순절교회 교단이 없는 나라는 거의 없다.

'오순절교회'라는 단일 교단은 없으나 오순절 신학이 창립의 바탕이 된 교단들을 묶어 오순절교회라고 분류한다. 실제 통계에서도 오순절 신학이 창립의 바탕이 된 교단들을 '오순절교회'로 분류하여 기록하고 있다.[3] # 24억 정도 되는 기독교인 가운데 천주교 교인이 약 12억으로 제일 많으며 정교회 교인이 약 3억으로 둘째로 많다. 나머지 개신교 교파 가운데, 2억 8천만 교인이 소속된 오순절교회가 가장 크고 약 8천만 교인이 소속된 침례교와 성공회[4]는 그 다음이다. 기독교 중에서는 세 번째로 번째로 교인이 많고 개신교 중에서는 첫 번째로 교인이 많은 셈이다.

국내의 대표적인 오순절교회로는 여의도순복음교회와 이 교회가 가입한 '기독교대한하나님의성회'다. '기독교대한하나님의성회' 외에도 '한국연합오순절교회' 등 여러 오순절교회 교단이 존재하며 이들의 협의체로 '한국오순절교회협의회'가 있다.

'은사주의 교회'라고 하면 대체적으로 오순절교회를 지칭한다고 생각해도 무방하지만, 감리교, 성결교, 장로교, 침례교, 성공회[5]의 각 일부에 은사주의 계통의 교회들이 존재하기 때문에 은사주의 교회가 곧 오순절교회라는 공식은 사실이 아니다. 심지어 가톨릭에도 '성령쇄신운동'이라는 이름 아래 은사주의 성향의 일부 성직자, 평신도가 존재한다.

2. 교리[편집]

예수 그리스도가 선물로 약속했던 성령이 오순절에 임할 때(성령강림일) 사도들이 성령 충만함을 받고 각 다른 나라의 언어(방언)들로 말했다는 사도행전 2장의 사건이 현 시대에도 재현되어 나타날 수 있다고 주장하며 성령론에 입각한다.

따라서 다른 개신교 교파[6]에 비해 성령 충만함과 방언을 더 강조하는 성향이 있다. 감리회도 똑같거나 상당히 유사하다.[7]

예배 형식도 전례성과 거리가 있는 것이 일반적이다. 전례 형식상으로는 상당히 유연하고[8] 통성기도와 밀접한 교단이 이쪽이다.

세례 방식 역시 감리회[9]성결교회[10]장로회에서 행하는 머리에 물을 살짝 부어 적시는 약식 세례가 아닌, 침례회와 같이 온 몸이 물 속에 잠기는 침례식을 거행한다.

교회일치운동에 대해서는 두가지 입장이 있다. 기독교대한하나님의성회(여의도순복음교회)는 일치운동에 상대적으로[11] 긍정적 입장을 보이나 예수교대한하나님의성회(은혜와진리교회)에서는 부정적 입장을 보인다.[12][13], 동성애 문제에 대해서는 보수적인 입장을 취하는 편이다.[14] 낙태, 혼전 순결 등의 문제에 대해서도 마찬가지로 보수적 입장,

2.1. 정치 성향[편집]

남미의 오순절파 교회든 한국의 순복음교회든, 개교회나 목사의 개인적 성향에 따라 진보도 있고 보수도 있다. 대한민국에서는 북한과 대치하는 특수성 때문에 여의도순복음교회를 포함한 오순절 교파들이 대체로 반공 보수적인 성향을 나타낸다. 중남미의 경우는 오순절교회가 독재에 맞서싸웠던 역사가 있는 진보적인 교단도 있지만 반대로 보수적인 교단도 있다. 대표적으로 과테말라의 우익 독재자였던 리오스 몬트 전 대통령 또한 오순절교회 신자였다. 또한 브라질 대통령 보우소나루 역시 적지 않은 오순절교회 목회자들로부터 지지를 받았다.

사실 미국이고 한국이고 유럽의 개신교고 간에 신학적 보수와 정치적 보수는 꼭 일치하지만 않는다. 특히 한국이 영향을 받은 미국 본토의 교단들[15]은 2차 대전 이후 민권 운동 등의 영향으로 점차 진보적 신학으로 바뀌었다. 물론 남침례회나 독립침례교 등 미국 내에서 신학적 보수와 정치적 보수 성향을 함께 가지고 있는 교단이나 그룹도 적지 않으며 그 교세에 있어서는 이미 메인라인(main-line) 교단들을 크게 추월했다고 할 수 있다. 그리고 두 성향을 함께 가지고 있는 교단이라고 해서 역사가 짧은 것만도 아니다.

3. 한국의 오순절교회[편집]


오순절교회 산하 대학교 목록 【펼치기 · 접기】
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한반도에 오순절 신학이 들어온 것은 1920년대 말로, 럼시, 팔선, 메르테드, 벳시 등의 선교사가 조선에 입국하여 1932년 서빙고교회를 세운 것이 그 시초이다. 그러나 일제강점기 아래에서 선교사들이 강제 출국당하면서 쇠퇴기를 맞았다. 해방 후 미국 하나님의성회 교단의 지원을 받아 1953년 오늘날의 '기독교대한하나님의성회'가 창립되었고 순복음 신학교(오늘날 한세대학교)가 개교하였다. 여의도 순복음교회(구 순복음 중앙교회)의 빠른 성장과 더불어 하나님의성회 교단도 크게 성장하였다.

장로회만큼은 아니지만, 하나님의 성회 역시 여러 총회로 갈라지면서 분열의 역사를 겪었다. 1981년 서대문 측과 반포 측으로 갈라졌고, 1985년 반포 측이 와해되어 조용기 목사가 별도의 예하성 교단으로 떨어져나가면서 서대문 측, 삼성 측, 예하성 측으로 재편되었다. 1991년 여의도순복음교회 주축으로 세 교단의 대통합을 시도하였으나 통합에 반대하는 목소리가 있었고 예하성 측에서도 예하성에 잔류하는 교회들이 있어서 교단이 통합 측, 수호 측, 순복음 측, 예하성 측 4개로 나뉘었다. 2006년 통합 측, 수호 측, 예하성 측이 통합을 시도했으나 예하성 측이 다시 떨어져 나갔다. 2009년에는 여의도순복음교회가 별개의 여의도 총회로 독립하였다.[16]

그리하여 서대문(구 통합 측+수호 측), 여의도, 예하성으로 나뉘어 있었다. 2016년 5월 서대문 측에서 박성배 목사의 퇴출 문제로 내분이 발생하여 함동근 총회장측과 오황동 총회장 측으로 분열되었다.[17]

2018년 여의도-서대문 측 통합을 선언했다. 대표총회장에 이영훈 여의도순복음교회 위임목사, 이하 총회장 등 임원진은 공동 체제로 간다고한다. 결국 기하성 계열 교단들이 모두 통합했다.
  • 예수교대한하나님의성회
    영등포구 양평동 소재. 1981년 여의도 순복음교회가 기하성과의 결별을 선언하고 1985년 설립한 총회. 1991년 기하성과 통합하는 과정에서 통합을 반대하는 세력[18]이 예하성에 남았다. 2006년 기하성 통합 측/수호 측과 대통합을 결의했으나 결국 결렬되었다. 조용기 목사의 동생인 조용목 목사가 이 교단 소속이다. 군소 교단이다. 은혜와진리교회
  • 대한예수교복음교회
    대전광역시 중구 용두동 소재. 오순절신학을 바탕으로 하지만 하나님의 성회(AG)와는 별개의 교단이며 미국 국제사중복음교회(ICFG)에 뿌리를 두고 있다. ICFG는 1923년 LA에서 설립되었는데, 설립자가 에이미 셈플 맥퍼슨(Aimee Semple McPherson)이란 여성이다. 보수적이었던 1920년대 미국의 사회 분위기를 감안하면 매우 파격적이라 할 수 있다. 한국도 마찬가지로 대한예수교복음교회를 처음 설립한 김신옥 목사가 여성이다.[19] 대전에서는 54개 교회와 유관 사학재단[20]을 두어 어느 정도 규모 있는 교단으로 인정받지만 대전을 제외하면 국내에서 교회 자체를 찾아보기 힘들 정도로 존재감이 거의 없는 군소 교단이다. 교단의 모교회인 예뜰순복음교회(구 대전복음교회)의 정체성 문제로 내부에서 반발이 일어나 두 파벌로 갈라졌다.
  • 한국연합오순절교회
  • 대한예수교오순절성결회

[1] 오순절 신학이 창립 바탕이 된 교단 소속 교회에 다니는 교인[2] 국민일보 2013-08-11 《“기독인 2020년엔 세계 종교인구 1/3 오순절·은사주의 교단 성장 가장 빨라”》[3] 물론 교파 내 여러 교단에 대해서도 기록하고 있지만 일단 같은 범주에 묶는다는 사실은 분명하다.[4] Anglican Communion에 가맹된 교회의 신자 수. Anglican Communion에 가맹하지 않은 성공회 교회도 있지만 이들의 교세는 세계적으로 백만이 채 안 된다.[5] 대한성공회 내에는 은사주의 경향이 약하다.[6] 성공회, 루터교회, 장로회, 침례회, 성결교회 등[7] 당연히 그럴 수밖에 없는 게 요한(존) 웨슬리가 감리회의 시초이고, 그 역시 기도를 통한 성령 충만함은 물론, 방언을 강조하였기 때문이다.[8] 성령 충만함을 강조하는 교단이다보니 가톨릭과 정교회는 물론 같은 개신교인 성공회 등에 비해서는 전례를 덜 중시한다. 실제 오순절교회는 가톨릭이나 성공회, 또는 루터교회처럼 대림절이나 주현절 때에 촛불을 사용하지 않는다.[9] 성공회에서 갈라져 나왔다.[10] 이 역시 감리회에서 갈라져 나왔다.[11] 다른 보수 개신교 교단에 비해서[12] 기독교대한하나님의성회는 한국기독교교회협의회(NCCK)에 가입한 9개 교단 중 하나이지만 한국기독교장로회나 대한성공회만큼 열심히 참여하고 있지는 않다. 게다가 2010년부터 지금까지 한국기독교교회협의회 활동을 중지하자거나 심지어 탈퇴하자는 발언이나 안건이 교단 총회에서 제기돼왔다.[13] 한국기독교교회협의회 가입 때문에 오순절교회 교단이 가톨릭교회와 야합하는게 아니냐면서 일부 보수 개신교 교단으로부터 비난받기도 한다. 물론 남미의 오순절 교단들보다 훨씬 보수적인 한국의 기하성 교단은 가톨릭에 비판적이다. 가톨릭, 한국기독교장로회, 대한성공회만큼 적극적으로 KNCC 활동에 참여하는 것도 아니다.[14] 동성애자의 입교를 금지하는 교단이 많으며, 한국의 순복음 교단은 반동성애 운동에 적극적이다. 또한 진보적인 신학을 표방하는 기독교장로회마저 개교회 내부에서는 높으신 분들에 의해 사실상 받아들여지지 않는 것이 사실이다.[15] 대부분 미국에서 메인라인(main-line)이라고 불리는 교단들이다. 더 정확하게는 장로교, 침례교, 감리교, 루터교 내 특정 교단을 메인라인(main-line)이라고 부른다.[16] [창립 60돌 기하성 “2013년은 통합이다”] (상) 한 뿌리를 지닌 기하성 - 국민일보, 2013년 1월 1일.[17] 기하성(서대문), 회관 매각 대금 때문에 ‘또’ 분열 - 뉴스엔넷, 2017년 2월 8일.[18] 순복음교회 통합놓고 내부진통 - 연합뉴스, 1991년 12월 19일.[19] 실제로 교단 설립 초창기에는 여성이라는 편견으로 이단시비에 처한 적이 있다고 한다. "행함으로 믿음을 온전케 하라" -김신옥 목사 저[20] 설립자가 같은 사학재단인 대성학원과 건신대학원대학교.

Pentecostalism From Wikipedia,

Pentecostalism

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The Philadelphia Church in Stockholm, Sweden, is part of the Swedish Pentecostal Movement.
Pentecostalism or Classical Pentecostalism is a Protestant Christian movement[1][2] that emphasises direct personal experience of God through baptism with the Holy Spirit. The term Pentecostal is derived from Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of Weeks. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus Christ, as described in the second chapter of the Acts of the Apostles.
Like other forms of evangelical Protestantism, Pentecostalism adheres to the inerrancy of the Bible and the necessity of accepting Jesus Christ as personal Lord and Savior. It is distinguished by belief in the baptism in the Holy Spirit that enables a Christian to live a Spirit-filled and empowered life. This empowerment includes the use of spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues and divine healing—two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the Apostolic Age of the early church. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or Full Gospel to describe their movement.
Pentecostalism emerged in the early 20th century among radical adherents of the Holiness movement who were energized by revivalism and expectation for the imminent Second Coming of Christ.[3] 
Believing that they were living in the end times, they expected God to spiritually renew the Christian Church thereby bringi
In 1900, Charles Parham, an American evangelist and faith healer, began teaching that speaking in tongues was the Bible evidence of Spirit baptism and along with William J. Seymour, a Wesleyan-Holiness preacher, he taught that this was the third work of grace.[4] The three-year-long Azusa Street Revival, founded and led by Seymour in Los Angeles, California, resulted in the spread of Pentecostalism throughout the United States and the rest of the world as visitors carried the Pentecostal experience back to their home churches or felt called to the mission field
While virtually all Pentecostal denominations trace their origins to Azusa Street, the movement has experienced a variety of divisions and controversies. An early dispute centered on challenges to the doctrine of the Trinity. As a result, the Pentecostal movement is divided between trinitarian and non-trinitarian branches, resulting in the emergence of Oneness Pentecostals.
Comprising over 700 denominations and many independent churches, there is no central authority governing Pentecostalism; however, many denominations are affiliated with the Pentecostal World Fellowship. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the global South. Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant and Catholic churches through the Charismatic Movement. Together, Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity numbers over 500 million adherents.[5] While the movement originally attracted mostly lower classes in the global South, there is an increasing appeal to middle classes.[6][7][8] Middle class congregations tend to be more adapted to society and withdraw strong spiritual practices such as divine healing.[9][10][11]

Beliefs[edit]

A Pentecostal church in Jyväskylä, Finland
Pentecostalism is an evangelical faith, emphasizing the reliability of the Bible and the need for the transformation of an individual's life through faith in Jesus.[12] Like other evangelicals, Pentecostals generally adhere to the Bible's divine inspiration and inerrancy—the belief that the Bible, in the original manuscripts in which it was written, is without error.[13] Pentecostals emphasize the teaching of the "full gospel" or "foursquare gospel". The term foursquare refers to the four fundamental beliefs of Pentecostalism: Jesus saves according to John 3:16; baptizes with the Holy Spirit according to Acts 2:4; heals bodily according to James 5:15; and is coming again to receive those who are saved according to 1 Thessalonians 4:16–17.[14]

Salvation[edit]

A Pentecostal congregation in Brazil
The central belief of classical Pentecostalism is that through the deathburial, and resurrection of Jesus Christsins can be forgiven and humanity reconciled with God.[15] This is the Gospel or "good news". The fundamental requirement of Pentecostalism is that one be born again.[16] The new birth is received by the grace of God through faith in Christ as Lord and Savior.[17] In being born again, the believer is regeneratedjustifiedadopted into the family of God, and the Holy Spirit's work of sanctification is initiated.[18]
Classical Pentecostal soteriology is generally Arminian rather than Calvinist.[19] The security of the believer is a doctrine held within Pentecostalism; nevertheless, this security is conditional upon continual faith and repentance.[20] Pentecostals believe in both a literal heaven and hell, the former for those who have accepted God's gift of salvation and the latter for those who have rejected it.[21]
For most Pentecostals there is no other requirement to receive salvation. Baptism with the Holy Spirit and speaking in tongues are not generally required, though Pentecostal converts are usually encouraged to seek these experiences.[22][23][24] A notable exception is Jesus' Name Pentecostalism, most adherents of which believe both water baptism and Spirit baptism are integral components of salvation.

Baptism with the Holy Spirit[edit]

Pentecostals identify three distinct uses of the word "baptism" in the New Testament:
  • Baptism into the body of Christ: This refers to salvation. Every believer in Christ is made a part of his body, the Church, through baptism. The Holy Spirit is the agent, and the body of Christ is the medium.[25]
  • Water baptism: Symbolic of dying to the world and living in Christ, water baptism is an outward symbol of that which has already been accomplished by the Holy Spirit, namely baptism into the body of Christ.[26]
  • Baptism with the Holy Spirit: This is an experience distinct from baptism into the body of Christ. In this baptism, Christ is the agent and the Holy Spirit is the medium.[25]
While the figure of Jesus Christ and his redemptive work are at the center of Pentecostal theology, that redemptive work is believed to provide for a fullness of the Holy Spirit of which believers in Christ may take advantage.[27] The majority of Pentecostals believe that at the moment a person is born again, the new believer has the presence (indwelling) of the Holy Spirit.[23] While the Spirit dwells in every Christian, Pentecostals believe that all Christians should seek to be filled with him. The Spirit's "filling", "falling upon", "coming upon", or being "poured out upon" believers is called the baptism with the Holy Spirit.[28] Pentecostals define it as a definite experience occurring after salvation whereby the Holy Spirit comes upon the believer to anoint and empower him or her for special service.[29][30] It has also been described as "a baptism into the love of God".[31]
The main purpose of the experience is to grant power for Christian service. Other purposes include power for spiritual warfare (the Christian struggles against spiritual enemies and thus requires spiritual power), power for overflow (the believer's experience of the presence and power of God in his or her life flows out into the lives of others), and power for ability (to follow divine direction, to face persecution, to exercise spiritual gifts for the edification of the church, etc.).[32]
Pentecostals believe that the baptism with the Holy Spirit is available to all Christians.[33] Repentance from sin and being born again are fundamental requirements to receive it. There must also be in the believer a deep conviction of needing more of God in his or her life, and a measure of consecration by which the believer yields himself or herself to the will of God. Citing instances in the Book of Acts where believers were Spirit baptized before they were baptized with water, most Pentecostals believe a Christian need not have been baptized in water to receive Spirit baptism. However, Pentecostals do believe that the biblical pattern is "repentance, regeneration, water baptism, and then the baptism with the Holy Ghost". There are Pentecostal believers who have claimed to receive their baptism with the Holy Spirit while being water baptized.[34]
It is received by having faith in God's promise to fill the believer and in yielding the entire being to Christ.[35] Certain conditions, if present in a believer's life, could cause delay in receiving Spirit baptism, such as "weak faith, unholy living, imperfect consecration, and egocentric motives".[36] In the absence of these, Pentecostals teach that seekers should maintain a persistent faith in the knowledge that God will fulfill his promise. For Pentecostals, there is no prescribed manner in which a believer will be filled with the Spirit. It could be expected or unexpected, during public or private prayer.[37]
Pentecostals expect certain results following baptism with the Holy Spirit. Some of these are immediate while others are enduring or permanent. Most Pentecostal denominations teach that speaking in tongues is an immediate or initial physical evidence that one has received the experience.[38] Some teach that any of the gifts of the Spirit can be evidence of having received Spirit baptism.[39] Other immediate evidences include giving God praise, having joy, and desiring to testify about Jesus.[38] Enduring or permanent results in the believer's life include Christ glorified and revealed in a greater way, a "deeper passion for souls", greater power to witness to nonbelievers, a more effective prayer life, greater love for and insight into the Bible, and the manifestation of the gifts of the Spirit.[40]
Pentecostals, with their background in the Holiness movement, historically teach that baptism with the Holy Spirit, as evidenced by glossolalia, is the third work of grace, which follows the new birth (first work of grace) and entire sanctification (second work of grace).[3][4]
While the baptism with the Holy Spirit is a definite experience in a believer's life, Pentecostals view it as just the beginning of living a Spirit-filled life. Pentecostal teaching stresses the importance of continually being filled with the Spirit. There is only one baptism with the Spirit, but there should be many infillings with the Spirit throughout the believer's life.[41]

Divine healing[edit]

Pentecostalism is a holistic faith, and the belief that Jesus is Healer is one quarter of the full gospel. Pentecostals cite four major reasons for believing in divine healing: 1) it is reported in the Bible, 2) Jesus' healing ministry is included in his atonement (thus divine healing is part of salvation), 3) "the whole gospel is for the whole person"—spiritsoul, and body, 4) sickness is a consequence of the Fall of Man and salvation is ultimately the restoration of the fallen world.[42] In the words of Pentecostal scholar Vernon L. Purdy, "Because sin leads to human suffering, it was only natural for the Early Church to understand the ministry of Christ as the alleviation of human suffering, since he was God's answer to sin ... The restoration of fellowship with God is the most important thing, but this restoration not only results in spiritual healing but many times in physical healing as well."[43] In the book In Pursuit of Wholeness: Experiencing God's Salvation for the Total Person, Pentecostal writer and Church historian Wilfred Graves, Jr. describes the healing of the body as a physical expression of salvation.[44]
For Pentecostals, spiritual and physical healing serves as a reminder and testimony to Christ's future return when his people will be completely delivered from all the consequences of the fall.[45] However, not everyone receives healing when they pray. It is God in his sovereign wisdom who either grants or withholds healing. Common reasons that are given in answer to the question as to why all are not healed include: God teaches through suffering, healing is not always immediate, lack of faith on the part of the person needing healing, and personal sin in one's life (however, this does not mean that all illness is caused by personal sin).[46] Regarding healing and prayer Purdy states:
On the other hand, it appears from Scripture that when we are sick we should be prayed for, and as we shall see later in this chapter, it appears that God's normal will is to heal. Instead of expecting that it is not God's will to heal us, we should pray with faith, trusting that God cares for us and that the provision He has made in Christ for our healing is sufficient. If He does not heal us, we will continue to trust Him. The victory many times will be procured in faith (see Heb. 10:35–36; 1 John 5:4–5).[47]
Pentecostals believe that prayer and faith are central in receiving healing. Pentecostals look to scriptures such as James 5:13–16 for direction regarding healing prayer.[48] One can pray for one's own healing (verse 13) and for the healing of others (verse 16); no special gift or clerical status is necessary. Verses 14–16 supply the framework for congregational healing prayer. The sick person expresses his or her faith by calling for the elders of the church who pray over and anoint the sick with olive oil. The oil is a symbol of the Holy Spirit.[49]
Besides prayer, there are other ways in which Pentecostals believe healing can be received. One way is based on Mark 16:17–18 and involves believers laying hands on the sick. This is done in imitation of Jesus who often healed in this manner.[50] Another method that is found in some Pentecostal churches is based on the account in Acts 19:11–12 where people were healed when given handkerchiefs or aprons worn by the Apostle Paul. This practice is described by Duffield and Van Cleave in Foundations of Pentecostal Theology:
Many Churches have followed a similar pattern and have given out small pieces of cloth over which prayer has been made, and sometimes they have been anointed with oil. Some most remarkable miracles have been reported from the use of this method. It is understood that the prayer cloth has no virtue in itself, but provides an act of faith by which one's attention is directed to the Lord, who is the Great Physician.[50]
During the initial decades of the movement, Pentecostals thought it was sinful to take medicine or receive care from doctors.[51] Over time, Pentecostals moderated their views concerning medicine and doctor visits; however, a minority of Pentecostal churches continues to rely exclusively on prayer and divine healing. For example, doctors in the United Kingdom reported that a minority of Pentecostal HIV patients were encouraged to stop taking their medicines and parents were told to stop giving medicine to their children, trends that placed lives at risk.[52]

Eschatology[edit]

The last element of the gospel is that Jesus is the "Soon Coming King". For Pentecostals, "every moment is eschatological" since at any time Christ may return.[53] This "personal and imminent" Second Coming is for Pentecostals the motivation for practical Christian living including: personal holiness, meeting together for worship, faithful Christian service, and evangelism (both personal and worldwide).[54] Globally, Pentecostal attitudes to the End Times range from enthusiastic participation in the prophecy subculture to a complete lack of interest through to the more recent, optimistic belief in the coming restoration of God’s kingdom [55].
Historically, however, they have been premillennial dispensationalists believing in a pretribulation rapture.[55]. Pre-tribulation rapture theology was popularized extensively in the 1830s by John Nelson Darby,[56] and further popularized in the United States in the early 20th century by the wide circulation of the Scofield Reference Bible.[57]

Spiritual gifts[edit]

Pentecostals are continuationists, meaning they believe that all of the spiritual gifts, including the miraculous or "sign gifts", found in 1 Corinthians 12:4–1112:27–31Romans 12:3–8, and Ephesians 4:7–16 continue to operate within the Church in the present time.[58] Pentecostals place the gifts of the Spirit in context with the fruit of the Spirit.[59] The fruit of the Spirit is the result of the new birth and continuing to abide in Christ. It is by the fruit exhibited that spiritual character is assessed. Spiritual gifts are received as a result of the baptism with the Holy Spirit. As gifts freely given by the Holy Spirit, they cannot be earned or merited, and they are not appropriate criteria with which to evaluate one's spiritual life or maturity.[60] Pentecostals see in the biblical writings of Paul an emphasis on having both character and power, exercising the gifts in love.
Just as fruit should be evident in the life of every Christian, Pentecostals believe that every Spirit-filled believer is given some capacity for the manifestation of the Spirit.[61] It is important to note that the exercise of a gift is a manifestation of the Spirit, not of the gifted person, and though the gifts operate through people, they are primarily gifts given to the Church.[60] They are valuable only when they minister spiritual profit and edification to the body of Christ. Pentecostal writers point out that the lists of spiritual gifts in the New Testament do not seem to be exhaustive. It is generally believed that there are as many gifts as there are useful ministries and functions in the Church.[61] A spiritual gift is often exercised in partnership with another gift. For example, in a Pentecostal church service, the gift of tongues might be exercised followed by the operation of the gift of interpretation.
According to Pentecostals, all manifestations of the Spirit are to be judged by the church. This is made possible, in part, by the gift of discerning of spirits, which is the capacity for discerning the source of a spiritual manifestation—whether from the Holy Spirit, an evil spirit, or from the human spirit.[62] While Pentecostals believe in the current operation of all the spiritual gifts within the church, their teaching on some of these gifts has generated more controversy and interest than others. There are different ways in which the gifts have been grouped. W. R. Jones[63] suggests three categories, illumination (Word of Wisdom, word of knowledge, discerning of spirits), action (Faith, working of miracles and gifts of healings) and communication (Prophecy, tongues and interpretation of tongues). Duffield and Van Cleave use two categories: the vocal and the power gifts.

Vocal gifts[edit]

The gifts of prophecy, tongues, interpretation of tongues, and words of wisdom and knowledge are called the vocal gifts.[64] Pentecostals look to 1 Corinthians 14 for instructions on the proper use of the spiritual gifts, especially the vocal ones. Pentecostals believe that prophecy is the vocal gift of preference, a view derived from 1 Corinthians 14. Some teach that the gift of tongues is equal to the gift of prophecy when tongues are interpreted.[65] Prophetic and glossolalic utterances are not to replace the preaching of the Word of God[66] nor to be considered as equal to or superseding the written Word of God, which is the final authority for determining teaching and doctrine.[67]
Word of wisdom and word of knowledge[edit]
Pentecostals understand the word of wisdom and the word of knowledge to be supernatural revelations of wisdom and knowledge by the Holy Spirit. The word of wisdom is defined as a revelation of the Holy Spirit that applies scriptural wisdom to a specific situation that a Christian community faces.[68] The word of knowledge is often defined as the ability of one person to know what God is currently doing or intends to do in the life of another person.[69]
Prophecy[edit]
Pentecostals agree with the Protestant principle of sola Scriptura. The Bible is the "all sufficient rule for faith and practice"; it is "fixed, finished, and objective revelation".[70] Alongside this high regard for the authority of scripture is a belief that the gift of prophecy continues to operate within the Church. Pentecostal theologians Duffield and van Cleave described the gift of prophecy in the following manner: "Normally, in the operation of the gift of prophecy, the Spirit heavily anoints the believer to speak forth to the body not premeditated words, but words the Spirit supplies spontaneously in order to uplift and encourage, incite to faithful obedience and service, and to bring comfort and consolation."[62]
Any Spirit-filled Christian, according to Pentecostal theology, has the potential, as with all the gifts, to prophesy. Sometimes, prophecy can overlap with preaching "where great unpremeditated truth or application is provided by the Spirit, or where special revelation is given beforehand in prayer and is empowered in the delivery".[71]
While a prophetic utterance at times might foretell future events, this is not the primary purpose of Pentecostal prophecy and is never to be used for personal guidance. For Pentecostals, prophetic utterances are fallible, i.e. subject to error.[66] Pentecostals teach that believers must discern whether the utterance has edifying value for themselves and the local church.[72] Because prophecies are subject to the judgement and discernment of other Christians, most Pentecostals teach that prophetic utterances should never be spoken in the first person (e.g. "I, the Lord") but always in the third person (e.g. "Thus saith the Lord" or "The Lord would have...").[73]
Tongues and interpretation[edit]
Pentecostals pray in tongues at an Assemblies of God church in CancúnMexico
A Pentecostal believer in a spiritual experience may vocalize fluent, unintelligible utterances (glossolalia) or articulate a natural language previously unknown to them (xenoglossy). Commonly termed "speaking in tongues", this vocal phenomenon is believed by Pentecostals to include an endless variety of languages. According to Pentecostal theology, the language spoken (1) may be an unlearned human language, such as the Bible claims happened on the Day of Pentecost, or (2) it might be of heavenly (angelic) origin. In the first case, tongues could work as a sign by which witness is given to the unsaved. In the second case, tongues are used for praise and prayer when the mind is superseded and "the speaker in tongues speaks to God, speaks mysteries, and ... no one understands him".[74]
Within Pentecostalism, there is a belief that speaking in tongues serves two functions. Tongues as the initial evidence of the third work of grace, baptism with the Holy Spirit,[3] and in individual prayer serves a different purpose than tongues as a spiritual gift.[74][75] All Spirit-filled believers, according to initial evidence proponents, will speak in tongues when baptized in the Spirit and, thereafter, will be able to express prayer and praise to God in an unknown tongue. This type of tongue speaking forms an important part of many Pentecostals' personal daily devotions. When used in this way, it is referred to as a "prayer language" as the believer is speaking unknown languages not for the purpose of communicating with others but for "communication between the soul and God".[76] Its purpose is for the spiritual edification of the individual. Pentecostals believe the private use of tongues in prayer (i.e. "prayer in the Spirit") "promotes a deepening of the prayer life and the spiritual development of the personality". From Romans 8:26–27, Pentecostals believe that the Spirit intercedes for believers through tongues; in other words, when a believer prays in an unknown tongue, the Holy Spirit is supernaturally directing the believer's prayer.[77]
Besides acting as a prayer language, tongues also function as the gift of tongues. Not all Spirit-filled believers possess the gift of tongues. Its purpose is for gifted persons to publicly "speak with God in praise, to pray or sing in the Spirit, or to speak forth in the congregation".[78] There is a division among Pentecostals on the relationship between the gifts of tongues and prophecy.[79] One school of thought believes that the gift of tongues is always directed from man to God, in which case it is always prayer or praise spoken to God but in the hearing of the entire congregation for encouragement and consolation. Another school of thought believes that the gift of tongues can be prophetic, in which case the believer delivers a "message in tongues"—a prophetic utterance given under the influence of the Holy Spirit—to a congregation.
Whether prophetic or not, however, Pentecostals are agreed that all public utterances in an unknown tongue must be interpreted in the language of the gathered Christians.[66] This is accomplished by the gift of interpretation, and this gift can be exercised by the same individual who first delivered the message (if he or she possesses the gift of interpretation) or by another individual who possesses the required gift. If a person with the gift of tongues is not sure that a person with the gift of interpretation is present and is unable to interpret the utterance him or herself, then the person should not speak.[66] Pentecostals teach that those with the gift of tongues should pray for the gift of interpretation.[78] Pentecostals do not require that an interpretation be a literal word-for-word translation of a glossolalic utterance. Rather, as the word "interpretation" implies, Pentecostals expect only an accurate explanation of the utterance's meaning.[80]
Besides the gift of tongues, Pentecostals may also use glossolalia as a form of praise and worship in corporate settings. Pentecostals in a church service may pray aloud in tongues while others pray simultaneously in the common language of the gathered Christians.[81] This use of glossolalia is seen as an acceptable form of prayer and therefore requires no interpretation. Congregations may also corporately sing in tongues, a phenomenon known as singing in the Spirit.
Speaking in tongues is not universal among Pentecostal Christians. In 2006, a ten-country survey by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life found that 49 percent of Pentecostals in the US, 50 percent in Brazil, 41 percent in South Africa, and 54 percent in India said they "never" speak or pray in tongues.[24]

Power gifts[edit]

The gifts of power are distinct from the vocal gifts in that they do not involve utterance. Included in this category are the gift of faith, gifts of healing, and the gift of miracles.[82] The gift of faith (sometimes called "special" faith) is different from "saving faith" and normal Christian faith in its degree and application.[83] This type of faith is a manifestation of the Spirit granted only to certain individuals "in times of special crisis or opportunity" and endues them with "a divine certainty ... that triumphs over everything". It is sometimes called the "faith of miracles" and is fundamental to the operation of the other two power gifts.[84]

Oneness and Trinitarianism[edit]

During the 1910s, the Pentecostal movement split over the nature of the Godhead into two camps – Trinitarian and Apostolic (as they called themselves) or Oneness. The Oneness doctrine viewed the doctrine of the Trinity as polytheistic.[85]
The majority of Pentecostal denominations believe in the doctrine of the Trinity, which is considered by them to be Christian orthodoxy. Oneness Pentecostals are nontrinitarian Christians, believing in the Oneness theology about God.[86]
In Oneness theology, the Godhead is not three persons united by one substance, but one person who reveals himself as three different modes. Thus, God manifests himself as Father within creation, he becomes Son by virtue of his incarnation as Jesus Christ, and he becomes the Holy Spirit by way of his activity in the life of the believer.[87][88] The Oneness doctrine may be considered a form of Modalism, an ancient teaching considered heresy by most Christians. In contrast, Trinitarian Pentecostals hold to the traditional doctrine of the Trinity, that is, the Godhead is not seen as simply three modes or titles of God manifest at different points in history, but is composed of three completely distinct persons who are co-eternal with each other and united as one substance. The Son is from all eternity who became incarnate as Jesus, and likewise the Holy Spirit is from all eternity, and both are with the eternal Father from all eternity.[89]

Worship[edit]

Hillsong Church, a Pentecostal mega church in Sydney, Australia, known for its contemporary worship music
Traditional Pentecostal worship has been described as a "gestalt made up of prayer, singing, sermon, the operation of the gifts of the Spirit, altar intercession, offering, announcements, testimonies, musical specials, Scripture reading, and occasionally the Lord's supper".[90] Russell P. Spittler identified five values that govern Pentecostal spirituality.[91] The first was individual experience, which emphasizes the Holy Spirit's personal work in the life of the believer. Second was orality, a feature that might explain Pentecostalism's success in evangelizing nonliterate cultures. The third was spontaneity; members of Pentecostal congregations are expected to follow the leading of the Holy Spirit, sometimes resulting in unpredictable services. The fourth value governing Pentecostal spirituality was "otherworldliness" or asceticism, which was partly informed by Pentecostal eschatology. The final and fifth value was a commitment to biblical authority, and many of the distinctive practices of Pentecostals are derived from a literal reading of scripture.[91]
Spontaneity is a characteristic element of Pentecostal worship. This was especially true in the movement's earlier history, when anyone could initiate a song, chorus, or spiritual gift.[92] Even as Pentecostalism has become more organized and formal, with more control exerted over services,[93] the concept of spontaneity has retained an important place within the movement and continues to inform stereotypical imagery, such as the derogatory "holy roller". The phrase "Quench not the Spirit", derived from 1 Thessalonians 5:19, is used commonly and captures the thought behind Pentecostal spontaneity.[94]
Prayer plays an important role in Pentecostal worship. Collective oral prayer, whether glossolalic or in the vernacular or a mix of both, is common. While praying, individuals may lay hands on a person in need of prayer, or they may raise their hands in response to biblical commands (1 Timothy 2:8). The raising of hands (which itself is a revival of the ancient orans posture) is an example of some Pentecostal worship practices that have been widely adopted by the larger Christian world.[95][96][97] Pentecostal musical and liturgical practice have also played an influential role in shaping contemporary worship trends, with Pentecostal churches such as Hillsong Church being the leading producers of congregational music.[98]
Pentecostals worshiping in Slovakia
Several spontaneous practices have become characteristic of Pentecostal worship. Being "slain in the Spirit" or "falling under the power" is a form of prostration in which a person falls backwards, as if fainting, while being prayed over.[99][100] It is at times accompanied by glossolalic prayer; at other times, the person is silent.[91] It is believed by Pentecostals to be caused by "an overwhelming experience of the presence of God",[101] and Pentecostals sometimes receive the baptism in the Holy Spirit in this posture.[91] Another spontaneous practice is "dancing in the Spirit". This is when a person leaves their seat "spontaneously 'dancing' with eyes closed without bumping into nearby persons or objects". It is explained as the worshipper becoming "so enraptured with God's presence that the Spirit takes control of physical motions as well as the spiritual and emotional being".[99] Pentecostals derive biblical precedent for dancing in worship from 2 Samuel 6, where David danced before the Lord.[91] A similar occurrence is often called "running the aisles". The "Jericho march" (inspired by Book of Joshua 6:1–27) is a celebratory practice occurring at times of high enthusiasm. Members of a congregation began to spontaneously leave their seats and walk in the aisles inviting other members as they go. Eventually, a full column is formed around the perimeter of the meeting space as worshipers march with singing and loud shouts of praise and jubilation.[91][102] Another spontaneous manifestation found in some Pentecostal churches is holy laughter, in which worshippers uncontrollably laugh. In some Pentecostal churches, these spontaneous expressions are primarily found in revival meetings or special prayer meetings, being rare or non-existent in the main services.

Ordinances[edit]

Like other Christian churches, Pentecostals believe that certain rituals or ceremonies were instituted as a pattern and command by Jesus in the New Testament. Pentecostals commonly call these ceremonies ordinances. Many Christians call these sacraments, but this term is not generally used by Pentecostals and certain other Protestants as they do not see ordinances as imparting grace.[103] Instead the term sacerdotal ordinance is used to denote the distinctive belief that grace is received directly from God by the congregant with the officiant serving only to facilitate rather than acting as a conduit or vicar.
The ordinance of water baptism is an outward symbol of an inner conversion that has already taken place. Therefore, most Pentecostal groups practice believer's baptism by immersion. The majority of Pentecostals do not view baptism as essential for salvation, and likewise, most Pentecostals are Trinitarian and use the traditional Trinitarian baptismal formula. However, Oneness Pentecostals view baptism as an essential and necessary part of the salvation experience and, as non-Trinitarians, reject the use of the traditional baptismal formula. For more information on Oneness Pentecostal baptismal beliefs, see the following section on Statistics and denominations.
The ordinance of Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper, is seen as a direct command given by Jesus at the Last Supper, to be done in remembrance of him. Pentecostal denominations reject the use of wine as part of communion, using grape juice instead.[104]
Foot washing is also held as an ordinance by some Pentecostals.[105] It is considered an "ordinance of humility" because Jesus showed humility when washing his disciples' feet in John 13:14–17.[103] Other Pentecostals do not consider it an ordinance; however, they may still recognize spiritual value in the practice.[106]

Statistics and denominations[edit]

A Pentecostal church in Ravensburg, Germany
Pentecostal pastors pray over the Ecuadorian flag.
In 1995, David Barrett estimated there were 217 million "Denominational Pentecostals" throughout the world.[107] In 2011, a Pew Forum study of global Christianity found that there were an estimated 279 million classical Pentecostals, making 4 percent of the total world population and 12.8 percent of the world's Christian population Pentecostal.[5] The study found "Historically Pentecostal denominations" (a category that did not include independent Pentecostal churches) to be the largest Protestant denominational family.[108]
The largest percentage of Pentecostals are found in Sub-Saharan Africa (44 percent), followed by the Americas (37 percent) and Asia and the Pacific (16 percent).[109] The movement is enjoying its greatest surge today in the global South, which includes Africa, Latin America, and most of Asia.[110][111] There are 740 recognized Pentecostal denominations,[112] but the movement also has a significant number of independent churches that are not organized into denominations.[113]
Among the over 700 Pentecostal denominations, 240 are classified as part of WesleyanHoliness, or "Methodistic" Pentecostalism. Until 1910, Pentecostalism was universally Wesleyan in doctrine, and Holiness Pentecostalism continues to predominate in the Southern United States. Wesleyan Pentecostals teach that there are three crisis experiences within a Christian's life: conversion, sanctification, and Spirit baptism. They inherited the holiness movement's belief in entire sanctification.[3] According to Wesleyan Pentecostals, entire sanctification is a definite event that occurs after salvation but before Spirit baptism. This inward experience cleanses and enables the believer to live a life of outward holiness. This personal cleansing prepares the believer to receive the baptism in the Holy Spirit. Holiness Pentecostal denominations include the Church of God in ChristChurch of God (Cleveland, Tennessee), and the Pentecostal Holiness Church.[112][114]
After William H. Durham began preaching his Finished Work doctrine in 1910, many Pentecostals rejected the Wesleyan doctrine of entire sanctification and began to teach that there were only two definite crisis experiences in the life of a Christian: conversion and Spirit baptism. These Finished Work Pentecostals (also known as "Baptistic" or "Reformed" Pentecostals because many converts were originally drawn from Baptist and Presbyterian backgrounds) teach that a person is initially sanctified at the moment of conversion. After conversion, the believer grows in grace through a lifelong process of progressive sanctification. There are 390 denominations that adhere to the finished work position. They include the Assemblies of God, the Foursquare Gospel Church, and the Open Bible Churches.[112][114]
The 1904–1905 Welsh Revival laid the foundation for British Pentecostalism and especially for a distinct family of denominations known as Apostolic Pentecostalism (not to be confused with Oneness Pentecostalism). These Pentecostals are led by a hierarchy of living apostles, prophets, and other charismatic offices. Apostolic Pentecostals are found worldwide in 30 denominations, including the Apostolic Church based in the United Kingdom.[112]
There are 80 Pentecostal denominations that are classified as Jesus' Name or Oneness Pentecostalism (often self identifying as "Apostolic Pentecostals").[112] These differ from the rest of Pentecostalism in several significant ways. Oneness Pentecostals reject the doctrine of the Trinity. They do not describe God as three persons but rather as three manifestations of the one living God. Oneness Pentecostals practice Jesus' Name Baptism—water baptisms performed in the name of Jesus Christ, rather than that of the Trinity. Oneness Pentecostal adherents believe repentance, baptism in Jesus' name, and Spirit baptism are all essential elements of the conversion experience.[115] Oneness Pentecostals hold that repentance is necessary before baptism to make the ordinance valid, and receipt of the Holy Spirit manifested by speaking in other tongues is necessary afterwards, to complete the work of baptism. This differs from other Pentecostals, along with evangelical Christians in general, who see only repentance and faith in Christ as essential to salvation. This has resulted in Oneness believers being accused by some (including other Pentecostals) of a "works-salvation" soteriology,[116] a charge they vehemently deny. Oneness Pentecostals insist that salvation comes by grace through faith in Christ, coupled with obedience to his command to be "born of water and of the Spirit"; hence, no good works or obedience to laws or rules can save anyone.[117] For them, baptism is not seen as a "work" but rather the indispensable means that Jesus himself provided to come into his kingdom. The major Oneness churches include the United Pentecostal Church International and the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World.
In addition to the denominational Pentecostal churches, there are many Pentecostal churches that choose to exist independently of denominational oversight.[113] Some of these churches may be doctrinally identical to the various Pentecostal denominations, while others may adopt beliefs and practices that differ considerably from classical Pentecostalism, such as Word of Faith teachings or Kingdom Now theology. Some of these groups have been successful in utilizing the mass media, especially television and radio, to spread their message.[118]

National and regional movements[edit]

History[edit]

Background[edit]

The charismatic experiences found in Pentecostalism is believed to have precedents in earlier movements in Christianity.[119] Early Pentecostals have considered the movement a latter-day restoration of the church's apostolic power, and historians such as Cecil M. Robeck, Jr. and Edith Blumhofer write that the movement emerged from late 19th-century radical evangelical revival movements in America and in Great Britain.[120][121]
Within this radical evangelicalism, expressed most strongly in the Wesleyan—holiness and Higher Life movements, themes of restorationismpremillennialismfaith healing, and greater attention on the person and work of the Holy Spirit were central to emerging Pentecostalism.[122] Believing that the second coming of Christ was imminent, these Christians expected an endtime revival of apostolic power, spiritual gifts, and miracle—working.[123] Figures such as Dwight L. Moody and R. A. Torrey began to speak of an experience available to all Christians which would empower believers to evangelize the world, often termed baptism with the Holy Spirit.[124]
Certain Christian leaders and movements had important influences on early Pentecostals. The essentially universal belief in the continuation of all the spiritual gifts in the Keswick and Higher Life movements constituted a crucial historical background for the rise of Pentecostalism.[125] Albert Benjamin Simpson (1843–1919) and his Christian and Missionary Alliance (founded in 1887) was very influential in the early years of Pentecostalism, especially on the development of the Assemblies of God. Another early influence on Pentecostals was John Alexander Dowie (1847–1907) and his Christian Catholic Apostolic Church (founded in 1896). Pentecostals embraced the teachings of Simpson, Dowie, Adoniram Judson Gordon (1836–1895) and Maria Woodworth-Etter (1844–1924; she later joined the Pentecostal movement) on healing.[126] Edward Irving's Catholic Apostolic Church (founded c. 1831) also displayed many characteristics later found in the Pentecostal revival.
No one person or group founded Pentecostalism. Instead, isolated Christian groups were experiencing charismatic phenomena such as divine healing and speaking in tongues. The holiness movement provided a theological explanation for what was happening to these Christians, and they adapted Wesleyan soteriology to accommodate their new understanding.[12][127][128]

Early revivals: 1900–29[edit]

Charles Fox Parham, who associated glossolalia with the baptism in the Holy Spirit
The Apostolic Faith Mission on Azusa Street, now considered to be the birthplace of Pentecostalism
Charles Fox Parham, an independent holiness evangelist who believed strongly in divine healing, was an important figure to the emergence of Pentecostalism as a distinct Christian movement. In 1900, he started a school near Topeka, Kansas, which he named Bethel Bible School. There he taught that speaking in tongues was the scriptural evidence for the reception of the baptism with the Holy Spirit. On January 1, 1901, after a watch night service, the students prayed for and received the baptism with the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues. Parham received this same experience sometime later and began preaching it in all his services. Parham believed this was xenoglossia and that missionaries would no longer need to study foreign languages. After 1901, Parham closed his Topeka school and began a four-year revival tour throughout Kansas and Missouri.[129] He taught that the baptism with the Holy Spirit was a third experience, subsequent to conversion and sanctification. Sanctification cleansed the believer, but Spirit baptism empowered for service.[130]
At about the same time that Parham was spreading his doctrine of initial evidence in the Midwestern United States, news of the Welsh Revival of 1904–05 ignited intense speculation among radical evangelicals around the world and particularly in the US of a coming move of the Spirit which would renew the entire Christian Church. This revival saw thousands of conversions and also exhibited speaking in tongues.[131]
In 1905, Parham moved to Houston, Texas, where he started a Bible training school. One of his students was William J. Seymour, a one-eyed black preacher. Seymour traveled to Los Angeles where his preaching sparked the three-year-long Azusa Street Revival in 1906.[132] The revival first broke out on Monday April 9, 1906 at 214 Bonnie Brae Street and then moved to 312 Azusa Street on Friday, April 14, 1906.[133] Worship at the racially integrated Azusa Mission featured an absence of any order of service. People preached and testified as moved by the Spirit, spoke and sung in tongues, and fell in the Spirit. The revival attracted both religious and secular media attention, and thousands of visitors flocked to the mission, carrying the "fire" back to their home churches.[134] Despite the work of various Wesleyan groups such as Parham's and D. L. Moody's revivals, the beginning of the widespread Pentecostal movement in the US is generally considered to have begun with Seymour's Azusa Street Revival.[135]
William Seymour, leader of the Azusa Street Revival
The crowds of African-Americans and whites worshiping together at William Seymour's Azusa Street Mission set the tone for much of the early Pentecostal movement. During the period of 1906–24, Pentecostals defied social, cultural and political norms of the time that called for racial segregation and the enactment of Jim Crow laws. The Church of God in Christ, the Church of God (Cleveland), the Pentecostal Holiness Church, and the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World were all interracial denominations before the 1920s. These groups, especially in the Jim Crow South were under great pressure to conform to segregation. Ultimately, North American Pentecostalism would divide into white and African-American branches. Though it never entirely disappeared, interracial worship within Pentecostalism would not reemerge as a widespread practice until after the civil rights movement.[136]
Women in a Pentecostal worship service
Women were vital to the early Pentecostal movement.[137] Believing that whoever received the Pentecostal experience had the responsibility to use it towards the preparation for Christ's second coming, Pentecostal women held that the baptism in the Holy Spirit gave them empowerment and justification to engage in activities traditionally denied to them.[138][139] The first person at Parham's Bible college to receive Spirit baptism with the evidence of speaking in tongues was a woman, Agnes Ozman.[138][140][141] Women such as Florence Crawford, Ida Robinson, and Aimee Semple McPherson founded new denominations, and many women served as pastors, co-pastors, and missionaries.[142] Women wrote religious songs, edited Pentecostal papers, and taught and ran Bible schools.[143] The unconventionally intense and emotional environment generated in Pentecostal meetings dually promoted, and was itself created by, other forms of participation such as personal testimony and spontaneous prayer and singing. Women did not shy away from engaging in this forum, and in the early movement the majority of converts and church-goers were female.[144] Nevertheless, there was considerable ambiguity surrounding the role of women in the church. The subsiding of the early Pentecostal movement allowed a socially more conservative approach to women to settle in, and, as a result, female participation was channeled into more supportive and traditionally accepted roles. Auxiliary women's organizations were created to focus women's talents on more traditional activities. Women also became much more likely to be evangelists and missionaries than pastors. When they were pastors, they often co-pastored with their husbands.[145]
The majority of early Pentecostal denominations taught pacifism and adopted military service articles that advocated conscientious objection.[146]

Spread and opposition[edit]

Azusa participants returned to their homes carrying their new experience with them. In many cases, whole churches were converted to the Pentecostal faith, but many times Pentecostals were forced to establish new religious communities when their experience was rejected by the established churches. One of the first areas of involvement was the African continent, where, by 1907, American missionaries were established in Liberia, as well as in South Africa by 1908.[147] Because speaking in tongues was initially believed to always be actual foreign languages, it was believed that missionaries would no longer have to learn the languages of the peoples they evangelized because the Holy Spirit would provide whatever foreign language was required. (When the majority of missionaries, to their disappointment, learned that tongues speech was unintelligible on the mission field, Pentecostal leaders were forced to modify their understanding of tongues.)[148] Thus, as the experience of speaking in tongues spread, a sense of the immediacy of Christ's return took hold and that energy would be directed into missionary and evangelistic activity. Early Pentecostals saw themselves as outsiders from mainstream society, dedicated solely to preparing the way for Christ's return.[138][149]
An associate of Seymour's, Florence Crawford, brought the message to the Northwest, forming what would become the Apostolic Faith Church by 1908. After 1907, Azusa participant William Howard Durham, pastor of the North Avenue Mission in Chicago, returned to the Midwest to lay the groundwork for the movement in that region. It was from Durham's church that future leaders of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada would hear the Pentecostal message.[150] One of the most well known Pentecostal pioneers was Gaston B. Cashwell (the "Apostle of Pentecost" to the South), whose evangelistic work led three Southeastern holiness denominations into the new movement.[151]
The Pentecostal movement, especially in its early stages, was typically associated with the impoverished and marginalized of America, especially African Americans and Southern Whites. With the help of many healing evangelists such as Oral Roberts, Pentecostalism spread across America by the 1950s.[152]
Countries by percentage of Protestants in 1938 and 2010. Pentecostal and Evangelical Protestant denominations fueled much of the growth in Africa and Latin America.
International visitors and Pentecostal missionaries would eventually export the revival to other nations. The first foreign Pentecostal missionaries were A. G. Garr and his wife, who were Spirit baptized at Azusa and traveled to India and later Hong Kong.[153] The Norwegian Methodist pastor T. B. Barratt was influenced by Seymour during a tour of the United States. By December 1906, he had returned to Europe and is credited with beginning the Pentecostal movement in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Germany, France and England.[154] A notable convert of Barratt was Alexander Boddy, the Anglican vicar of All Saints' in Sunderland, England, who became a founder of British Pentecostalism.[155] Other important converts of Barratt were German minister Jonathan Paul who founded the first German Pentecostal denomination (the Mülheim Association) and Lewi Pethrus, the Swedish Baptist minister who founded the Swedish Pentecostal movement.[156]
Through Durham's ministry, Italian immigrant Luigi Francescon received the Pentecostal experience in 1907 and established Italian Pentecostal congregations in the US, Argentina (Christian Assembly in Argentina), and Brazil (Christian Congregation of Brazil). In 1908, Giacomo Lombardi led the first Pentecostal services in Italy.[157] In November 1910, two Swedish Pentecostal missionaries arrived in Belem, Brazil and established what would become the Assembleias de Deus (Assemblies of God of Brazil).[158] In 1908, John G. Lake, a follower of Alexander Dowie who had experienced Pentecostal Spirit baptism, traveled to South Africa and founded what would become the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa and the Zion Christian Church.[159] As a result of this missionary zeal, practically all Pentecostal denominations today trace their historical roots to the Azusa Street Revival.[160]
The first generation of Pentecostal believers faced immense criticism and ostracism from other Christians, most vehemently from the Holiness movement from which they originated. Alma White, leader of the Pillar of Fire Church, wrote a book against the movement titled Demons and Tongues in 1910. She called Pentecostal tongues "satanic gibberish" and Pentecostal services "the climax of demon worship".[161] Famous holiness preacher W. B. Godbey characterized those at Azusa Street as "Satan's preachers, jugglers, necromancers, enchanters, magicians, and all sorts of mendicants". To Dr. G. Campbell Morgan, Pentecostalism was "the last vomit of Satan", while Dr. R. A. Torrey thought it was "emphatically not of God, and founded by a Sodomite".[162] The Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene, one of the largest holiness groups, was strongly opposed to the new Pentecostal movement. To avoid confusion, the church changed its name in 1919 to the Church of the Nazarene.[163] A. B. Simpson's Christian and Missionary Alliance negotiated a compromise position unique for the time. Simpson believed that Pentecostal tongues speaking was a legitimate manifestation of the Holy Spirit, but he did not believe it was a necessary evidence of Spirit baptism. This view on speaking in tongues ultimately led to what became known as the "Alliance position" articulated by A. W. Tozer as "seek not—forbid not".[163]

Early controversies[edit]

The first Pentecostal converts were mainly derived from the Holiness movement and adhered to a Wesleyan understanding of sanctification as a definite, instantaneous experience and second work of grace.[3] Problems with this view arose when large numbers of converts entered the movement from non-Wesleyan backgrounds, especially from Baptist churches.[164] In 1910, William Durham of Chicago first articulated the Finished Work, a doctrine which located sanctification at the moment of salvation and held that after conversion the Christian would progressively grow in grace in a lifelong process.[165] This teaching polarized the Pentecostal movement into two factions. The Wesleyan doctrine was strongest in the Southern denominations, such as the Church of God (Cleveland)Church of God in Christ, and the Pentecostal Holiness Church. The Finished Work, however, would ultimately gain ascendancy among Pentecostals. After 1911, most new Pentecostal denominations would adhere to Finished Work sanctification.[166]
In 1914, a group of predominately 300 white Pentecostal ministers and laymen from all regions of the United States gathered in Hot Springs, Arkansas, to create a new, national Pentecostal fellowship—the General Council of the Assemblies of God.[167] By 1911, many of these white ministers were distancing themselves from an existing arrangement under an African-American leader. Many of these white ministers were licensed by the African-American, C. H. Mason under the auspices of the Church of God in Christ, one of the few legally chartered Pentecostal organizations at the time credentialing and licensing ordained Pentecostal clergy. To further such distance, Bishop Mason and other African-American Pentecostal leaders were not invited to the initial 1914 fellowship of Pentecostal ministers. These predominately white ministers adopted a congregational polity (whereas the COGIC and other Southern groups remained largely episcopal) and rejected a Finished Work understanding of Sanctification. Thus, the creation of the Assemblies of God marked an official end of Pentecostal doctrinal unity and racial integration.[168]
The new Assemblies of God would soon face a "new issue" which first emerged at a 1913 camp meeting. During a baptism service, the speaker, R. E. McAlister, mentioned that the Apostles baptized converts once in the name of Jesus Christ, and the words "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" were never used in baptism.[169] This inspired Frank Ewart who claimed to have received as a divine prophecy revealing a nontrinitarian conception of God.[170] Ewart believed that there was only one personality in the Godhead—Jesus Christ. The terms "Father" and "Holy Ghost" were titles designating different aspects of Christ. Those who had been baptized in the Trinitarian fashion needed to submit to rebaptism in Jesus' name. Furthermore, Ewart believed that Jesus' name baptism and the gift of tongues were essential for salvation. Ewart and those who adopted his belief called themselves "oneness" or "Jesus' Name" Pentecostals, but their opponents called them "Jesus Only".[171]
Amid great controversy, the Assemblies of God rejected the Oneness teaching, and many of its churches and pastors were forced to withdraw from the denomination in 1916.[172] They organized their own Oneness groups. Most of these joined Garfield T. Haywood, an African-American preacher from Indianapolis, to form the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World. This church maintained an interracial identity until 1924 when the white ministers withdrew to form the Pentecostal Church, Incorporated. This church later merged with another group forming the United Pentecostal Church International.[173]

1930–59[edit]

Members of the Pentecostal Church of God in Lejunior, Kentucky pray for a girl in 1946
While Pentecostals shared many basic assumptions with conservative Protestants, the earliest Pentecostals were rejected by Fundamentalist Christians who adhered to cessationism. In 1928, the World Christian Fundamentals Association labeled Pentecostalism "fanatical" and "unscriptural". By the early 1940s, this rejection of Pentecostals was giving way to a new cooperation between them and leaders of the "new evangelicalism", and American Pentecostals were involved in the founding of the 1942 National Association of Evangelicals.[174] Pentecostal denominations also began to interact with each other both on national levels and international levels through the Pentecostal World Fellowship, which was founded in 1947.
Though Pentecostals began to find acceptance among evangelicals in the 1940s, the previous decade was widely viewed as a time of spiritual dryness, when healings and other miraculous phenomena were perceived as being less prevalent than in earlier decades of the movement.[175] It was in this environment that the Latter Rain Movement, the most important controversy to affect Pentecostalism since World War II, began in North America and spread around the world in the late 1940s. Latter Rain leaders taught the restoration of the fivefold ministry led by apostles. These apostles were believed capable of imparting spiritual gifts through the laying on of hands.[176] There were prominent participants of the early Pentecostal revivals, such as Stanley Frodsham and Lewi Pethrus, who endorsed the movement citing similarities to early Pentecostalism.[175] However, Pentecostal denominations were critical of the movement and condemned many of its practices as unscriptural. One reason for the conflict with the denominations was the sectarianism of Latter Rain adherents.[176] Many autonomous churches were birthed out of the revival.[175]
A simultaneous development within Pentecostalism was the postwar Healing Revival. Led by healing evangelists William BranhamOral RobertsGordon Lindsay, and T. L. Osborn, the Healing Revival developed a following among non-Pentecostals as well as Pentecostals. Many of these non-Pentecostals were baptized in the Holy Spirit through these ministries. The Latter Rain and the Healing Revival influenced many leaders of the charismatic movement of the 1960s and 1970s.[177]

1960–present[edit]

Before the 1960s, most non-Pentecostal Christians who experienced the Pentecostal baptism in the Holy Spirit typically kept their experience a private matter or joined a Pentecostal church afterward.[178] The 1960s saw a new pattern develop where large numbers of Spirit baptized Christians from mainline churches in the US, Europe, and other parts of the world chose to remain and work for spiritual renewal within their traditional churches. This initially became known as New or Neo-Pentecostalism (in contrast to the older classical Pentecostalism) but eventually became known as the Charismatic Movement.[179] While cautiously supportive of the Charismatic Movement, the failure of Charismatics to embrace traditional Pentecostal taboos on dancing, drinking alcohol, smoking, and restrictions on dress and appearance initiated an identity crisis for classical Pentecostals, who were forced to reexamine long held assumptions about what it meant to be Spirit filled.[180] The liberalizing influence of the Charismatic Movement on classical Pentecostalism can be seen in the disappearance of many of these taboos since the 1960s. Because of this, the cultural differences between classical Pentecostals and charismatics have lessened over time.[181] The global renewal movements manifest many of these tensions as inherent characteristics of Pentecostalism and as representative of the character of global Christianity.[182]

Assessment from the Social Sciences[edit]

Zora Neale Hurston's Anthropological Study[edit]

Zora Neal Hurston performed anthropological, sociological studies examining the spread of Pentecostalism.[183] According to scholar of religion Ashon Crawley, Hurston's analysis is important because she understood the class struggle that this seemingly new religiocultural movement articulated: "The Sanctified Church is a protest against the high-brow tendency in Negro Protestant congregations as the Negroes gain more education and wealth."[183] She stated that this sect was "a revitalizing element in Negro music and religion" and that this collection of groups was "putting back into Negro religion those elements which were brought over from Africa and grafted onto Christianity." Crawley would go on to argue that the shouting Hurston documented evince what Martinique psychoanalyst Frantz Fanon called the refusal of positionality wherein "no strategic position is given preference" as the creation of, the grounds for, social form.[184]

Rural Pentecostalism[edit]

Pentecostalism is a religious phenomenon more visible in the cities. However, it has attracted significant rural populations in Latin America, Africa, and Eastern Europe. Sociologist David Martin[185] has called attention on an overview on the rural Protestantism in Latin America, focusing on the indigenous and peasant conversion to Pentecostalism. The cultural change resulting from the countryside modernization has reflected on the peasant way of life. Consequently, many peasants – especially in Latin America – have experienced collective conversion to different forms of Pentecostalism and interpreted as a response to modernization in the countryside[186][187][188][189]
Rather than a mere religious shift from folk Catholicism to Pentecostalism, Peasant Pentecostals have dealt with agency to employ many of their cultural resources to respond development projects in a modernization framework[190][191][192]
Researching Guatemalan peasants and indigenous communities, Sheldon Annis[186] argued that conversion to Pentecostalism was a way to quit the burdensome obligations of the cargo-system. Mayan folk Catholicism has many fiestas with a rotation leadership who must pay the costs and organize the yearly patron-saint festivities. One of the socially-accepted many to opt out those obligations was to convert to Pentecostalism. By doing so, the Pentecostal Peasant engage in a “penny capitalism”. In the same lines of moral obligations but with different mechanism economic self-help, Paul Chandler[190] has compared the differences between Catholic and Pentecostal peasants, and has found a web of reciprocity among Catholics compadres, which the Pentecostals lacked. However, Alves[187] has found that the different Pentecostal congregations replaces the compadrazgo system and still provide channels to exercise the reciprocal obligations that the peasant moral economy demands.
Conversion to Pentecostalism provides a rupture with a socially disrupted past while allowing to maintain elements of the peasant ethos. Brazil has provided many cases to evaluate this thesis. Hoekstra[193] has found out that rural Pentecostalism more as a continuity of the traditional past though with some ruptures. Anthropologist Brandão[194] sees the small town and rural Pentecostalism as another face for folk religiosity instead of a path to modernization. With similar finding, Abumanssur[195] regards Pentecostalism as an attempt to conciliate traditional worldviews of folk religion with modernity.
Identity shift has been noticed among rural converts to Pentecostalism. Indigenous and peasant communities have found in the Pentecostal religion a new identity that helps them navigate the challenges posed by modernity.[196][197][198][199] This identity shift corroborates the thesis that the peasant Pentecostals pave their own ways when facing modernization.

People[edit]

Forerunners[edit]

Leaders[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Spirit and Power: A 10-Country Survey of Pentecostals". The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life.
  2. ^ Livingstone 2013, p. 461.
  3. Jump up to:a b c d e The West Tennessee Historical Society Papers – Issue 56. West Tennessee Historical Society. 2002. p. 41. Seymour's holiness background suggests that Pentecostalism had roots in the holiness movement of the late nineteenth century. The holiness movement embraced the Wesleyan doctrine of "sanctification" or the second work of grace, subsequent to conversion. Pentecostalism added a third work of grace, called the baptism of the Holy Ghost, which is often accompanied by glossolalia.
  4. Jump up to:a b The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 1999. p. 415. ISBN 9789004116955While in Houston, Texas, where he had moved his headquarters, Parham came into contact with William Seymour (1870-1922), an African-American Baptist-Holiness preacher. Seymour took from Parham the teaching that the baptism of the Holy Spirit was not the blessing of sanctification but rather a third work of grace that was accompanied by the experience of tongues.
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  6. ^ Jens, Koehrsen (January 2016). Middle class pentecostalism in Argentina : inappropriate spirits. Boston: Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004310148_001ISBN 9789004310148OCLC 932618793.
  7. ^ Bastian, Jean-Pierre. 2008. “The New Religious Economy of Latin America.” Pp. 171–192, In Salvation Goods and Religious Markets: Theory and Applications, edited by J. Stolz: Peter Lang.
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  9. ^ Koehrsen, Jens (2017-09-01). "When Sects Become Middle Class: Impression Management among Middle-Class Pentecostals in Argentina". Sociology of Religion78 (3): 318–339. doi:10.1093/socrel/srx030ISSN 1069-4404.
  10. ^ Martin, Bernice. 2006. “The Aesthetics of Latin American Pentecostalism: the Sociology of Religion and the Problem of Taste.” Pp. 138–160, In Materialising Religion: Expression, Performance, and Ritual, edited by E. Arweck and W. J. F. Keenan. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate.
  11. ^ Hallum, Anne M. 2002. “Looking for Hope in Central America: the Pentecostal Movement.” Pp. 225–239, In Religion and Politics in Comparative Perspective: The One, the Few, and the Many, edited by T. G. Jelen and C. Wilcox. Cambridge, UK, New York: Cambridge University Press.
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  67. ^ W. R. Jones in R. S. Brewster 1976.
  68. ^ The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, s.v. "Wisdom, Word of".
  69. ^ The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, s.v. "Knowledge, Word of: 3. The Word of Knowledge in Tradition".
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  84. ^ Gee, Concerning Spiritual Gifts, pp. 49–51.
  85. ^ Vinson Synan, The Century of the Holy Spirit: 100 Years of Pentecostal and Charismatic Renewal, 1901–2001 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2001), 279.
  86. ^ Talmadge French, Our God is One, Voice and Vision Publishers, 1999, ISBN 978-1-888251-20-3. The most recent and collegiate work was done by David S. Norris, PhD,"I Am: A Oneness Pentecostal Perspective.", Word Aflame Publishers, 2009, ISBN 978-1-56722-730-7.
  87. ^ See under "The Son in Biblical Terminology" in Chapter 5 of David Bernard The Oneness of God [https://web.archive.org/web/20080216034825/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Top.htm Archived 2008-02-16 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on June 13, 2017.
  88. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-08-17. Retrieved 2015-08-21. The Truth About One God
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  92. ^ Johansson, in Patterson and Rybarczyk 2007, pp. 50–51.
  93. ^ Johansson, in Patterson and Rybarczyk 2007, pp. 56–57.
  94. ^ Duffield and Van Cleave 1983, p. 330.
  95. ^ Paul Harvey and Philip Goff, The Columbia documentary history of religion in America since 1945 (Columbia University Press, 2005), 347.
  96. ^ Larry Witham, Who shall lead them?: the future of ministry in America (Oxford University Press, Jul 1, 2005), 134.
  97. ^ Stephen Burns, SCM Studyguide to Liturgy (Hymns Ancient & Modern Ltd, 2006), 62.
  98. ^ Evans 2006, p. 87.
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  102. ^ Poloma 1989, pp. 85–86.
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  105. ^ This view is held by the United Pentecostal Church International and the Church of God in Christ. For the UPCI, see under "The Church," in Essential Doctrines of the Bible, copyright 1990, by Word Aflame Press. For the COGIC, see The Doctrine of the Church of God in Christ Archived 2010-01-24 at the Wayback Machine.
  106. ^ For the Assemblies of God USA's position on ordinances, see Article 6 of its Statement of Fundamental Truths which only lists water baptism and holy communion.
  107. ^ Barrett's statistics found in Synan 1997, p. 286.
  108. ^ Pew Forum 2011, p. 70.
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  116. ^ See, for instance, Thomas A. Fudge: Christianity Without the Cross: A History of Salvation in Oneness Pentecostalism. Universal Publishers, 2003.
  117. ^ See Essential Doctrines of the Bible, "New Testament Salvation", subheading "Salvation by grace through faith", Word Aflame Press, 1979.
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  120. ^ Robeck, Jr. 2006, pp. 119–122.
  121. ^ Blumhofer 1993, pp. 11–12: "Molded by a view of history that anticipated that an intense, brief recurrence of pristine New Testament faith and practice would immediately precede Christ's physical return to earth, early Pentecostalism is best understood as an expression of restorationist yearning that was shaped in significant ways by the hopes and dreams of disparate groups of late nineteenth-century restorationists [...]"
  122. ^ Blumhofer 1993, pp. 11–12.
  123. ^ Blumhofer 1993, pp. 18–19.
  124. ^ Blumhofer 1993, pp. 30–31"Moody—whose influence permeated much of popular evangelicalism at the end of the century—used the phrase baptism in the Holy Spirit to describe a profound experience he claimed had altered his spiritual perception [. . .] Because Torrey believed that the baptism with the Holy Spirit alone would facilitate the evangelization of the world before Christ's return, he taught that Spirit baptism was mandatory [. . .]
  125. ^ ""Keswick Theology and Continuationism or Anti-Cessationism: Vignettes of Certain Important Advocates of Keswick or Higher Life Theology and their Beliefs Concerning Spiritual Gifts and Other Matters: William Boardman, Andrew Murray, Frederick B. Meyer, Evan Roberts and Jessie Penn-Lewis, A. B. Simpson, John A. MacMillan, and Watchman Nee," in The Doctrine of Sanctification, Thomas D. Ross, Ph. D. Diss, Great Plains Baptist Divinity School, 2015". Archived from the original on 2014-11-29. Retrieved 2014-12-21.
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  127. ^ McGee 1999
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  161. ^ Quoted in Synan 1997, p. 145.
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Bibliography[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]