2021/12/04
인문학, 동서양을 꿰뚫다 - 인문학, 동서양을 꿰뚫다 - 들여다보고 내다보는 인문학 읽기 박석 2013
Namgok Lee 인간 특유의 2차 본능 이 더 커지는 시대
Namgok Lee
‘서양화에서 사실성을 중시하는 태도가 일변하기 시작한 때는 사진기가 발명되고 난 뒤부터이다. 사진기는 1839년 루이 다게르가 최초로 발견하였는데 과학기술을 이용해 실물의 모습을 그대로 재현해 내는 사진기가 점차 퍼져 나가자 회화는 새로운 길을 찾지 않을 수가 없었던 것이다. 서양 회화사에서 18세기 후기부터 인상주의, 후기 인상주의, 상징주의 등 사실성보다는 개인의 주관적인 느낌이나 추상성을 더 강조하는 사조가 등장하게 된 것은 바로 사진의 발견과 무관하지 않다.’‘원근법을 최초로 발견한 사람은 15세기 초의 르네상스 건축의 창시자인 브루넬레스키다. 그는 물체는 뒤로 갈수록 수학적인 법칙에 따라 작아지고, 나중에는 결국 한 점이 되어 사라진다는 것을 발견했다. 사실 이전의 그림에서 가로수가 늘어져 있는 길이 지평선 위의 한 점으로 사라지게 그릴 수 있는 사람은 하나도 없었다’
이계표모든 것과의 연관❗연기론적인 사고입니다.👏· Reply · 2 d · Edited이계표전래의 토착적 영성과 서구의 근대적 이성과의 관계를 개벽세상이란 관점에서 살펴보고자 합니다· Reply · 2 d崔明淑나이 든 사람들에게 2차 본능은 비교적 추구하기 쉬운 것 같습니다. 정말로? 글쎄요. 2차 본능을 추구하려면 상당히 구도자적으로 살고 생각해야 할 것 같습니다· Reply · 2 dNamgok Lee崔明淑 오히려 신세대에게서 자연스럽게 이행할 가능성이 크지 않을까요?결혼이나 가족제도의 변화처럼.· Reply · 2 d崔明淑Namgok Lee 가치전환을 위한 교육이 필요하겠군요.· Reply · 2 d
구로사와 아키라의 [나쁜 놈일수록 잘 잔다]
[박수민의 오독의 라이브러리]
[박수민의 오독의 라이브러리] 구로사와 아키라의 <나쁜 놈일수록 잘 잔다>
2016-11-17
글 : 박수민 (영화감독)
![](https://mdimg.realclick.co.kr/real_img/ft_close03.gif)
<나쁜 놈일수록 잘 잔다>
요즘 밤마다 불면증에 시달리고 있다. 이 나라 국정을 농단한 무당 일족과 그 꼭두각시(들) 때문에? 세계의 경찰인 크고 아름다운 나라의 대선 결과로 도래할지 모르는 미래의 아포칼립스가 묘하게 기대되어서? 트위터에는 또 누구의 배꼽 아래 세치에 존재하지 않는 인격의 폭로가 이어질까 궁금하여서? 아니다. 난 그저 언제나 도대체 영화란 무엇이며 나아가 현실이란 무엇인가를 암중모색할 뿐이다. 사실 걱정하지 않아도 되는 일들. 어차피 다 잘 안 될 테니까.
과거에 나는 구로사와 아키라의 영화 몇편을 보고 서둘러 감동하여 그의 이름 옆에 ‘=’표시를 하고 ‘휴머니즘’이라 적어 눙치는 걸 좋아했다. 하지만 함부로 그러기 이전에 구로사와는 최고의 액션영화감독이었음을 상기해야 한다. 그의 영화 속 인물들은 항상 분명하게 움직인다. 배우의 행위를 분명하게 표현하는 것부터가 영화에선 얼마나 어려운 일인지 모른다. 그의 영화엔 휙휙 움직이고 땀 뻘뻘 흘리며 눈빛을 번쩍이는 것이 정확하게 찍혀 있다. 배우의 눈을 반짝거리게 하려고 항상 거울을 썼다는 이야기는 늘 잊히지 않는 거장의 팁이다. 그의 영화들에서 미장센이란 대체로 모래와 바람과 안개와 비와 수풀과 인마(人馬)였다. 그 모든 계획과 통제가 너무나 대단하지만 그의 영화는 기본적으로 ‘하드보일드’다. 하드보일드는 스타일로 보이지만 사실은 태도다. 영화는 물론 문학과 만화까지, 서사를 다루는 사람이라면 누구든 이 하드보일드가 가장 높은 수준으로 서사를 다루는 법임을 깨닫는 날이 온다. 구로사와가 만든 흑백의 하드보일드를 보고 있으면 스크린의 검은 입자가 먹처럼 흘러나와 관객의 폐 속으로 그 흑색이 스며들 것만 같다. 구로사와 아키라는 이 비정한 서사로 결말에 휴머니즘을 향하지 않고 끝내 철저한 절망을 그린 적이 있다. <거미집의 성>(1957)이 그러한 형식미로는 일품이며, <천국과 지옥>(1963)도 가슴을 치지만, 최고 정점은 <나쁜 놈일수록 잘 잔다>(1960)라고 생각한다. 이 영화는 1959년에 그가 설립한 ‘구로사와 프로’의 첫 작품이었다. 제작 전반을 장악할 수 있게 되자, 가장 어두운 작품을 만들어낸 것이다(다음 작품이 초특급 엔터테인먼트 <요짐보>(1961)였던 건 당연한 수순이었을 것이다).
복수는 실패로 돌아가고
영화는 주택공사 부회장 딸의 거창한 결혼식 풍경에서 시작한다. 신부가 발을 헛디디며 <결혼행진곡>이 중간에 ‘탁’ 끊기고, 식장에 배달된 기묘한 디자인의 케이크를 본 사회자가 나이프를 ‘딱’ 떨어트린다. 단절. 이상한 결혼식이 끝나고 난 후, 뇌물 스캔들과 관련한 비리 공무원과 건설주를 향한 누군가의 복수에 가까운 압박이 시작된다. 그 누군가는 5년 전 뇌물 스캔들을 잠재우기 위해 강제로 투신자살‘당한’ 후루야의 숨겨진 아들, 비리의 주체인 이와부치(모리 마사유키) 부회장의 딸 요시코(가가와 교코)와 방금 결혼식을 올린 신랑 니시(미후네 도시로)다.
부패권력에 대항한 주인공의 대담한 복수극은 현실의 소시민인 관객을 사로잡는다. 관객은 주인공이 이겨서 비리가 속 시원히 까발려지리란 희망을 품고 영화를 본다. 나 역시 이 영화를 처음 보았을 때 짙은 눈썹의 호남 미후네 도시로가 질 거라는 생각은 전혀 하지 않았다. 원한을 품은 채 결혼식을 치렀지만 니시는 요시코를 진심으로 사랑한다. 원수의 딸을 품에 안은 주인공을 보면서 예의 구로사와식 휴머니즘, 희망과 용서가 더해질 거라는 예측까지 했더랬다. 이와부치의 오른팔 모리야마(시무라 다카시)부장을 붙잡아 가두는 곳은 패전의 흔적이 남아 있는 을씨년스러운 폐허다. 폐허 위에 서 있는 니시의 모습은 전쟁을 벌이고 부패한 시스템을 구축한 윗세대에 당당히 도전하여 죄를 묻는다는 의미로 보였다.
그러나 정의로운 청년들이 휘파람 불며 전진하던 통쾌한 비리척결 복수극은 절정에서 뚝 끊긴다. 단절. 주인공은 갑자기 어디로 사라졌는지 없고 그가 몰고 갔던 자동차가 길 위에 널브러진 참혹한 잔해로 스쳐 지나간다. 남편과 아버지를 찾아온 요시코와 그녀의 오빠 앞에서 니시의 동료는 울부짖는다. “우리는 실패했다! 우리는 너희를 결코 이길 수가 없었다!” 나는 영화를 보다가 정말이지 깜짝 놀랐다. 6년 전의 극장에서, 관객의 “헉!” 소리를 들었다.
조직의 비리가 밝혀질 뻔했던 일련의 사태를 완벽히 진압하는데 성공한 이와부치 부회장은 언론 앞에서 뻔뻔한 기자회견을 마치고 자신의 거대한 집무실로 돌아온다. 그의 유일한 가족인 아들과 딸 요시코는 ‘우리는 당신 같은 자와 살 수 없다’는 말을 남기고 떠난다. 자식들을 붙잡으려던 이와부치는 그 대신 요란하게 울리는 전화를 받는다. 이와부치는 부회장이었으니까 전화 저편의 권력자는 회장이거나 혹은 그보다 더 높은 곳에서 지시를 내리는 자일 것이다. 그러니까 진짜 ‘실세’다. 괴물 뒤에는 언제나 더 거대한 괴물이 있다. 이와부치가 전화를 받는 모습은 예의 높은 사람의 전화를 받는 우리의 부모들이나 직장 상사들의 모습과 똑같다. “예, 예, 그렇습니다. 걱정하지 마십시오, 전부 잘 해결되었습니다. 그동안 심려를 끼쳐드려 죄송합니다. 그럼 안녕히 주무십시오… 아! 지금 오전이지요. 제가 철야를 한 나머지 착각했던 모양입니다. 그럼 전화 끊겠습니다. 안녕히….” 관객의 눈앞에 연신 굽실거리는 악인은 날밤을 새웠지만, 거대한 권력과 그를 지탱하는 철저한 구조 속 미지의 악인은 간밤에 편히 잘 잤다.
<나쁜 놈일수록 잘 잔다>
제일 나쁜 놈은 병든 조직
영화에는 이런 대사도 나온다. “공무원은 사람이 아니라고! 놈들은 상사와 조직을 위해서는 무엇이든 하는 종자들이야!” 생전 공무원과 행정을 싫어했던 구로사와는 그의 영화에서 관료주의에 대한 비판을 숨긴 적이 없다. 그가 이상적이라고 믿은 상하 주종 관계는 오히려 봉건적인, <호랑이 꼬리를 밟은 사나이들>(1945)에 나오는 주군과 무사의 모습이다. 아군과 적군마저 예의를 다하는 세계에서 적진을 넘기 위해 승려로 변장한 무사는 짐꾼으로 위장한 주군을 몽둥이로 두들겨팬다. 위기를 넘긴 무사가 주군 앞에 무릎을 꿇고 눈물을 흘리자, 주군 역시 무릎을 꿇으며 그를 일으켜 세운다. 적장이 보내온 술로 한바탕 술판을 벌이며 영화 내내 냉정하고 침착했던 무사는 칼을 놓고 말술을 들이켜더니 노래까지 부른다. 맞아, 뮤지컬영화였다.
관료주의는 민주주의와 함께 국가나 조직 같은 거대한 무언가를 어쨌든 굴러가게 만드는, 인류의 인기 발명품 중 하나다. 나 역시 조직과 구조 안에서 살아본 경험이 있다. 상사에게 기안을 올리고 결재를 받아 뭔가 일이 진행되게 만드는 과정은 분명히 쾌감을 준다. 상사에 대한 충성심이 주군에 대한 무사의 도리처럼 느껴져 뭔가 근사해 보일 때도 있다. 상하관계에서는 상사에 대한 부하의 인간적인 존경이 업무에 대한 열정으로 이어져 이상한 시너지 효과를 낸다. 한번 만나본 적도 없이 그 존재와 지위만 아는 높은 사람의 전화를 받았을 뿐인데 전화기를 붙들고 온몸을 덜덜 떨어본 적도 있다. 권위와 공포는 인간을 매혹시켜 자발적인 노예로 만든다. 과거 파시즘과 나치즘은 조직과 행정을 통해 빛을 발했다. 더러운 일이지만 상관을 위해, ‘조국을 위해’ 할 수 있는 것이다. 구로사와의 가장 어두운 비전인 <나쁜 놈일수록 잘 잔다>는 조직과 행정이라는 거대한 시스템이 권력의 지속을 위해 존재하는 한 언제나 유효한 텍스트다. 구로사와는 이 통렬한 비판을 위해 철저하게 실패하는 결말을 만들고 뚝심 있게 밀어붙였다. 그 절망의 외침은 50년이 넘은 지금의 현실에도 제대로 먹힌다.
언제나 정말로 두려운 것은 권력자가 아니라, 그 권력을 구조로서 지탱해주는 조직과 행정이다. 오직 위를 향한 충성으로 아래는 밟아도 결코 위로는 항명하지 않는 조직은 병든 조직이다. 그런 조직에서는 청렴과 창의가 절대로 공존할 수 없다. 나는 항상 맨 위에 있는 한 사람보다 그를 떠받치고 있는 자들, 이러한 구조를 통해 뭔가를 계산하고 이익을 얻는 미지의 배후자들이 두려웠고, 걱정은 작금의 현실이 되어 진행 중이다. 너무 격이 낮아서 악당 축에도 못 낄 비선 실세와 인간적 내면이 언제 어디로 사라졌는지 모르겠는 허수아비 왕보다 그 밑의 충신들이 진정한 악당이다. 이 황당한 세계를 걱정해봤자 분명 잘 안 될 거다. 그렇지만, 광장에는 나가야지. 나쁜 놈들도 잠이 안 와서 내내 끙끙거리는 소리를 듣고 싶으니까.
Namgok Lee 박석 책 음악의 정치적 사회적 효용성
- ‘악(樂)이란 동화하는 것이요,
- 예(禮)란 차별하는 것이다.
- 시를 통하여 도의적 감흥을 일으키고
- 예를 통하여 인류의 규범을 세우고
- 마지막으로 악을 통하여 인격도야를 완성한다는 뜻이다.
Namgok Lee 공자의 군자론 - 인격의 성숙이 군자의 조건
윤차차로즐거움, 평화.지금 삶의 목적입니다.· Reply · 1 d구정회즐거움 說 樂=말씀說 × 즐길樂(說 =기뻐할 열 說)○즐겁게, 좋게 ,말하고, ×(기쁘고 즐거움 은 )평화 (平和)=(아닐不 , 성낼 온)성내지 아니함.이렇게 이해가 됩니다 .· Reply · 1 d · EditedNamgok Lee說은 기쁠 悅과 같은 의미로 쓰인답니다. 여기서는 말씀 열이 아니라 기쁠 열로 읽습니다.인부지이불온불역군자호(人不知而不慍不亦君子乎)의 慍은 ‘성내다 노여워하다’라는 뜻으로 ‘남이 나를 알아주지 않아도 노여움이 없으니 군자가 아닌가!’하는 뜻으로 읽습니다.· Reply · 1 d구정회열 說(기뻐할) 낙 樂(즐기다 )=기쁘고 즐거운기쁘고 즐거움.평화 =불不 온 성낼 온성, 화, 내지 아니함예~.· Reply · 1 d · Edited주병애병원에서 결과 기다리며 읽고 있는데 울림이 오네요 고맙습니다· Reply · 1 dNamgok Lee주병애 좋은 결과 바랍니다.· Reply · 23 h박정미논어를 기쁨과 평화의 복음으로 보니 전혀 다르게 느껴집니다^^· Reply · 23 hNamgok Lee복음까지는 아니구요. ㅎㅎ요즘 ‘공자의 변명’이라는 제호로 익산의 소통신문이라는 주간지에 월 1회 칼럼을 싣고 있습니다.다음호에 게재할 원고 서두입니다.“공자의 군자(君子)론을 앞으로 몇차례 연재하려 한다.내가 보기에는 공자의 군자론에 대한 깊은 오해가 오랫동안 있어 왔다.첫째는 군자와 소인을 대립적이고 고정적인 것으로 파악하는 것인데, 공자 스스로는 인간의 진화 방향에 대해서 이야기할 뿐 스스로도 군자라는 인간상에 도달하지 못했다고 이야기하고 있다.둘째는 군자(君子)는 한자의 뜻이 의미하는 것처럼 신분계급제 사회에서 군주(君主)의 아들 즉, 귀족이나 관료 등 지배계급을 의미하는 말이었는데, 공자는 이 말의 내용을 혁명적으로 그러나 조용하게 바꿨다.즉 신분의 귀천이 아니라, 그의 인격의 성숙이 군자의 조건이라고 바꿈으로서 신분계급을 넘어서는 사상적(제도까지는 엄두를 못냈지만) 지평을 열었다.“· Reply · 23 h박정미이남곡 제가 미숙해서 그런지 몰라도 유교경전은 당위의 명령체계로만 다가왔는데 새로운 감흥을 던져주시는 글이라 생각합니다. 아! 군자가 이런 사람이라면 나도 해볼 수 있겠다. 이렇게 하면 바르고 훌륭한 사람이 되기 전에 좀 더 기쁘고 평화로운 삶을 살 수 있겠다. 그런 생각의 단초를 잡았습니다.선생님. 훌륭한 사람 말고 행복한 사람 쪽으로 군자를 더 밝혀주시기를 부탁드립니다^^· Reply · 23 hNamgok Lee박정미 맞습니다.내가 유학을 체계적으로 공부한 적이 없는 사람이어서 그렇게 보여왔는지 모르겠지만, 공자가 당위의 윤리나 도덕으로 읽히지 않았습니다.당위로 보는 것은 오히려 공자의 진면목에서 멀어지는 것으로 읽혀서, 그런 생각의 단편들을 마침 주간지의 요청이 있어서 써보고 있습니다.특히 군자론에서 박선생의 요구(ㅎㅎ)를 최대한 반영해 보겠습니다. ㅎㅎ· Reply · 22 h박정미이남곡 기대합니다!^^
Namgok Lee 피타고라스 - 우주의 조화
Namgok Lee 피타고라스 - 우주의 조화
Religion in Fiji - Wikipedia
Religion in Fiji
![]() | This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |
Religion in Fiji (2007)[1]
Religion by country |
---|
![]() |
Religiously, Fiji is a mixed society with most people being Christian (64.4% of the population), with a sizable Hindu (27.9%) and Muslim (6.3%) minority, according to the 2007 census.[2] Religion tends to split along ethnic lines with most Indigenous Fijians being Christian and most Indo-Fijians being either Hindu or Muslim.[3]
Aboriginal Fijian religion could be classified in modern terms as forms of animism or shamanism, traditions utilizing various systems of divination which strongly affected every aspect of life. Fiji was Christianized in the 19th century. Today there are various Christian denominations in Fiji, the largest being the Methodist church. Hinduism and Islam arrived with the importation of large numbers of people from South Asia, most of them indentured, in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
Fiji has many public holidays as it acknowledges the special days held by the various belief systems, such as Easter and Christmas for the Christians, Diwali for the Hindus and the Eid al-Adha for the Muslims.[4]
Contents
History[edit]
Fijian religion prior to the 19th century included various forms of animism and divination. Contact from the early 19th century with European Christian missionaries, especially of the Methodist denomination, saw conversion of dominant chiefs such as Octavia and thus also the people they controlled. Cession of the islands to Great Britain in 1874 saw great change in all aspects of life including religious practice. Christianity became the dominant faith. Hinduism, Sikhism and Islam were introduced as minority migrant communities came to work in Fiji. Fiji's modern religious community is thus:
Demographics[edit]
Religion | 1996 | 1996 % | 2007 | 2007 % |
---|---|---|---|---|
Anglican | 6325 | 0.8% | 6319 | 0.8% |
Assembly of God | 31072 | 4.0% | 47791 | 5.7% |
Catholic | 69320 | 8.9% | 76465 | 9.1% |
Methodist | 280628 | 36.2% | 289990 | 34.6% |
Seventh-day Adventist | 22187 | 2.9% | 32316 | 3.9% |
Other Christians | 39950 | 5.2% | 86672 | 10.4% |
Hindu | 261097 | 33.7% | 233414 | 27.9% |
Sikh | 3067 | 0.4% | 2540 | 0.3% |
Muslim | 54323 | 7.0% | 52505 | 6.3% |
Other Religion | 1967 | 0.3% | 2181 | 0.3% |
No Religion | 5132 | 0.7% | 7078 | 0.8% |
Total Christian | 449482 | 58.0% | 539553 | 64.4% |
Total | 775068 | 100% | 837271 | 100% |
Religion | Indigenous Fijian | Indo-Fijian | Others | TOTAL | ||||
393,575 | % | 338,818 | % | 42,684 | % | 775,077 | % | |
Methodist | 261,972 | 66.6 | 5,432 | 1.6 | 13,224 | 31.0 | 280,628 | 36.2 |
Roman Catholic | 52,163 | 13.3 | 3,520 | 1.0 | 13,637 | 31.9 | 69,320 | 8.9 |
Assemblies of God | 24,717 | 6.2 | 4,620 | 1.4 | 1,735 | 4.1 | 31,072 | 4.0 |
Seventh-day Adventist | 19,896 | 5.1 | 572 | 0.2 | 1,719 | 4.0 | 22,187 | 2.9 |
Anglican | 2,508 | 0.6 | 1,208 | 0.4 | 2,609 | 6.2 | 6,325 | 0.8 |
Jehovah's Witness | 4,815 | 1.2 | 486 | 0.1 | 801 | 1.9 | 6,102 | 0.8 |
CMF (Every Home) | 5,149 | 1.3 | 269 | 0.1 | 255 | 0.6 | 5,673 | 0.7 |
Latter Day Saints | 2,253 | 0.6 | 633 | 0.2 | 589 | 1.4 | 3,475 | 0.4 |
Apostolic | 2,237 | 0.6 | 250 | 0.1 | 106 | 0.2 | 2,593 | 0.3 |
Gospel | 618 | 0.2 | 514 | 0.2 | 222 | 0.5 | 1,354 | 0.2 |
Baptist | 695 | 0.2 | 382 | 0.1 | 219 | 0.5 | 1,296 | 0.2 |
Salvation Army | 628 | 0.2 | 251 | 0.1 | 110 | 0.3 | 989 | 0.1 |
Presbyterian | 105 | 0.0 | 90 | 0.0 | 188 | 0.4 | 383 | 0.0 |
Other Christian | 12,624 | 3.2 | 2,492 | 0.7 | 2,969 | 7.0 | 18,085 | 2.3 |
All Christians | 390,380 | 99.2 | 20,719 | 6.1 | 38,383 | 89.9 | 449,482 | 58.0 |
Sanātanī | 551 | 0.1 | 193,061 | 57.0 | 315 | 0.7 | 193,927 | 25.0 |
Arya Samaj | 44 | 0.0 | 9,493 | 2.8 | 27 | 0.1 | 9,564 | 1.2 |
Kabir Panthi | 43 | 0.0 | 73 | 0.0 | 2 | 0.0 | 118 | 0.0 |
Sai Baba | 7 | 0.0 | 52 | 0.0 | 1 | 0.0 | 60 | 0.0 |
Other Hindu | 219 | 0.1 | 57,096 | 16.9 | 113 | 0.3 | 57,428 | 7.4 |
All Hindus | 864 | 0.2 | 259,775 | 76.7 | 458 | 1.1 | 261,097 | 33.7 |
Sunni Islam | 175 | 0.0 | 32,082 | 9.5 | 94 | 0.2 | 32,351 | 4.2 |
Ahmadiyya | 18 | 0.0 | 1,944 | 0.6 | 14 | 0.0 | 1,976 | 0.3 |
Other Muslim | 131 | 0.0 | 19,727 | 5.8 | 138 | 0.3 | 19,996 | 2.6 |
All Muslims | 324 | 0.1 | 53,753 | 15.9 | 246 | 0.6 | 54,323 | 7.0 |
Sikh | 0 | 0.0 | 3,076 | 0.9 | 0 | 0.0 | 3,067 | 0.4 |
Baháʼí Faith | 389 | 0.1 | 25 | 0.0 | 149 | 0.3 | 563 | 0.1 |
Confucianism | 8 | 0.0 | 21 | 0.0 | 336 | 0.8 | 365 | 0.0 |
Other religions | 61 | 0.0 | 314 | 0.1 | 664 | 1.6 | 1,039 | 0.1 |
No religion† | 1549 | 0.4 | 1,135 | 0.3 | 2,448 | 5.7 | 5,132 | 0.7 |
† Includes atheists and agnostics. Source: "Population by Religion and by Race - 1996 Census of Population". Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 16 September 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2017.,
Law[edit]
Fiji had traditional law prior to becoming a colony. After cession, laws that governed Britain were also applied to its colonies and religion developed under the Westminster system. Freedom of religion and conscience has been constitutionally protected in Fiji since the country gained independence in 1970. In 1997, a new constitution was drawn up. It stated
Although religion and the State are separate, the people of the Fiji Islands acknowledge that worship and reverence of God are the source of good government and leadership.
but also guaranteed every person
35.-(1) Every person has the right to freedom of conscience, religion and belief.
(2) Every person has the right, either individually or in community with others, and both in public and in private, to manifest his or her religion or belief in worship, observance, practice or teaching.
(3) The right set out in subsection (2) extends to the right of religious communities or denominations to provide religious instruction as part of any education provided by them, whether or not they are in receipt of any financial assistance from the State.
(4) The right set out in subsection (2) may be made subject to such limitations prescribed by law as are necessary:
(a) to protect:
(i) the rights or freedoms of other persons; or
(ii) public safety, public order, public morality or public health: or
(b) to prevent a public nuisance.
(5) Except with his or her consent or, in the case of a person under the age of 18, the consent of a parent or guardian, a person attending a place of education is not required to receive religious instruction or to take part in or attend a religious ceremony or observance if the instruction, ceremony or observance relates to a religion that is not his or her own or if he or she does not hold any religious belief.
(6) A person must not be compelled to take an oath, or to take an oath in a manner, that is contrary to his or her religion or belief or that requires him or her to express a belief that he or she does not hold.[5]
The 1997 Constitution was suspended in 2009 and replaced in 2013. This constitution states in chapter 1:[6]
4.(1) Religious liberty, as recognised in the Bill of Rights, is a founding principle of the State.
(2) Religious belief is personal.
(3) Religion and the State are separate, which means—
(a) the State and all persons holding public office must treat all religions equally;
(b) the State and all persons holding public office must not dictate any religious belief;
(c) the State and all persons holding public office must not prefer or advance, by any means, any particular religion, religious denomination, religious belief, or religious practice over another, or over any non-religious belief; and
(d) no person shall assert any religious belief as a legal reason to disregard this Constitution or any other law.
The 2013 Constitution also explicitly allows people to swear an oath or to make an affirmation when legally necessary.
Ancient religion[edit]
![]() | This article contains too many or overly lengthy quotations for an encyclopedic entry. Please help improve the article by presenting facts as a neutrally worded summary with appropriate citations. Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote or, for entire works, to Wikisource. (April 2008) |
The term ancient religion in this article refers to the religious beliefs and practices in Fiji prior to it becoming a Colony.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/A_Sleeping_Buri%2C_Built_at_Vewa%2C_For_the_favourite_little_son_of_Namosemalua%2C_Feejee_%28October_1852%2C_p.108%2C_IX%29_-_Copy.jpg/235px-A_Sleeping_Buri%2C_Built_at_Vewa%2C_For_the_favourite_little_son_of_Namosemalua%2C_Feejee_%28October_1852%2C_p.108%2C_IX%29_-_Copy.jpg)
Gods, temples and magic[edit]
Fijian religion, myth, and legend were closely linked and in the centuries before the cession of 1874, it was considered part of everyday life. Of the traditional religion in Fiji, Basil Thomson (1908:111) writes:
"The religion of the Fijians was so closely interwoven with their social polity that it was impossible to tear away the one without lacerating the other. ... Religion was a hard taskmaster to the heathen Fijian; it governed his every action from the cradle-mat to the grave. In the tabu it prescribed what he should eat and drink, how he should address his betters, whom he should marry, and where his body should be laid. It limited his choice of the fruits of the earth and of the sea; it controlled his very bodily attitude in his own house. All his life he walked warily for fear of angering the deities that went in and out with him, ever watchful to catch him tripping, and death but cast him naked into their midst to be the sport of their vindictive ingenuity."
Myth was very much reality in the years preceding and following cession. For example, in Taveuni their god, Kalou Vu(root god), is named Dakuwaqa (Back boat). In Levuka and Kadavu Islands he is known as Daucina (Expert Light) due to the phosphorescence he caused in the sea as he passed. Daucina, however, has a different connotation as a Kalou yalo (deified ancestors) in other parts of Fiji.
Dakuwaqa took the form of a great shark and lived on Benau Island, opposite Somosomo Strait. He was highly respected by the people of Cakaudrove and Natewa as the god of seafaring and fishing communities, but also the patron of adulterers and philanderers. In the book "Pacific Irishman", the Anglican priest Charles William Whonsbon-Ashton records in Chapter 1, "Creation":[8]
"When I came to Fiji the famed fish-god, the Dakuwaqa, was very much a reality. The Government ship, the Lady Escott, reached Levuka with signs of an encounter with the great fish, while the late Captain Robbie, a well known, tall, and very erect Scot, even to his nineties, told of the sleepy afternoon as his cutter was sailing from his tea estate at Wainunu, under a very light wind, with most of the crew dozing. A great fish, which he described as near 60 feet in length, brown-spotted and mottled on its back, with the head of a shark and the tail of a whale, came up under his ship, almost capsizing it. The crew, instantly awake and concerned, followed the ancient pattern, pouring a strong libation of kava into the sea, which, it would seem, was just the right idea for placating fish-gods; the monster slowly submerged, the breeze gradually gathered the cutter away, its keel dragging along the monster's back, making the skin pale. To the Fijian crew this was the "Dakuwaqa"--in the twentieth century; what must have been the effect in the tenth?"
As late as 1957, R.A Derrick (1957:13) states:
"Many Yavusa still venerate a bird (e.g. kingfisher, pigeon, heron), an animal (e.g. dog, rat, or even man), a fish or reptile (e.g. shark, eel, snake), a tree (especially the ironwood or Nokonoko), or a vegetable, claiming one or more of these as peculiarly their own and refusing to injure or eat them. The relationship is evidently totemic, and it is probable that each totemic group originally recognized a complete series of three totems: manumanu (living creature, whether animal, bird or insect), fish or vegetable, and tree."
The Gods and their temples
Traditionally Fijian religion had a hierarchy of gods called "Kalou" or sometimes in the western dialect "Nanitu". In 1854 an early Methodist missionary, Rev. Joseph Waterhouse stated:
"It is impossible to ascertain even the probable number of the gods of Fiji; for disembodied spirits are called gods, and are regarded as such. But the natives make a distinction between those who were gods originally, and those who are only deified spirits. The former they call Kalou-vu (root-gods), the latter Kalou-yalo (deified mortals). Of the former class the number is great; but the latter are without number...There were various ranks amongst the Kalou-vu according to the extent of their territory and the number of their worshippers. Thus, some gods were universally known throughout Fiji, others were local gods of large or small territories, while some were simply gods of particular families."
Basil Thomson (1908:113) suggests that, "Groups in Fiji who are tauvu or kalou-vata, i.e. worshippers of the same god, have a common origin".
The Fijian gods (Kalou-Vu, Kalou-Yalo and numerous lesser spirits) were generally not made into any form of idol or material form for worship apart from some small objects used in ceremony and divination. However, it was more prevalent that certain places or objects like rocks, bamboo clumps, giant trees such as Baka or Ivi trees, caves, isolated sections of the forest, dangerous paths and passages through the reef were considered sacred and home to a particular Kalou-Vu or Kalou-Yalo and were thus treated with respect and a sense of awe and fear, or "Rere", as it was believed they could cause sickness, death, or punish disobedience. Others would provide protection. Thomas Williams and James Calvert in their book "Fiji and the Fijians" writes:
"Idolatry - in the strict sense of the term - he seems to have never known for he makes no material attempts to fashion material representations of his gods."
The main gods were honoured in the Bure Kalou or temple. Each village had its Bure Kalou and its priest (Bete). Villages that played a pivotal role in the affairs of the Vanua had several Bure Kalou. The Bure Kalou was constructed on a high raised rock foundation that resembled a rough pyramid base and stood out from other bures because of its high roof, which formed an elongated pyramid shape. Inside, a strip of white masi cloth hung from the top rafters to the floor as conduit of the god. More permanent offerings hung around the wall inside. Outside of the Bure Kalou, plants with pleasant aromas were grown which facilitated spiritual contact and meditation. Many of the gods were not celebrated for their sympathetic ear to man or their loving natures, rather they were beings of supernatural strength and abilities that had little concern for the affairs of man. Peter France (1966:109 and 113) notes:
"Local gods were plentiful, but were celebrated in legend and song more for the wild obscenities of their sylvan antics than for their influence in human affairs...The old tales [told] of gymnastic encounters in bathing places, which celebrated, with hilarious ribaldry, the sexual prowess of ancestor-gods."
First and foremost among the Kalou-vu was Degei, who was a god of Rakiraki but was known throughout most of the Fiji Group of islands except for the eastern islands of the Lau group. He was believed to be the origin of all tribes within Fiji and his power was superior to most, if not all, the other gods. He was often depicted as a snake, or as half snake and half stone. R.A Derrick (1957:11) says:
"In these traditions Degei figures not only as the origin of the people, but also as a huge snake, living in a cave near the summit of the mountain Uluda - the northernmost peak of the Nakauvadra Range. Earth tremors and thunder were ascribed as his uneasy turnings within the cave. He took no interest in his people’s affairs; his existence was no more than a round of eating and sleeping. By association with him, snakes were honoured as ‘the Offspring of the origin’. The snake cult was generally throughout the group."
Other gods recognized throughout the Fiji group were: Ravuyalo, Rakola, and Ratumaibulu. Rokola was the son of Degei and was the patron of carpenters and canoe-builders, while Ratumaibulu assured the success of garden crops. Ravuyalo would stand watch on the path followed by departed spirits: he would look to catch them off guard and club them. His purpose was to obstruct their journey to the afterlife (Bulu).
Aspects and practices of the old religion[edit]
Consulting the gods
The different gods were consulted regularly on all manner of things from war to farming to forgiveness. The Bete (Priest) acted as a mediator between the people and the various Gods. R.A Derrick (1957:10 and 12) notes:
"The gods were propitiated to ensure favourable winds for sailing, fruitful seasons, success in war, deliverance from sickness...In times of peace and prosperity, the Bure Kalou might fall into disrepair; but when drought and scarcity came, or war threatened, the god was remembered, his dwelling repaired, its priest overwhelmed with gifts and attention."
Rev. Joseph Waterhouse (1854:404) reports on the types of worship offered to the gods:
"The temple-worship of the gods consists of the lovi, an act of propitiation; the musukau, an act of covenant or solemn vow; the soro, and act of atonement for sin; and the madrali, an act of thanksgiving. The first-fruits of the earth are invariably presented to the gods."
As a medium of the god, the Bete relied on dreams and, when inspired, fell into trances. His body trembled as he was possessed and in a strange voice he announced the message of the god.
Laura Thompson (1940:112) speaking of the situation in Southern Lau states with regard to the Bete:
"The priest had charge of the worship of the clan’s ancestor gods (Kalou vu). He was the intermediary for the people and the god. Since he was influential in securing mana from the god, he was feared and respected. He controlled the activities of the people in warfare, in times of famine, and in sickness, receiving offerings from the people and presenting them to the god according to the sevusevu ceremonial pattern...The principal offerings were first fruits, kava, and cooked feasts, including human sacrifices. As a small offering wreaths were presented. The priest prayed to the god, who presently took possession of him and spoke through him or revealed his will by means of a sign or omen...When a priest was possessed his whole body shook in convulsions and his flesh twitched...The people gave a loud cry as the god took possession of the priest. When the god finally left the Bete was served with Yaqona. After the ceremony the priest and his clan consumed the sacred offerings.
Rev. Joseph Waterhouse (1854:404/405) notes:
"All the offerings (to the gods) refer to the present life. The Fijians propitiate the gods for success in war, offspring, deliverance from danger and sickness, fruitful seasons, fine weather, rain, favourable winds, etc., etc.; but their religious ideas do neither extend to the soul, nor to another world...The influence of the priest over the common people is immense, although he is generally the tool of the chief. Indeed, these two personages most usually act in concert."
Witchcraft
Consulting the spirit world and using them to influence daily affairs were part of the Fiji religion. Using various specially decorated natural objects like a conch shell bound in coconut fibre rope or war club, it was a form of divination and was not only in the realm of priests. It was referred to as "Draunikau" in the Bauan vernacular and the practice was viewed as suspicious, forcing the practicers to do it stealthily. R.A Derrick (1957:10 and 15) writes:
"The Fijians...attributed all unexplained phenomena to gods, spirits or to witchcraft...Sickness and insanity were the work of malignant spirits, and food gardens wilted under their spells. In such cases sorcery was assumed and steps were taken to find the sorcerer and counter his spell with another, more potent."
A.M Hocart (1929:172) claims:
"That Ba was considered to be the home of witchcraft and that Moala, Mualevu and Matuku also have a bad reputation for witchcraft".
Dreaming
Dreams were also viewed as a means by which spirits and supernatural forces would communicate with the living and communicate special messages and knowledge. A dream where close relatives were seen conveying a message was termed "Kaukaumata" and was an omen warning of an approaching event that may have a negative impact on the dreamer's life. R.A Derrick, 1957:15-16:
Special knowledge could be gained through dreams and, while dreaming, people could be told to do certain things - even murder.
Bert O. States in his book Dreaming and Story Telling states:
"They believe dreams are real experiences of the wandering soul released by sleep..."
In some instances, there was also a person whose sole purpose was to interpret dreams. He or she was referred to as the "Dautadra", or the "dream expert". Martha Kaplan in her book Neither Cargo Nor Cult: Ritual Politics and the Colonial Imagination in Fiji notes:
"Seers (Daurai) and dreamers (Dautadra) could predict the future, communicating with deities either in a trance or a dream."
Mana
"Mana" could be loosely translated as meaning magic or power or prestige, but it is better explained by anthropologist Laura Thompson (1940:109) when she writes:
"The concept of mana associated with the ancestor cult is strong in the native pattern of thought. According to this concept mana is the vital force or potency which gives supernatural significance to persons or things...Its presence in a person or thing is not attributed to power inherent in the thing itself but to some spiritual force lodging in it...The first-born of each noble clan was the temporary repository of the mana of the clan’s ancestral forefathers. The chiefs had the strongest forefathers and the high chief was the most sacred because theoretically they received mana from the most powerful ancestor gods."
Ana I. González in her web article "Oceania Project Fiji" writes:
Mana is a term for a diffuse supernatural power or influence that resides in certain objects or persons and accounts for their extraordinary qualities or effectiveness. In Melanesia a stone having mana may be buried in a garden to increase the crops. Mana may also be attached to songs, dreams or ideas. Mana is not the same as a personal power or influence. It is an arbitrary, uncontrollable force that may come or go without explanation.
In modern Fiji, while the term is still used in a traditional sense, it has a more generalized use and with the introduction of the Fijian Bible it is used to describe miracles. The term Mana, when used in ceremonial speech, can be interpreted as "it is true and has come to pass."
Afterlife
At death it is believed that the spirits of the dead would set off on a journey to Bulu, which is the home of the dead sometimes described as a paradise. Immediately after death the spirit of the recently departed is believed to remain around the house for four days and after such time it then goes to a jumping off point (a cliff, a tree, or a rock on the beach). At that point the spirit will begin their journey to the land of spirits (Vanua Ni Yalo). The spirit's journey would be a dangerous one because the god Ravuyalo would try to obstruct and hinder it on its travels to Vanua Ni Yalo. Anthropologist Laura Thompson (1940:115) writes:
"The dominant belief...is that when a man dies his soul goes to Nai Thibathiba, a ‘jumping-off’ place found on or near each island, usually facing the west or northwest. From here the soul goes to Nai Thombothombo, the land of souls located on the Mbua coast, of Vanua Levu."
Myth and legend[edit]
The Fijian race origins have many different lines passed down through oral traditional story or in relics of songs and dance, the most practical is found oral history. In myth it is accepted by most Fijians that their origins are found through the Kalou Vu Degei. An alternative tale from times past was published in the first part of the 19th century by Ms. Ann Tyson Harvey. This tells of Lutunasobasoba, supposedly a great ancestral chief and a brother of Degei II, whose people came to settle Fiji. The third story of Fijian origin is muddled in the two stories, but can be found in a local article referred to as the: "NAMATA", or the face. There are variations of this story; some versions state three migrations, some exclude Lutunasobasoba and have only Degei, but they have common themes.
In the writings of Ms. Ann Tyson Harvey (1969) in her paper "The Fijian Wanderers" she writes of Tura, who was a tribal chieftain in a time which pre-dates the era of the great pyramids. He lived near what is known as Thebes in Egypt. Legend speaks that his tribe journeyed to South Africa and settled on Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania, where Tura then Married a Tanzanian woman and then with his tribes, for various reasons, traveled ocean-ward out past Madagascar, through the Asian islands, ending their journey in Fiji; by this time Tura had died and his son Lutunasobasoba was leader. During a storm in the waters of the Mamanuca Island Group, he lost the chest of Mana, or more practically put, he lost the chest containing Fiji’s ancestors' written history before Fiji, including the written language.
Tired, old, sick, and weary, Lutunasobasoba set foot at Veiseisei and from there the early Fijians settled Fiji and his children were Adi Buisavuli, whose tribe was Bureta, Rokomautu whose tribe was Verata, Malasiga whose tribe was Burebasaga, Tui Nayavu whose tribe was Batiki, and Daunisai whose tribe was Kabara. It is believed in this mythology that his children gave rise to all the chiefly lines.
However, it is said that smoke was already rising before Lutunasobasoba set foot on Viti Levu. Villagers of the Province of Ra say that he was a trouble maker and was banished from Nakauvadra along with his people; it's been rumored the story was a fabrication of early missionaries. It is also believed there were three migrations, one led by Lutunasobasoba, one by Degei, and another by Ratu,traditionally known to reside in Vereta, along with numerous regional tales within Fiji that are not covered here and still celebrated and spoken of in story, song and dance.
These history have an important role in ceremony and social polity, as they are an integral part of various tribes' history and origins. They are often interconnected between one tribe and another across Fiji, such as the Fire walkers of Beqa and the Red prawns of Vatulele, to mention but a few. Also, each chiefly title has its own story of origin, like the Tui Lawa or Ocean Chieftain of Malolo and his staff of power and the Gonesau of Ra who was the blessed child of a Fijian Kalou yalo. The list goes on, but each, at some turn, find a common point of origin or link to the other.
Religion in modern Fiji[edit]
The term "Modern Fiji" in this article means Fiji after cession to Great Britain.
Christianity in Fiji[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Wesleyan_Chapel%2C_Naivuki%2C_Vanua-Levu%2C_Feejee_%28September_1853%2C_X%2C_p.96%29.jpg/225px-Wesleyan_Chapel%2C_Naivuki%2C_Vanua-Levu%2C_Feejee_%28September_1853%2C_X%2C_p.96%29.jpg)
Christianity came to Fiji via Tonga, who were more receptive to the European visitors. As Tongan influence grew in the Lau Group of Fiji, so did Christianity under the Tongan Prince Enele Ma'afu. Its advancement was solidified further by the conversion of the emerging Dominant chieftain of Bau, Seru Epenisa Cakobau. The cession of 1874 saw a more dominant role within Fijian society as the old religion was gradually replaced by the new Christian faith. Bure Kalou were torn down and in their place churches were erected. Most influential were the Methodist denomination, which is the majority today, but other denominations such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, amongst other offshoots such as Baptists, Pentecostal and others, are a part of current Fijian religion. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was established in Fiji in the 1950s and currently reports 50 congregations, a technical college, and a Temple.[10] There are over 200 Orthodox Cristians, with 4 churches and one monastery.
Hinduism in Fiji[edit]
According to the 2007 census, Hindus form the second largest religious group in Fiji, comprising 27% of the population.[11] Hinduism in varying forms was the first of the Eastern religions to enter Fiji, with the introduction of the indentured labourers brought by the British authorities from India.
Islam in Fiji[edit]
Muslims in the country are mainly part of the Indo-Fijian community, they form about 6.3 percent of the total population (62,534). The Ba province in Fiji has more than 20,000 Muslims and is the most Muslim dominated area in Fiji.
Other religions in Fiji[edit]
Sikhism is also present among the Indo-Fijian population.
Fiji's old religion[edit]
While much of the old religion is now considered not much more than myth, some aspects of witchcraft and the like are still practiced in private, and many of the old deities are still acknowledged, but avoided, as Christianity is followed by the majority of indigenous Fijians.
Fiji religion in society and politics[edit]
The constitution of Fiji establishes the freedom of religion and defines the country as a secular state, but also provides that the government may override these laws for reasons of public safety, order, morality, health, or nuisance, as well as to protect the freedom of others. Discrimination on religious grounds is outlawed, and incitement of hatred against religious groups is a criminal offense. The constitution further states that religious belief may not be used as an excuse for disobeying the law, and formally limits proselytization on government property and at official events.[12]
Religious organizations must register with the government through a trustee in order to be able to hold property and to be granted tax-exempt status.[12]
Religious groups may run schools, but all religious courses or prayer sessions must be optional for students and teachers. Schools may profess a religious or ethnic character, but must remain open to all students.[12]
Religion, ethnicity, and politics are closely linked in Fiji; government officials have criticized religious groups for their support of opposition parties. In 2017, the Republic of Fiji Military Forces issued a press release stating that Methodist leaders were advocating for the country to become "a Christian nation" and that this could cause societal unrest. Following the press release, Methodist leaders distanced themselves from their previous statements, and other religious leaders also affirmed the nonpolitical nature of their religious movements.[13]
Many Hindus of Fiji emigrated to other countries.[14] Several Hindu temples were burned, believed to be arson attacks, for example, the Kendrit Shiri Sanatan Dharam Shiv Temple.[15][16] While Hindus face less persecution than before, a Hindu temple was vandalized in 2017. Later that year, following an online post by an Indian Muslim cleric visiting the country, a significant amount of anti-Muslim discourse was recorded on Fijian Facebook pages, causing controversy.[12]
Military-church relations[edit]
The Military of Fiji has always had a close relationship to Fiji's churches, particularly the Methodist Church, to which some two-thirds of Indigenous Fijians belong.
See also[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
- ^ "Population by Religion and Province of Enumeration". 2007 Census of Population. Fiji Bureau of Statistics. June 2012. Archived from the original on 9 September 2015. Retrieved 7 November 2015. - Percentages are derived from total population figures provided in the source
- ^ Jump up to:a b "Religion - Fiji Bureau of Statistics". www.statsfiji.gov.fj. Retrieved 5 August 2017.
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report for 2015". www.state.gov. Retrieved 5 August 2017.
- ^ "Fiji Government Online Portal - 2017 FIJI PUBLIC HOLIDAYS". www.fiji.gov.fj. Retrieved 5 August 2017.
- ^ "Fiji: The Constitution of Fiji 1997". www.wipo.int. Retrieved 8 June 2018. Section 35(1),(2)
- ^ "Fiji: Constitution of the Republic of Fiji 2013". www.wipo.int. Retrieved 8 June 2018.
- ^ "A Sleeping Buri, Built at Vewa, For the favourite little son of Namosemalua, Feejee" (PDF). The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering: A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons. Wesleyan Missionary Society. IX: 108. October 1852. Retrieved 24 February 2016.
- ^ Whonsbon-Aston, Charles William (8 August 1970). "1". Pacific Irishman: William Floyd inaugural memorial lecture. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
- ^ "Wesleyan Chapel, Naivuki, Vanua-Levu, Feejee". The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering: A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons. Wesleyan Missionary Society. X: 96. September 1853. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ "Religion – Fiji Statistical Profile". Retrieved 19 April 2019.
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report Fiji" (PDF).
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d International Religious Freedom Report 2017 § Fiji US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.
- ^ International Religious Freedom Report 2017 § Fiji US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.
- ^ Sussana Trnka (2002), Foreigners at Home: Discourses of Difference, Fiji Indians and the Looting of May 19, Pacific Studies, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 69-90
- ^ "Another Arson attack on Fiji's Hindu Temples", ABC Radio Australia, 17 October 2008
- ^ "Time to speak up", Fiji Times, 17 October 2008
References[edit]
- Fiji and the Fijians, by Thomas Williams and James Calvert, chapter 7 (reference to Fijian old religion Myth and legend, their intertwining nature, and also to the emergence of Christianity.) page 248-249 (has detailed reference to Dranikau as Fijian witchcraft and details of the practice.) page 229 (has reference to the Dautadra or professional dreamer).
- Early Sociology of Religion, by Turner B. S. Staff, pages 218-219. (Details on Fijian religion and mythology.)
- "The Waimaro carved human figures - carvings from cachalot whale teeth in Fiji", The Journal of Pacific History, Sept 1997, by Aubrey L. Parke. (Discusses many aspects of Fiji's old religion.)
- A Feejeean and English Dictionary: With Examples of Common and Peculiar Modes of Expression, by David Hazlewood. (Details on Fijian deities, provides detailed definitions.)
- The Cyclopedia of Fiji: A Complete Historical and Commercial Review of Fiji, published 1984, R. McMillan, Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized Apr 3, 2007. (Reference to Degei, amongst other details of religion in Fiji.)
- The Journal of the Polynesian Society, by Polynesian Society (N.Z.), published 1967 (Reference to Degei.)
- Memoirs, by Polynesian Society (N.Z.), published 1945, Indian Botanical Society. (Reference to Degei and also Lutunasobasoba and aspects of Fijian religion.)
- The Islanders of the Pacific: Or, The Children of the Sun, by Thomas Reginald St. Johnston, published 1921, T.F. Unwin Ltd, pages 64, 70 and 161. (Details of Ratumaibulu and his role as a Fijian deity, also other details on Fijian deities or Kalou.)
- Vah-ta-ah, the Feejeean princess, by Joseph Waterhouse (Details on Fijian religion and deities of the old religion, and details of early Christianity and its missionaries.)
- Oceania, page 110, by University of Sydney, Australian National Research Council, 1930. (Details on Lutunasobasoba.)
- Young People and the Environment: An Asia-Pacific Perspective, page 131, by John Fien, David Yencken, and Helen Sykes. (Reference to Lutunasobasoba.)
- History of the Pacific Islands: Passage through Tropical Time, by Deryck Scarr, published by Routledge. (Reference to Fijian religion and mythology, details on various deities and religious practices and beliefs of pre-Christian Fiji.)
- The Fijians: A Study of the Decay of Custom, by Basil Thomson, published 1908 by W. Heinemann. (Details on Fijian legend and mythology, details on Lutunasobasoba and his children, details of the great migration.)
- Environment, education, and society in the Asia-Pacific, page 167, by John Fien, Helen Sykes, and David Yencken. (Reference to Lutunasobasoba and the great migration.)
- 'Viti: An Account of a Government Mission to the Vitian Or Fijian Islands, in the Years 1860-61, by Berthold Seemann. (Details on the Fijian belief system before Christianity and the introduction of Christianity.)
- The Years of Hope: Cambridge, colonial administration in the South Seas and cricket, by MR Philip Snow, page 31, (reference to Draunikau as Fijian Witchcraft).
- Dreaming and Storytelling, by Bert O. States, page 6. (Reference to the Fijian dream experience.)
- Body, Self, and Society: the view from Fiji, page 104, by Anne E. Becker, 1995. (Reference to dreams from a Fijian perspective as a form for spirits to communicate with the living.)
- Neither Cargo Nor Cult: Ritual Politics and the Colonial Imagination in Fiji, by Martha Kaplan, pages 49, 73, 150, 186 and 193. (References to dreams from a Fijian standpoint.)
- The Fijian Wanderers, by Ann Tyson Harvey, with assistance of Joji Suguturaga, 1969, Oceania Printer Suva Fiji. (Full tale of Tura, Lutunasobasoba and Degei and the great migration from Egypt.)
- Natural and Supernatural, by A. M. Hocart, Man, vol. 32, March 1932, pages 59–61 doi:10.2307/2790066 JSTOR 2790066. (Reference to the term Mana and its use.)
- "The Kalou-Vu (Ancestor-Gods) of the Fijians", by Basil H. Thomson, The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 24, 1895, pages 340-359, doi:10.2307/2842183. (Details on Lutunasobasoba, Degei and other Kalou Vu of Fiji.)
- A History of Fiji, by Ronald Albert Derrick, published 1946, Original from the University of Wisconsin - Madison, Digitized 23 Aug 2007, pages 7–8. (Details on Lutunasobasoba.)
Translations and transliterations[edit]
- Say it in Fijian, An Entertaining Introduction to the Language of Fiji, by Albert James Schütz, 1972.
- Lonely: Planet Fijian Phrasebook, by Paul Geraghty, 1994.
- Spoken Fijian: An Intensive Course in Bauan Fijian, with Grammatical Notes and Glossary, by Rusiate T. Komaitai, and Albert J. Schütz, Contributor Rusiate T. Komaitai, published 1971, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-87022-746-7.
External links[edit]
- Statistics on current belief systems in Fiji.
- Details on Fijian Mythology.
- Details on Fijian Mythology and origins
- Newspaper article on Blogspot with reference to Lutunasobasoba
- Fiji Times Newspaper article with reference to Lutunasobasoba also another article with reference to Lutunasobasoba[1]
- Oceania publications article describing the term Mana.
- Web article with reference to Fiji Religion and the term Mana