2021/05/27
함석헌 전기호 동영상| 바보새함석헌
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함석헌과 다원주의 [씨알사상과 민중신학 1-1강] 새창
씨알사상과 민중신학[전기호 박사/ 타이난장신신대원 Th.D]바보새 2017-06-04 10:47:25
우리마을 감성산책 씨알갤러리(함석헌기념관) 새창
비판의 철학자 함석헌의 삶과 사상 심포지엄 개최 새창
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동영상 결과 더보기
"한일, 위안부 합의 인정하고 한 발 더 내딛자"日 대표 페미니스트의 해법
"한일, 위안부 합의 인정하고 한 발 더 내딛자"日 대표 페미니스트의 해법
입력 2021.05.27 05:00 수정 2021.05.27 11:43
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우에노 지즈코 ‘여성행동네트워크(WAN)’ 이사장
![](https://newsimg.hankookilbo.com/cms/articlerelease/2021/05/26/86f14591-38d3-4825-81ed-95d071168151.jpg)
우에노 지즈코 NPO 법인 ‘여성행동네트워크(WAN)’ 이사장(도쿄대 명예교수)이 20일 한국일보와 화상 인터뷰를 하고 있다. 도쿄=최진주 특파원
올 들어 ‘일본군 위안부’ 문제와 관련, 예상과 다른 사건이 잇따라 발생했다.
- 1] 서울지방법원은 1월과 4월 위안부 피해자에 대한 일본 정부의 손해배상 책임에 대해 정반대의 판결을 내렸다.
- 2] 또 2017년 대선 전후 2015년 한일 위안부 합의를 비판했던 문재인 대통령은 올해 신년기자회견에서 이 합의를 “양국 정부 간 공식적 합의”라고 인정했다.
우에노 지즈코(上野千鶴子ㆍ73) NPO 법인 ‘여성행동네트워크(WAN)’ 이사장(도쿄대 명예교수)은 20일 한국일보와 가진 화상 인터뷰에서 “2015년 합의로 돌아가 양국이 이를 인정하고 그다음 단계로 내딛는 수밖에 없다”고 말했다. 일본의 대표적 페미니스트 연구자로 손꼽히는 우에노 이사장은 1991년 김학순 할머니의 최초 증언 때부터 이 문제에 관심을 갖고 연구 활동을 해 왔지만, 일본 정부에 진정한 사죄와 배상을 요구하는 한국과 일본의 지원단체나 학자들과는 결이 다른 입장을 취해 왔다.
"2015년 위안부 합의는 한국과 한국 여성운동의 대승리"
우에노 이사장은 이번 인터뷰에서도 “위안부 문제에 대한 일본의 세 가지 책임, 즉 법적 책임, 정치적 책임, 도의적 책임 중
그는 2015년 한일 위안부 합의와 화해치유재단은 일본 정부가 ‘정치적 책임’을 지기로 한 것으로, 1993년 고노 담화와 1994년 무라야마 담화 후 조성된 ‘아시아여성기금’이 ‘도의적 책임’에 그쳤던 것에 비하면 한 발 진전된 것이라고 설명했다.
"한계 있지만 인정하고 나아가야"
그는 위안부 합의의 한계도 인정했다.
- 합의 후
- △더는 국제사회 등에서 문제 삼지 않겠다고 한 것
- △아베 전 총리가 할머니들에게 사과문을 보낼 마음이 없다고 말한 것
- △일본 대사관 앞 소녀상 철거 문제 등
그는 지금이라도 다시 위안부 합의를 양국 정부가 인정하고 그다음 발걸음을 내딛는 것이 현실적으로 가능한 방법이라고 말했다. “위안부 합의를 인정하면 ‘합의에서 책임을 인정했으니 이 내용을 교과서에 실으라’고 할 수 있다”는 논리다. 추모관이나 전쟁책임 자료관을 만든다든지, 민간이 만든 자료관에 정부가 돈을 지원한다든지 하는 방식으로 작지만 한 걸음씩 나아가는 것이 바람직하다고 그는 주장했다. 하지만 합의를 부정해 버리면 지금처럼 교과서에서 위안부 기술을 지우더라도 ‘너희가 인정하지 않았느냐’고 말할 수 없다는 주장이다.
"한일 젊은 여성들, 가부장제·유교 등 비슷한 문화로 상호 이해 수월"
페미니스트로서 우에노 이사장은 위안부 문제뿐 아니라 한국과 일본 여성들의 ‘연대’ 가능성에도 주목했다. 한국처럼 일본에서도 젊은 여성들 사이에 트위터 등 인터넷을 중심으로 페미니즘이 크게 확산되고 있다고 그는 전했다. 2월 거물 정치인인 모리 요시로(森喜朗·83)가 여성 멸시 발언으로 올림픽 대회 조직위원장을 사퇴하는 일이 일어난 것도 이 같은 움직임의 결과 일어난 변화라고 했다.
그는 양국 젊은 여성들이 이미 음악, 드라마 등을 통해 교류하고 있지만, 그 외에도 가부장제나 유교 영향 등 비슷한 문화적 배경이 있어서 상호간 이해가 수월하다고 평가했다. ‘82년생 김지은’이 한국뿐 아니라 일본에서도 즉각적인 반향을 일으킨 것은 이 같은 이유에서라는 설명이다. 우에노 이사장은 WAN 사이트(바로가기)를 통한 한일 여성 간 학술 교류도 제안했다. 그는 “11년 전 처음으로 일본 대사관 앞 위안부 소녀상을 제막할 때 이를 동영상으로 찍고 일본어 자막을 붙여서 WAN 사이트에 올렸다가 우익으로부터 심한 공격을 받았다”며 “한국과 WAN에 실을 수 있는 기사를 교환하면 좋겠다”는 바람을 전했다.
![](https://newsimg.hankookilbo.com/cms/articlerelease/2021/05/26/63c1d2e7-de6d-4ea8-8bb2-017107eb6461.jpg)
우에노 지즈코 NPO 법인 ‘여성행동네트워크(WAN)’ 이사장(도쿄대 명예교수)이 지난 20일 한국일보와 화상 인터뷰를 하고 있다. WAN 사이트를 소개하며 한일 여성 간 연대 방안을 얘기할 때는 힘내자는 듯 양손을 들어 보였다. 도쿄=최진주 특파원
최근 한국에서 젊은 남성의 페미니즘에 대한 ‘백래시(backlashㆍ반발성 공격)’가 강하게 일어나는 데 대해서는 징병제의 영향이 있을 것으로 추측했다. 다만 “나라에 징병제를 없애라 하지 않고 여성을 공격하는 것은 진짜 적은 알고 싶어 하지 않으면서 약한 쪽을 적으로 삼은 데 불과하다”고 말했다.
노자도덕경 59 하늘을 섬기고 사람을 다스리는데
비우기, 그리고 사랑하기 쓴이 이병철 정신세계 200101
비우기, 그리고사랑하기
쓴이 이병철
연말과연초에명상모임과단식모임에참여했 다. 사람들이말하는새로운세기의시작을정말 새롭게맞고싶었다. 명상이먼저자신의내면을 바라봄으로써이를통해존재의본질을깨달아마 침내그근원과하나되기위한것이라면 온갖 생각과 욕심으로가득차있는 이머리와 마음을 비우는데걸맞은 방법일게고, 단식 또한 창자를 비워 몸을 정화하면서 자신을 비우는데 적절한 방법이다싶었기때문이다.
이로 새로운 한해를, 새로운 세기를 맞이할수는 없는일이다. 지금 내마음과 내몸에 지난 한해, 지난세기 동안 쌓인 묵은때와 찌꺼기들을 비우지않고서는 결코 새로운 새해, 새세기란 없기때문이다. 내자신이 새로워지지 않는다면 어디서새로움을 찾을수있을까. 명상을하면서, 열흘동안 창자를 비우면서자신을 다시 돌이켜본다.
96 정신세계
생각해보면우리는그동안얼마나채우기에 만급급했던가. 채우는것에급급하여밥한그릇 조차제 로먹어본적이있었던가. 한그릇밥속 에든하늘과우주만물의은혜에감사하며천천 히꼭꼭씹어서먹어본적이얼마나되었던가. 우 리에게주어진그밥상이수많은생명들의공덕과 희생으로바쳐진것임을얼마나생각하며밥상을 받았던가. 그렇게채우고움켜쥐고매달려오면서 우리가얻었던것은과연무엇이던가. 창자를비 우면서우리가잃어버린소중한것들을생각한다.
사방을둘러보면온통병들지않는것이없다. 우선자신의몸과마음이병들어있고사람과사람 이사는사회가, 인간세상이병들어있으며공기 와물과땅이, 자연속의뭇생명이그렇게병들어 신음하며죽어가고있다. 치유, 모든생명이병들 어죽어가는지금치유보다더절실한것은없다.
어떻게치유할것인가. 병의원인이과잉, 그 지나친욕망으로인한것에있다면치유의핵심은 비움, 비움을 통한 정화에 있다. 진정한 필요를 넘어선과잉, 그지나친욕망. 순간의편리와만족 을위해한번쓰고는버리는삶, 그래서마침내자 신마저한낱소모품으로황폐화시키는삶의양식 이우리자신과죄없는수많은생명들을그렇게 병들게하여죽음으로내몰았던게아니겠는가.
남들앞에선생명운동을한답시고말하고다 니면서정작내자신은얼마나다른생명의소중 함을위해애써왔던가. 다른사람, 다른생명을얼 마나배려해왔던가. 지난한해농사를시작한다 고했지만정말나락한포기, 고추한그루를성 실히돌보았던가. 내가제 로농사를시작하기는 한것인가.
었다면얼마나애정과관심을가졌던가.
자립적 삶의중요성을강조하고또내자신이 그렇게살겠다고다짐하면서도아직도내삶의거 의 부분은남의도움과신세에의존하고있다. 도 체내자신의힘과노력으로살고있는것이 얼마나되는가를생각하면참으로부끄러운일이 아닐수없다. 그러나더욱부끄러운것은이처럼 나의생명을지탱하게해주고다른사람들과어울 리며그럴듯하게살아가게해주는부모님과아내 와지인들, 그리고하늘과 땅과 우주만물의 그크 신은혜와공덕에고마워하는마음을 부분잊은 채 살고 있다는사실이다. 어디그뿐인가. 이제는 이렇게살고있는게오히려나자신의덕이라고 생각하는뻔뻔스러움까지은연중에몸에배어있 다. 고마워할줄모른다면사람이아니라는말이 있듯이이렇게큰은혜를입고도고마워할줄모르 면서어찌사람구실하며산다고할수있겠는가. 단식모임중에서어떤분이우리가부끄러움 을아는사람이되어그본래의수줍음을다시회 복해야한다고말 하신적이있다. 참으로옳고 옳은말 이다. 뻔뻔함이어느새우리사회의가 지난해, 이른바새천년을맞으면서내수첩의 첫장에[섬김과삼감, 아낌과보살핌]이라고적었 다. 새천년이우리에게희망의천년이되기위해 서는, 우리의아이들과이행성의숱한생명들이 다시온전히제목숨을유지하며조화롭게함께 사는세상이되기위해서는, 섬기고삼가는마음 을회복하고아끼고보살피는삶으로바꾸지않으 면안된다는생각때문이었다.
섬기는마음, 그공경심의회복없이는생명의 가치, 생명의존엄은구현될수없다. 자신이본시 거룩한존재임을깨닫고다른생명, 다른존재 속 의하늘을하늘로서섬길때만비로소생명이온 전히꽃피어나는세상을열어갈수있을것이다.
삼감이란섬김의다른이름이다. 거룩한존재 앞에옷깃을여미는것. 내가내마음 로, 내욕 심 로함부로할수있는것은아무것도없다는 마음가짐이그것이다싶다. 모든존재의근원이 하나라면지금내가너에게던지는이돌팔매질은 결국나를향한것이될수밖에없는것이다. 그런 즉풀한포기, 나무한그루조차어찌함부로 촌으로내려간이들의삶이제 로뿌리내릴수 있도록얼마나도왔던가. 능력이없어도울수없
이천일년이월호 97
사람들에게 귀농이야 말로 생태적이고자립적 인삶을위한구체적 안이라고주장한나는 농 장큰덕목이되고있다. 모두철판을뒤집어쓰고 그철판의두께만큼행세하고있다. 지금나의얼굴에도철판이씌어있지는않은 가. 나자신을돌아보면 몇권의책이나남에게서 얻은얕은지식을갖고마치그분야를잘알고있 는양행세하거나은근히지난날의 운동경력을 내세우며남들이 알아주기를바랐던적이없지않 음을고백하지않을수없다. 세상을밝고건강하 게만들기위해일하는것을운동이라고한다면 그것은결코남들에게내세울경력일수없는일 이다. 밝고건강한세상을만드는것은그누구를 위해서가아니라바로그자신을위한것이기때 문이다. 그런세상이되어야그자신이먼저행복 할수있기때문이다.
하고다룰수있겠는가. 그러나지난한해를돌아 보면어느틈에삼가는마음을잊고교만에빠져 자신과이웃과세상에많은아픔과고통을주지 않았나생각된다. 지금이처럼삼가는마음을잃 은자리에서사람과사람의관계가어떻게황폐 해지고 세상과 자연이 어떻게 병들어 죽어가고 있는지를생각하면참으로말한마디, 행동하나 를삼가고삼갈일이다.
일찍이노자께서[하늘을 섬기고 사람을 다스리는데 있어서 아낌보다 더한게없다]고말 했 듯이아낌만이제한된물질우주에서더불어나 누며풍요롭게살수있는유일한지혜이다. 오늘 인류와이행성에닥쳐온재앙은바로아끼는마 음을잃어버린것에있음이분명하다. 아낀다는 것은다른말로버리지못한다는것이다. 이세상 에존재한다는자체가모두그나름의존재이유 와가치가있기때문이라면어느것하나인간이 함부로다루거나버릴수있는것은없다. 그러므 로아끼는마음이란존재에 한공경이자사랑 이다. 사랑하는데어찌함부로 하며어찌버릴 수있겠는가. 그러나지금우리주변에서아낌을 삶의바탕으로사는이들은드물다. 모두들쓰고 버리는 삶에 중독되어 있다. 다른 사람을, 다른 생명을수단으로삼아쓰고버리다가결국자신 마저버리게되는것이다. 지난해내가함부로하 며쓰고버린것은얼마나될까. 내가버린것만 큼내자신도버려진것이다. 지난삶에서내가 버린것들의무게를내가어찌감당할수있을까.
이제미친듯달리는것을멈춰야한다. 어디 로가는지, 무엇때문에가는지도모르면서우리 는남들따라무작정달려왔는지도모른다. 내가 남들따라달려가듯이남들역시나를따라그렇 게달리고있는것이다. 무엇이우리를이처럼미 친듯이달리게한것일까. 우리는어쩌면거 한 음모에, 조작된신화에조종되고있는지모른다.
물질적 풍요, 물질적 소유가 곧 행복이라는 신화, 제한된물질우주에서경쟁만이물질적 욕
98 정신세계
망의충족을실현할수있는유일한길이라는음 모를, 그정체를꿰뚫어보아야한다. 누가끊임 없이욕망을조작하고있는가. 욕망을조작하고 강제하는 사회에서 그런 욕망을 충족하기 위해 자신의존재를저당잡히는삶을통해서는결코 행복할수도, 건강할수도없다는사실을직시해 야한다. 경쟁에서이기지못하면살아남을수없 다는두려움에서이제는벗어나야한다.
다시 멈춰 서서 나 자신과 주위를 돌아보며 정신없이달려온지난날을생각한다. 내속의탐 욕, 그조작된욕망을좇아함께돋아난두려움을 본다. 결국그것들은나를자양분으로내가키워 온것임을본다.
[내가 병들어 있는것 만큼 세상이 병들어있는것이다.
세상이란 나를 비추어보는 거울이다.
치유해야 할것은 세상이 아니라 바로 나자신이다.
치유의 핵심은 먼저 비우는 것이다.
비움을 통해 자신을 정화하고, 아낌을 바탕으로 불필요 한것들을 버리고,
진정한 필요에 따라 삶을보다 단순히하는것,
그것이 건강하고 풍요롭게 사는 길임을 다시 깨닫는다. ]
ㅡ
새해, 새세기를시작하는새아침, 수첩에이 렇게적는다. 고마워하기, 부끄러워하기, 단순하 게살기그리고성실히사랑하기. 그렇다. 이모 두는결국자신과세계를사랑하기위한것이다. 지금비우는것은그래야다시사랑으로채울수 있기때문이다.é
전국귀농운동본부장과녹색연합공동 표로있는이병철님은생명 있는모든것들에게서희망을발견하고농심農心의씨앗을뿌리는 일에전력투구하고있다. 섬기고삼가는마음과알뜰함과보살핌이라 는덕목을실천하고있으며, 『밥의위기, 생명의위기』『살아남기, 근원으로돌아가기』를펴냈다.
이천일년이월호 99
Wu wei - Wikipedia무위(無爲, action without intention)
무위
위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
둘러보기로 가기검색하러 가기
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Disambig_grey.svg/23px-Disambig_grey.svg.png)
무위(無爲, action without intention)는 도교에서 가장 중요시되는 행동 원리로
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Wu wei - Wikipedia
Wu wei
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wu wei | |||
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Chinese name | |||
Traditional Chinese | 無為 | ||
Simplified Chinese | 无为 | ||
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Vietnamese name | |||
Vietnamese | Vô vi | ||
Korean name | |||
Hangul | 무위 | ||
Hanja | 無爲 | ||
| |||
Japanese name | |||
Kanji | 無為 | ||
Hiragana | むい | ||
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![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Meng_Ke_%28%E5%AD%9F%E8%BB%BB%29.jpg/220px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Meng_Ke_%28%E5%AD%9F%E8%BB%BB%29.jpg)
Wu wei (Chinese: 無為; pinyin: wúwéi) is a concept literally meaning "inexertion", "inaction", or "effortless action".[1][2] Wu wei emerged in the Spring and Autumn period, and from Confucianism, to become an important concept in Chinese statecraft and Taoism, and was most commonly used to refer to an ideal form of government,[3] including the behavior of the emperor. Describing a state of unconflicting personal harmony, free-flowing spontaneity and savoir-faire, it generally also more properly denotes a state of spirit or mind, and in Confucianism accords with conventional morality. Sinologist Jean François Billeter describes it as a "state of perfect knowledge of the reality of the situation, perfect efficaciousness and the realization of a perfect economy of energy", which in practice Edward Slingerland qualifies as a "set of ('transformed') dispositions (including physical bearing)... conforming with the normative order".[4]
Contents
Definition[edit source]
Sinologist Herrlee Creel considers wu wei, as found in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, to denote two different things.
- An "attitude of genuine non-action, motivated by a lack of desire to participate in human affairs" and
- A "technique by means of which the one who practices it may gain enhanced control of human affairs".
The first is quite in line with the contemplative Taoism of the Zhuangzi. Described as a source of serenity in Taoist thought, only rarely do Taoist texts suggest that ordinary people could gain political power through wu wei. The Zhuangzi does not seem to indicate a definitive philosophical idea, simply that the sage "does not occupy himself with the affairs of the world".
The second sense appears to have been imported from the earlier governmental thought of "legalist" Shen Buhai (400 BC – c. 337 BC) as Taoists became more interested in the exercise of power by the ruler.[5] Called "rule by non-activity" and strongly advocated by Han Fei, during the Han dynasty, up until the reign of Han Wudi rulers confined their activity "chiefly to the appointment and dismissal of his high officials", a plainly "Legalist" practice inherited from the Qin dynasty.[6][7] This "conception of the ruler's role as a supreme arbiter, who keeps the essential power firmly in his grasp" while leaving details to ministers, has a "deep influence on the theory and practice of Chinese monarchy",[6] and played a "crucial role in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity", ensuring the ruler's power and the stability of the polity.[8]
Only appearing three times in the first (more contemplative) half of the Zhuangzi, early Taoists may have avoided the term for its association with "Legalism" before ultimately co-opting its governmental sense as well, as attempted in the Zhuangzi's latter half. Thought by modern scholarship to have been written after the Zhuangzi, wu wei becomes a major "guiding principle for social and political pursuit"[9] in the more "purposive" Taoism of the Tao Te Ching, in which the Taoist "seeks to use his power to control and govern the world".[5]
Confucian development[edit source]
Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel believed that an important clue to the development of wu wei existed in the Analects, in a saying attributed to Confucius, which reads: "The Master said, 'Was it not Shun who did nothing and yet ruled well? What did he do? He merely corrected his person ("made himself reverent" – Edward Slingerland) and took his proper position (facing south) as ruler'". The concept of a divine king whose "magic power" (virtue) "regulates everything in the land" (Creel) pervades early Chinese philosophy, particularly "in the early branches of Quietism that developed in the fourth century B.C."[10]
Edward Slingerland argues wu wei in this sense has to be attained. But in the Confucian conception of virtue, virtue can only be attained by not consciously trying to attain it.[11] The manifestation of Virtue is regarded as a reward by Heaven for following its will – as a power that enables them to establish this will on earth. In this, probably more original sense, wu wei may be regarded as the "skill" of "becoming a fully realized human being", a sense which it shares with Taoism. This "skill" avoids relativity through being linked to a "normative" metaphysical order, making its spontaneity "objective". By achieving a state of wu wei (and taking his proper ritual place) Shun "unifies and orders" the entire world, and finds his place in the "cosmos". Taken as a historical fact demonstrating the viable superiority of Confucianism (or Taoism, for Taoist depictions), wu wei may be understood as a strongly "realist" spiritual-religious ideal, differing from Kantian or Cartesian realism in its Chinese emphasis on practice.[12]
The "object" of wu wei "skill-knowledge" is the Way, which is – to an extent regardless of school – "embodying" the mind to a "normative order existing independently of the minds of the practitioners". The primary example of Confucianism – Confucius at age 70 – displays "mastery of morality" spontaneously, his inclinations being in harmony with his virtue. Confucius considers training unnecessary if one is born loving the Way, as with the disciple Yan Hui. Mencius believed that men are already good, and need only realize it not by trying, but by allowing virtue to realize itself, and coming to love the Way. Training is done to learn to spontaneously love the Way. Virtue is compared with the grain seed (being domesticated) and the flow of water.[13] On the other hand, Xun Kuang considered it possible to attain wu wei only through a long and intensive traditional training.[14]
Taoist development[edit source]
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Following the development of wu wei by Shen Buhai and then Mencius, Zhuangzhi and Laozi turn towards an unadorned "no effort". Laozi, as opposed to carved Confucian jade, advocates a return to the primordial Mother and to become like uncarved wood. He condemns doing and grasping, urging the reader to cognitively grasp oneness (still the mind), reduce desires and the size of the state, leaving human nature untouched. In practice, wu wei is aimed at thorough behaviour modification; cryptically referenced meditation and more purely physical breathing techniques as in the Guanzi (text), which includes just taking the right posture.[15]
When your body is not aligned [形不正],
The inner power will not come.
When you are not tranquil within [中不靜],
Your mind will not be well ordered.
Align your body, assist the inner power [正形攝德],
Then it will gradually come on its own.[16]
Though, by still needing to make a cognitive effort, perhaps not resolving the paradox of not doing, the concentration on accomplishing wu wei through the physiological would influence later thinkers.[17] The Dao De Jing became influential in intellectual circles about 250 BCE (1999: 26–27), but, included in the 2nd century Guanzi, the likely older Neiye or Inward Training may be the oldest Chinese received text describing what would become Daoist breath meditation techniques and qi circulation, Harold D. Roth considering it a genuine 4th-century BCE text.[18]
When you enlarge your mind and let go of it,
When you relax your [qi 氣] vital breath and expand it,
When your body is calm and unmoving:
And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances.
You will see profit and not be enticed by it,
You will see harm and not be frightened by it.
Relaxed and unwound, yet acutely sensitive,
In solitude you delight in your own person.
This is called "revolving the vital breath":
Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly.[19]
Verse 13 describes the aspects of shen "numen; numinous", attained through relaxed efforts.
There is a numinous [mind] naturally residing within [有神自在身];
One moment it goes, the next it comes,
And no one is able to conceive of it.
If you lose it you are inevitably disordered;
If you attain it you are inevitably well ordered.
Diligently clean out its lodging place [敬除其舍]
And its vital essence will naturally arrive [精將自來].
Still your attempts to imagine and conceive of it.
Relax your efforts to reflect on and control it.
Be reverent and diligent
And its vital essence will naturally stabilize.
Grasp it and don't let go
Then the eyes and ears won't overflow
And the mind will have nothing else to seek.
When a properly aligned mind resides within you [正心在中],
The myriad things will be seen in their proper perspective.[20]
Political development[edit source]
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No government has long been able to practice "doing nothing" and stay in power.[21] Unable to find his philosopher-king, Confucius placed his hope in virtuous ministers.[22] Apart from the Confucian ruler's "divine essence" (ling) "ensuring the fecundity of his people" and fertility of the soil, Creel notes that he was also assisted by "five servants", who "performed the active functions of government".[10] Xun Kuang's Xunzi, a Confucian adaptation to Qin "Legalism", defines the ruler in much the same sense, saying that the ruler "need only correct his person" because the "abilities of the ruler appear in his appointment of men to office": namely, appraising virtue and causing others to perform.
More important information lay in the recovery of the fragments of administrator (aka "Legalist") Shen Buhai. Shen references Yao as using Fa (administrative method) in the selection and evaluation of men.[23] Though not a conclusive argument against proto-Taoist influence, Shen's Taoist terms do not show evidence of Taoist usage (Confucianism also uses terms like "Tao", meaning the "Tao", or "Way" of government), lacking any metaphysical connotation.[24] The later "Legalist" book, the Han Feizi has a commentary on the Tao Te Ching, but references Shen Buhai rather than Laozi for this usage.[25]
Shen is attributed the dictum "The Sage ruler relies on method and does not rely on wisdom; he relies on technique, not on persuasions",[26] and used the term wu wei to mean that the ruler, though vigilant, should not interfere with the duties of his ministers, saying "One who has the right way of government does not perform the functions of the five (aka various) officials, and yet is the master of the government".[27][28]
Since the bulk of both the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi appear to have been composed later, Creel argued that it may therefore be assumed that Shen influenced them,[27][28] much of both appearing to be counter-arguments against "Legalist" controls.[25] The thirteenth chapter of the Zhuangzi, "T'ien Tao", seems to follow Shen Buhai down to the detail, saying "Superiors must be without action in-order to control the world; inferiors must be active in-order to be employed in the world's business..." and to paraphrase, that foundation and principle are the responsibility of the superior, superstructure and details that of the minister, but then goes on to attack Shen's administrative details as non-essential.[29]
Elsewhere the Zhuangzi references another "Legalist", Shen Dao, as impartial and lacking selfishness, his "great way embracing all things".[30]
Non-action by the ruler[edit source]
Shen Buhai argued that if the government were organized and supervised relying on proper method (Fa), the ruler need do little – and must do little.[31][32] Apparently paraphrasing the Analects, Shen did not consider the relationship between ruler and minister antagonistic necessarily,[33] but still believed that the ruler's most able ministers his greatest danger,[34] and is convinced that it is impossible to make them loyal without techniques.[35] Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel explains: "The ruler's subjects are so numerous, and so on alert to discover his weaknesses and get the better of him, that it is hopeless for him alone as one man to try to learn their characteristics and control them by his knowledge... the ruler must refrain from taking the initiative, and from making himself conspicuous – and therefore vulnerable – by taking any overt action."[36]
Emphasizing the use of administrative methods (Fa) in secrecy, Shen Buhai portrays the ruler as putting up a front to hide his weaknesses and dependence on his advisers.[37] Shen therefore advises the ruler to keep his own counsel, hide his motivations, and conceal his tracks in inaction, availing himself of an appearance of stupidity and insufficiency.[38][39] Shen says:
If the ruler's intelligence is displayed, men will prepare against it; if his lack of intelligence is displayed, they will delude him. If his wisdom is displayed, men will gloss over (their faults); if his lack of wisdom is displayed, they will hide from him. If his lack of desires is displayed, men will spy out his true desires; if his desires are displayed, they will tempt him. Therefore (the intelligent ruler) says 'I cannot know them; it is only by means of non-action that I control them.'[40][41]
Acting through administrative method (Fa), the ruler conceals his intentions, likes and dislikes, skills and opinions. Not acting himself, he can avoid being manipulated.[28] The ruler plays no active role in governmental functions. He should not use his talent even if he has it. Not using his own skills, he is better able to secure the services of capable functionaries. Creel argues that not getting involved in details allowed Shen's ruler to "truly rule", because it leaves him free to supervise the government without interfering, maintaining his perspective.[42] Seeing and hearing independently, the ruler is able to make decisions independently, and is, Shen says, able to rule the world thereby.[43]
The ruler is like a mirror, reflecting light, doing nothing, and yet, beauty and ugliness present themselves; (or like) a scale establishing equilibrium, doing nothing, and yet causing lightness and heaviness to discover themselves. (Administrative) method (Fa) is complete acquiescence. (Merging his) personal (concerns) with the public (weal), he does not act. He does not act, and yet the world itself is complete.
— Shen Buhai[44]
This wu wei (or nonaction) might be said to end up the political theory of the "Legalists" , if not becoming their general term for political strategy, playing a "crucial role in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity". The (qualified) non-action of the ruler ensures his power and the stability of the polity.[8]
Non-action in statecraft[edit source]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Wang_Juzheng%27s_Spinning_Wheel%2C_Close_Up_2.jpg/220px-Wang_Juzheng%27s_Spinning_Wheel%2C_Close_Up_2.jpg)
Shen Buhai insisted that the ruler must be fully informed of the state of his realm, but couldn't afford to get caught up in details and in an ideal situation need listen to no one. Listening to his courtiers might interfere with promotions, and he does not, as Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel says, have the time to do so. The way to see and hear independently is the grouping together of particulars into categories using mechanical or operational method (Fa). On the contrary the ruler's eyes and ears will make him "deaf and blind" (unable to obtain accurate information).[48][49][50][51] Seeing and hearing independently, the ruler is able to make decisions independently, and is, Shen says, able to rule the world thereby.[52]
Despite this, Shen's method of appointment, "Ming-shih", advises a particular method for listening to petitioners in the final analyses, which would be articulated as Xing-Ming by Han Fei. In the Han Dynasty secretaries of government who had charge of the records of decisions in criminal matters were called Xing-Ming, which Sima Qian (145 or 135 – 86 BC) and Liu Xiang (77–6 BC) attributed to the doctrine of Shen Buhai (400 – c. 337 BC). Liu Xiang goes as far as to define Shen Buhai's doctrine as Xing-Ming.[53] Rather than having to look for "good" men, ming-shih or xing-ming can seek the right man for a particular post by comparing his reputation with real conduct (xing "form" or shih "reality"), though doing so implies a total organizational knowledge of the regime.[54]
More simply though, one can allow ministers to "name" themselves through accounts of specific cost and time frame, leaving their definition to competing ministers. Claims or utterances "bind the speaker to the realization a job (Makeham)". This was the doctrine, with subtle differences, favoured by Han Fei. Favoring exactness, it combats the tendency to promise too much.[55] The correct articulation of Ming ("name", "speech", "title") is considered crucial to the realization of projects.[56][57]
Shen resolved hair-splitting litigation through wu wei, or not getting involved, making an official's words his own responsibility.[56] Shen Buhai says, "The ruler controls the policy, the ministers manage affairs. To speak ten times and ten times be right, to act a hundred times and a hundred times succeed – this is the business of one who serves another as minister; it is the not the way to rule."[58] The correlation between wu wei and ming-shih likely informed the Taoist conception of the formless Tao that "gives rise to the ten thousand things."[59]
Yin (passive mindfulness)[edit source]
Adherence to the use of technique in governing requires the ruler not engage in any interference or subjective consideration.[60] Sinologist John Makeham explains: "assessing words and deeds requires the ruler's dispassionate attention; (yin is) the skill or technique of making one's mind a tabula rasa, non-committaly taking note of all the details of a man's claims and then objectively comparing his achievements of the original claims."[60]
A commentary to the Shiji cites a now-lost book as quoting Shen Buhai saying: "By employing (yin), 'passive mindfulness', in overseeing and keeping account of his vassals, accountability is deeply engraved." The Guanzi similarly says: "Yin is the way of non-action. Yin is neither to add to nor to detract from anything. To give something a name strictly on the basis of its form – this is the Method of yin."[60][61] Yin also aimed at concealing the ruler's intentions, likes and opinions.[60]
Shen Dao[edit source]
Shen Dao espouses an impersonal administration in much the same sense as Shen Buhai, and argued for wu wei, or the non action of the ruler, along the same lines, saying
The Dao of ruler and ministers is that the ministers labour themselves with tasks while the prince has no task; the prince is relaxed and happy while the ministers bear responsibility for tasks. The ministers use all their intelligence and strength to perform his job satisfactorily, in which the ruler takes no part, but merely waits for the job to be finished. As a result, every task is taken care of. The correct way of government is thus.[62][63]
Shen Dao eschews appointment by interview in favour of a mechanical distribution apportioning every person according to their achievement.[64][65] Linking administrative methods or standards to the notion of impartial objectivity associated with universal interest, and reframing the language of the old ritual order to fit a universal, imperial and highly bureaucratized state,[66] Shen cautions the ruler against relying on his own personal judgment,[67] contrasting personal opinions with the merit of the objective standard as preventing personal judgements or opinions from being exercised. Personal opinions destroy standards, and Shen Dao's ruler therefore "does not show favoritism toward a single person".[66]
When an enlightened ruler establishes [gong] ("duke" or "public interest"), [private] desires do not oppose the correct timing [of things], favoritism does not violate the law, nobility does not trump the rules, salary does not exceed [that which is due] one's position, a [single] officer does not occupy multiple offices, and a [single] craftsman does not take up multiple lines of work... [Such a ruler] neither overworked his heart-mind with knowledge nor exhausted himself with self-interest (si), but, rather, depended on laws and methods for settling matters of order and disorder, rewards and punishments for deciding on matters of right and wrong, and weights and balances for resolving issues of heavy or light...[66]
The reason why those who apportion horses use ce-lots, and those who apportion fields use gou-lots, is not that they take ce and gou-lots to be superior to human wisdom, but that one may eliminate private interest and stop resentment by these means. Thus it is said: 'When the great lord relies on fa and does not act personally, affairs are judged in accordance with (objective) method (fa).' The benefit of fa is that each person meets his reward or punishment according to his due, and there are no further expectations of the lord. Thus resentment does not arise and superiors and inferiors are in harmony.
If the lord of men abandons method (Fa) and governs with his own person, then penalties and rewards, seizures and grants, will all emerge from the lord's mind. If this is the case, then those who receive rewards, even if these are commensurate, will ceaselessly expect more; those who receive punishment, even if these are commensurate, will endlessly expect more lenient treatment... people will be rewarded differently for the same merit and punished differently for the same fault. Resentment arises from this."[68]
Han Fei[edit source]
Devoting the entirety of Chapter 14, "How to Love the Ministers", to "persuading the ruler to be ruthless to his ministers", Han Fei's enlightened ruler strikes terror into his ministers by doing nothing (wu wei). The qualities of a ruler, his "mental power, moral excellence and physical prowess" are irrelevant. He discards his private reason and morality, and shows no personal feelings. What is important is his method of government. Fa (administrative standards) require no perfection on the part of the ruler.[69]
Han Fei's use of wu wei may have been derivative of Taoism, but its Tao emphasizes autocracy ("Tao does not identify with anything but itself, the ruler does not identify with the ministers"). Sinologists like Randall P. Peerenboom argue that Han Fei's Shu (technique) is arguably more of a "practical principle of political control" than any state of mind.[70][71] Han Fei nonetheless begins by advising the ruler to remain "empty and still":
Tao is the beginning of the myriad things, the standard of right and wrong. That being so, the intelligent ruler, by holding to the beginning, knows the source of everything, and, by keeping to the standard, knows the origin of good and evil. Therefore, by virtue of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to enforce itself so that all names will be defined of themselves and all affairs will be settled of themselves. Empty, he knows the essence of fullness: reposed, he becomes the corrector of motion. Who utters a word creates himself a name; who has an affair creates himself a form. Compare forms and names and see if they are identical. Then the ruler will find nothing to worry about as everything is reduced to its reality.
...
Tao exists in invisibility; its function, in unintelligibility. Be empty and reposed and have nothing to do-Then from the dark see defects in the light. See but never be seen. Hear but never be heard. Know but never be known. If you hear any word uttered, do not change it nor move it but compare it with the deed and see if word and deed coincide with each other. Place every official with a censor. Do not let them speak to each other. Then everything will be exerted to the utmost. Cover tracks and conceal sources. Then the ministers cannot trace origins. Leave your wisdom and cease your ability. Then your subordinates cannot guess at your limitations.[72][73][74][75][76][77]
Han Fei's commentary on the Tao Te Ching asserts that perspectiveless knowledge – an absolute point of view – is possible, though the chapter may have been one of his earlier writings.[78]
Han dynasty[edit source]
"Legalism" dominated the intellectual life of the Qin and early Han together with Taoism. Early Han dynasty Emperors like Emperor Jing (r. 157–141 BCE) would be steeped in a Taoistic laissez-faire.[79] But Shen Buhai's book would be widely studied even from the beginning of the Han era.[39] Jia Yi's (200–168 AD) Hsin-shu, undoubtedly influenced by the "Legalists", describes Shen Buhai's techniques as methods of applying the Tao, or virtue, bringing together Confucian and Taoist discourses under the imagery of the Zhuangzi.[75]:pp49,65 Many later texts, for instance in Huang-Lao, use similar images to describe the quiescent attitude of the ruler.[75]:p55
The Huang-Lao text Huainanzi (Western Han Dynasty 206 B.C. – 9 A.D.), arguing against Legalist centralization, would go on to include naturalist arguments in favour of rule by worthies on the basis that one needs their competence for such things as diplomacy, and defines wu wei as follows: "What is meant ... by wu-wei is that no personal prejudice [private or public will,] interferes with the universal Tao [the laws of things], and that no desires and obsessions lead the true course ... astray. Reason must guide action in order that power may be exercised according to the intrinsic properties and natural trends of things."[80]
The Huang–Lao text Jing fa says
The right way to understand all these (things) is to remain in a state of [vacuity,] formlessness and non-being. Only if one remains in such a state, may he thereby know that (all things) necessarily possess their forms and names as soon as they come into existence, even though they are as small as autumn down. As soon as forms and names are established, the distinction between black and white becomes manifest... there will be no way to escape from them without a trace or to hide them from regulation... [all things] will correct themselves.[81]
Modern[edit source]
Philosopher Alan Watts believed that Wu Wei can best be described as "not-forcing."[82] "There are just some concepts that defy translation. Chinese-American author David H. Li has stated, for example, that the word Tao does not mean 'Way' to the Chinese person. It actually means Direction. For example, if you ask me what is the way to New York City, I might point in its compass direction. In following that direction, there would be many possible ways of reaching it".[83]
Psychoanalyst Robin S. Brown has examined Wu Wei in the context of Western psychotherapy.[84] Brown links Wu Wei with the psychoanalytic notion of enactment.
See also[edit source]
References[edit source]
Citations[edit source]
- ^ Slingerland (2007), p. 7
- ^ Tierney, John (2014-12-15). "A Meditation on the Art of Not Trying". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-12-07.
- ^ Slingerland (2007), p. 6
- ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 7
- ^ Jump up to:a b Creel (1982), pp. 73–78
- ^ Jump up to:a b Creel (1982), pp. 99
- ^ Pan Ku. trans. Homer Dubs, The History of the Former Han Dynasty
- ^ Jump up to:a b Go (2002), p. 198
- ^ Go (2002), p. 84
- ^ Jump up to:a b Creel (1982), p. 58; Slingerland (2007), p. 9
- ^ Slingerland (2007), p. 6
- ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 8–9
- ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 10–13,15–16
- ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 10–13
- ^ Slingerland (2007), p. 14
- ^ Verse 11, tr. Roth, Harold D. (1999). Original Tao: Inward Training (Nei-yeh) and the Foundations of Taoist Mysticism. Columbia University Press. p. 66.
- ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 14
- ^ Roth 1999, p. 23-25.
- ^ 24, tr. Roth 1999, p. 92
- ^ tr. Roth 1999: 70
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 48
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 59
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 64
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 62-63
- ^ Jump up to:a b Creel (1982), p. 69
- ^ Paul R. Goldin p.93. Studies in Early Chinese Philosophy. Insidious Syncretism in the Political Philosophy of Huainanzi. JSTOR j.ctt1wn0qtj.10
- ^ Jump up to:a b Creel (1982), pp. 48, 62–63
- ^ Jump up to:a b c S. Y. Hsieh, 1995. p.92 Chinese Thought: An Introduction
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 71
- ^ Antonio S. Cua 2003 p.362, Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy
- ^ Creel (1982), pp. 69, 99
- ^ Creel (1974), p. 66
- ^ R. P. Peerenboom 1993 p.241. Law and Morality in Ancient China.
- ^ Creel (1974), p. 35
- ^ Go (2002), p. 143
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 67
- ^ Karyn Lai 2017. p.171. An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy.
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 67
- ^ Jump up to:a b Creel (1974), p. 35
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 66
- ^ Huang Kejian 2016 p.185. From Destiny to Dao: A Survey of Pre-Qin Philosophy in China.
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 65-66;Go (2002), p. 198
- ^ Creel (1974), p. 26
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 64
- ^ Goldin (2013), p. 10
- ^ Chen Qiyou 2000: 2.8.156
- ^ Deng, Yingke; Wang, Pingxing (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions. 五洲传播出版社 (World communication publishing). p. 48. ISBN 7-5085-0837-8.
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 81
- ^ Creel (1974), pp. 33, 68–69
- ^ A. C. Graham 1989. p. 283. Disputers of the Tao.
- ^ http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Shen%20Bu%20Hai.htm
- ^ Creel (1974), p. 26
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 72, 80, 103–104; Creel (1959), pp. 199–200; Makeham (1990), pp. 91–92
- ^ Creel (1974), p. 57; Creel (1982), p. 83; Creel (1959), p. 203
- ^ Makeham (1990), p. 91; Mark Edward Lewis, 1999 p. 33, Writing and Authority in Early China; Goldin (2013), p. 9
- ^ Jump up to:a b Makeham (1990), p. 91
- ^ John Makeham 1994 p. 67. Name and Actuality in Early Chinese Thought.
- ^ Creel (1982), p. 65
- ^ Julia Ching, R. W. L. Guisso. 1991. pp. 75,119. Sages and Filial Sons.
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d Makeham (1990), pp. 90–91
- ^ John Makeham 1994 p. 69. Name and Actuality in Early Chinese Thought.
- ^ L.K. Chen and H.C.W Sung 2015 p.251 Dao Companion to Daoist Philosophy.
- ^ Emerson. Shen Dao: Text and Translation
- ^ John Knoblock 1990. p.172. Xunzi: Books 7–16.
- ^ Masayuki Sato 2003. p.122,126,133–136. The Confucian Quest for Order.
- ^ Jump up to:a b c Erica Brindley, The Polarization of the Concepts Si (Private Interest) and Gong (Public Interest) in Early Chinese Thought. pp. 6, 8, 12–13, 16, 19, 21–22, 24, 27
- ^ Shen Dao's Own Voice, 2011. p. 202. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
- ^ Paul R. Goldin, Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. [1]; Masayuki Sato 2003. p.129. The Confucian Quest for Order.; Yang (2013), p. 50
- ^ Ellen Marie Chen, 1975 pp. 2,4, 6–9 Reason and Nature in the Han Fei-Tzu, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 2.
- ^ Xing Lu 1998. Rhetoric in Ancient China, Fifth to Third Century, B.C.E.. p. 264.
- ^ Roger T. Ames 1983. p. 50. The Art of Rulership.
- ^ "Chapter V. The Tao of the Sovereign". The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzŭ with Collected Commentaries. Retrieved 2019-03-21.
- ^ HanFei, "The Way of the Ruler", Watson, p. 16
- ^ Han Fei-tzu, chapter 5 [Han Fei-tzu chi-chieh 1), p. 18; cf. Burton Watson, Han Fei Tzu: Basic Writings (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964)
- ^ Jump up to:a b c Mark Csikszentmihalyi. Chia I's "Techniques of the Tao" and the Han Confucian Appropriation of Technical Discourse. Asia Major, Third Series, Vol. 10, No. 1/2 (1997), pp. 49–67 JSTOR 41645528
- ^ Huang Kejian 2016 pp. 186–187. From Destiny to Dao: A Survey of Pre-Qin Philosophy in China.
- ^ Lim Xiao Wei, Grace. 2005. Law and Morality in the Han Fei Zi, p. 18
- ^ Chad Hansen, 1992 p. 371 A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought
- ^ Hansen, Chad, "Daoism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/daoism/
- ^ John M. Hobson, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation (Cambridge 2004), p. 190.
- ^ L.K. Chen and H.C.W Sung 2015 p. 253 Dao Companion to Daoist Philosophy.
- ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZzaUGhhnlQ8
- ^ The analects of Confucius : a new-millennium translation, by David H. Li. ISBN 9780963785282
- ^ Brown, R.S. (2020). Groundwork for a Transpersonal Psychoanalysis: Spirituality, Relationship, and Participation. Abingdon, UK; New York: Routledge.
General sources[edit source]
- Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1982) [1970]. What is Taoism?: and other studies in Chinese cultural history. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226120478.
- Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1974). Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226120270.
- Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1959). "The Meaning of Hsing-Ming". Studia Serica: Sinological studies dedicated to Bernhard Kalgren.
- Go, Xuezhi (2002). The ideal Chinese political leader: a historical and cultural perspective. Westport, CN: Praeger. ISBN 9780275972592.
- Goldin, Paul R. (2013). "Introduction: Han Fei and the Han Feizi" (PDF). In Goldin, Paul R. (ed.). Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2_1.
- Yang, Soon-Ja (2013). "Shen Dao's Theory of fa and His Influence on Han Fei". In Goldin, Paul R. (ed.). Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2_1.
- Makeham, J. (1990). "The Legalist Concept of Hsing-Ming: An Example of the Contribution of Archaeological Evidence to the Re-Interpretation of Transmitted Texts". Monumenta Serica. 39: 87–114. JSTOR 40726902.
- Slingerland, Edward (2007). Effortless Action: Wu-wei As Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195138993.
External links[edit source]
- "Taoism – The Wu-Wei Principle" by Ted Kardash. Jade Dragon Online, June 1998.
- "Wei-wu-wei: Nondual action" by David Loy. Philosophy East and West, Vol. 35, No. 1 (January 1985) pp. 73–87.
- "Wu-Wei in Europe. A Study of Eurasian Economic Thought" by Christian Gerlach. London School of Economics 2005.
- "Wú wéi translations and usages in Buddhism"—Digital Dictionary of Buddhism
- Wu Wei (WuWei) Calligraphy Scrolls from the Dao de Jing
- Daoism.net—The Entire Philosophy of Laozi’s Daodejing Explained in Common Sense
- Laozi, Libertarianism & Wu-wei(Non-interference) Analysis老子的无为详解