2019/03/25

Waging Peace: Global Adventures of a Lifelong Activist



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“Peace will only come when all of us become the change we wish to see in this world. David Hartsough became that change and has spent the best part of 60 years working to bring peace to our troubled world. His book is one that every peace-loving person must read and learn from.” —Arun Gandhi, president, Gandhi Worldwide Education Institute and grandson of Mahatma Gandhi

“It has been my privilege to work with David Hartsough over the years and to be arrested and jailed with him for nonviolent civil disobedience. I highly recommend Waging Peace to every American who wishes to live in a world with peace and justice and wants to feel empowered to help create that world.” —Daniel Ellsberg, The Pentagon Papers

“When great events happen, such as the falling of the Berlin wall, we must never forget that people like David Hartsough and many others have worked hard to prepare the ground for such ‘miracles.’ David’s belief in the goodness of people, the power of love, truth, and forgiveness and his utter commitment to making peace and ending war will inspire all those who read this book.” —Mairead Maguire, Nobel Peace Laureate, Peace People, Northern Ireland

“If you want to know what it means to live a ‘life well lived,’ read David Hartsough’s masterful book. It is not only a page turner, but it will probably transform the way you look at your own life—your priorities, your lifestyle, your future.” —Medea Benjamin, cofounder, Code Pink and Global Exchange

"Waging Peace ought to be required reading for every U.S. citizen befogged by the crude polarization between Islamic extremism and the equally violent, ineffective, but seemingly endless Western military reaction it has elicited." —Winslow Myers, worldbeyondwar.org


"David has rooted his lifelong pilgrimage of peace in a simple conviction: that all life is precious. He has helped spark and build one campaign after another when that preciousness is forgotten or undermined." —Ken Butigan, wagingnonviolence.org


"Waging Peace is a major contribution to understanding the inspiration and dynamics of the nonviolence movement in the years since the 1950s." —Robert Dockhorn, Friends Journal

Waging Peace: Global Adventures of a Lifelong Activist

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Waging Peace: Global Adventures of a Lifelong Activist
byDavid Hartsough
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Doug Wingeier

5.0 out of 5 starschallenging account of the author's amazing peacemakingJune 2, 2018
Format: PaperbackVerified Purchase
moving, challenging account of the author's amazing peacemaking career


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Music Ad Lib

5.0 out of 5 starsFive StarsMay 4, 2016
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Exactly what I was looking for.

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Ronald D. Storey

5.0 out of 5 starsFive StarsDecember 2, 2015
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Reminds me of how little I have done for peace in my life. Very well written.

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tom imhoff

5.0 out of 5 starsFive StarsApril 29, 2015
Format: PaperbackVerified Purchase
fascinating life story---inspirational

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bpalm46

5.0 out of 5 starsA life well lived.September 8, 2014
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Waging Peace: Global Adventures of a Lifelong Activist is a remarkable story of one person's journey through life living the ideals of Ghandi and Martin Luther King.

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D. Hazen

5.0 out of 5 starsA spiritual giantJune 17, 2015
Format: Paperback
I consider myself to be a peace activist, and after I read David Hartsough's "Waging Peace," I could hardly avoid comparing my minuscule efforts to his lifelong dedication to nonviolence and fearless love. His quietly under-stated story of returning again and again to the front lines of conflict left me wondering if I could ever make a difference, and this is where the real value of his writing shines forth: yes, I can; yes, you can; we all can make a big difference. The appendices provide an exhaustive list of resources for motivation, practical steps, and hope. Hartsough condenses the lessons he has learned, references sources for further study, and compiles a long menu of possible alternative strategies for personal development, witness, study, low-risk nonviolent actions and direct confrontation. This concluding section is where I gain my courage to follow Hartsough's giant steps with baby steps of my own. The size of step does not matter, simply taking any step matters a great deal.

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Winslow Myers

5.0 out of 5 starsRead this book and feel hope!October 20, 2014
Format: Paperback
The fear that we citizens of the United States have been seduced into since 9/11 spreads across our benighted nation like a fog, inhibiting all policy alternatives not based in blind vengefulness. Special are those who have the spiritual clear-sightedness and persistence to make people-oriented global connections that pierce the fog of fear with the light of visionary possibility.

One such giant is David Hartsough, whose vivid, even hair-raising, memoir of a lifetime of peace activism, Waging Peace: Global Adventures of a Lifelong Activist, has just been published by PM press. It ought to be required reading for every U.S. citizen befogged by the crude polarization between Islamic extremism and the equally violent, ineffective, but seemingly endless Western military reaction it has elicited.

It hardly seems possible that Hartsough has been able to crowd into one lifetime all his deeds of creative nonviolence. He was there with Martin Luther King in the late fifties in the South. He was there when a train loaded with bullets and bombs on their way to arm right-wing death squads in Central America severed the leg of his friend Brian Willson in California. His initiatives of support for nonviolent resistance movements span both decades and continents, from efforts to get medical supplies to the North Vietnamese, to reconciliation among Israelis and Palestinians, to support for Russian dissidents as the Soviet Union was breaking up, to the resistance to Marcos in the Philippines, and on and on. Hartsough’s book thus becomes a remarkably comprehensive alternative history to set against “the official story” of America’s—and many other nations’—often brutal and misguided reliance upon military intervention.

David Hartsough gave himself a head start by getting born into the right family. As a boy he heard his minister father preach the gospel of loving your enemies and almost immediately got a chance to try it out when bullies pelted him with icy snowballs. It worked, and Hartsough never looked back. Having determined to do integration in reverse by attending the predominantly black Howard University, he soon found himself sitting in with courageous African-American students at segregated restaurants in Virginia. A white man crazed with hate threatened him with a knife. Hartsough spoke to him so gently that the man was “disarmed” by the unexpected shock of a loving response and retreated open-mouthed and speechless.

Sixty years of innumerable protests, witnesses, and organizing efforts later, Hartsough is still at it as he helps to begin a new global movement to end war on the planet, called “World Beyond War.” While his book is a genuinely personal memoir that records moments of doubt, despair, fear of getting shot, and occasional triumph, even more it is a testament to the worldwide nonviolent movement that still flies completely under the radar of American media. Living in a bubble of propaganda, we do not realize how intrusive the bases of our far-flung empire are felt to be. We do not feel how many millions worldwide regard the U.S. as an occupying force with negative overall effects upon their own security. Even more importantly, we remain insufficiently aware how often nonviolence has been used around the world to bring about positive change where it appeared unlikely to occur without major bloodshed. The U.S. turns to military force reflexively to ”solve” problems, and so it has been difficult indeed, as we are seeing in our ham-handed response to ISIS and the chaos in Syria, for us to learn lessons that go all the way back to the moral disaster of Vietnam. We have not registered how sick of the madness of war the world really is. Now academic studies are starting to back up with hard statistical evidence the proposition that nonviolent tactics are more effective than militarism for overthrowing dictators and reconciling opposing ethnic or religious groups.

Coincidentally, the book I read just before Waging Peace was its perfect complement: a biography of Allen Dulles, first director of the CIA, and his brother John Foster Dulles, longtime Secretary of State. The Dulles book goes a long way toward explaining the hidden motives of the military-industrial-corporate behemoth which Hartsough has spent his life lovingly but persistently confronting—truly a moral giant named David against a Goliath of clandestine militarism that props up narrow business interests at the expense of the human rights of millions. Always this David has kept in his heart one overarching principle, that we are one human family and no one nation’s children are worth more than any other’s.

Hartsough’s tales of persistence in the face of hopeless odds remind us not to yield to despair, cynicism, fear mongering or enemy posing, all temptations when political blame is the currency of the day. Hartsough is a living exemplar of the one force that is more powerful than extremist hate, reactive fear, and weapons, including nuclear bombs—the human capacity to be harmless, helpful and kind even to supposed adversaries.

If—let us say optimistically when—peace goes mainstream and deluded pretentions to empire are no longer seen as the royal road to security, when we wake up to the hollowness of our selfishness and exceptionalism, when we begin to relate to other nations as opportunities to share good will and resources rather than to bomb, it will be largely because of the tireless efforts of insufficiently heralded giants like David Hartsough.

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Laurie Marshall

5.0 out of 5 starsWhat if we lived as a Christian nation?May 23, 2015
Format: Paperback
This book is radical -the principles of Jesus radical. David Hartsough tells the story of a life dedicated to seeking that of God in everyone - the main tenant of Quakerism. As he looked into the eyes of hate filled segregationists, Vietnamese civilians, American soldiers, Nicaraguan peasants, Bosnian civilians, Cuban communists and other people around the world, he was able to connect with the Divine within them and often transform violent situations. I have rarely read a book of such courage. He models the practice of Jesus' words to "Love your enemy." And he challenges our country to live according to these principles. Yes, this is a radical book, inspiring in its non-materialistic, value-centered, speaking truth to power and loving text.

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Ken Butigan

5.0 out of 5 starsAn Ordinary, Extraordinary LifeJanuary 29, 2015
Format: Paperback
Years ago, my friend Anne Symens-Bucher would regularly punctuate our organizing meetings with a wistful cry, “I just want to live an ordinary life!” Anne ate, drank and slept activism over the decade she headed up the Nevada Desert Experience, a long-term campaign to end nuclear testing at the Nevada Test Site. After a grueling conference call, a mountainous fundraising mailing, or days spent at the edge of the sprawling test site in hundred-degree weather, she and I would take a deep breath and wonder aloud how we could live the ordinary, nonviolent life without running ourselves into the ground.

What we didn’t mean was: “How do we hold on to our radical ideals but also retreat into a middle-class cocoon?” No, it was something like: “How can we stay the course but not give up doing all the ordinary things that everyone else usually does in this one-and-only life?” Somewhere in this question was the desire to not let who we are – in our plain old, down-to-earth ordinariness -- get swallowed up by the blurring glare of the 24/7 activist fast lane.

These ruminations came back to me as I plunged into the pages of David Hartsough’s new memoir, Waging Peace: Global Adventures of a Lifelong Activist (PM Press, 2014, with Joyce Hollyday). David has been a friend for thirty years, and over that time I’ve rarely seen him pass up a chance to jump into the latest fray with both feet – something he’d been doing long before we met, as his book attests. For nearly six decades he’s been organizing for nonviolent change – with virtually every campaign eventually getting tangled up with one risky nonviolent action after another. Therefore one might be tempted to surmise that David is yet another frantic activist on the perennial edge of burnout. Just reading his book, with its relentless kaleidoscope of civil resistance on many continents, can be dizzying – what must it have been like to live it? If anyone would qualify for not living the ordinary life, it would seem to be David Hartsough.

As I finished his 250-page account, however, I drew a much different conclusion. I found myself thinking that maybe David has figured it out – maybe he’s been living the ordinary life all along.

Which is not to downplay the Technicolor drama of his journey. Since meeting Martin Luther King, Jr. as a teenager in the mid-1950s, David has been actively part of many key nonviolent movements over the last half-century: the Civil Rights movement, the anti-nuclear testing movement, the movement to end the Vietnam War, the U.S. Central America peace movement, the anti-apartheid movement, and the movements to end the U.S. wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. In recent years he has helped found the Nonviolent Peaceforce and a new global venture to end armed conflict, World Beyond War.

This book is jammed with powerful stories from these efforts – from facing down with nonviolent love a knife-wielding racist during an eventually successful campaign to de-segregate a lunch-counter in Arlington, Virginia in 1960, to paddling canoes into the way of a U.S. military ship bound for Vietnam; from meeting with President John Kennedy urging him to spark a “peace race” with the then-Soviet Union, to being threatened with arrest in Red Square in Moscow for calling for nuclear disarmament there; from confronting the death squad culture in Central America and the Philippines to watching his good friend, Vietnam veteran Brian Willson, mowed down by a U.S. Navy munitions train.

These are just a few of innumerable vignettes of David’s peacemaking around the world. But there is much more to David’s life story than these intense scenes of nonviolent conflict.

Much of this book recounts how the foundations of his career as an agent of nonviolent change were laid, slowly and organically. His decision to give his life to peacemaking was shaped by the inspiration of his parents, who were both actively involved in building a better world, and by a series of experiences in which he witnessed the impact of violence and injustice, but also at the same time met a series of remarkable organizers who were not content to simply wring their hands at such destruction, including the likes of Civil Rights movement luminaries Bayard Rustin and Ralph Abernathy.

Most powerful of all, David set out on a series of illuminating explorations, with long stints in the Soviet Union, Cuba, and a then-divided Germany. Everywhere he met people who turned out to be complicated, beautiful and often peace-loving human beings. His nonviolence – and resistance to war— was strengthened by seeing for himself the people his own government deemed “the enemy.”

In Berlin—a city split between the East and West after World War II, but not yet separated by the wall the Soviets would build—he took classes on both sides of the divide and experienced up close what the “Us” versus “Them” of violence feels like: “In the mornings [at the university in the East] I would challenge the Communist propaganda and be labeled a ‘capitalist war-monger.’ In the afternoons, at the university in the West, when I challenged their propaganda I was called a ‘Communist conspirator.’ I thought I must be doing something right if neither side appreciated my questions! I didn’t consider myself any of these things: capitalist, war-monger, Communist, conspirator.” Instead, he was a nonviolent activist challenging the confining labels that are used to foment the separations that fuel and legitimate violence and injustice.

David has rooted his lifelong pilgrimage of peace is a simple conviction: that all life is precious.
He has helped spark and build one campaign after another when that preciousness is forgotten or undermined.

At the same time, he’s recognized that such a nonviolent life extends to himself. This is where the ordinary life comes in.

David and his spouse Jan live a simple life interweaving family time (including with their children and grandchildren, who live downstairs from them) with building a better world. They are activists, but they rarely let organizing keep them from taking a hike in the mountains or a walk along the seashore. They are regulars at the local Friends meeting. For decades they have been sharing their home with countless friends, who are often invited to the songfests that they frequently organize in their living room. When I stay with them in San Francisco, there is always a bike ride through Golden Gate Park to be had or time to be spent at a garden a few blocks away with its dazzling profusion of azaleas. Rather than giving short shrift to the fullness of life, David has found a way to live, as we say today, holistically.

David’s life qualifies as “ordinary,” though, not only because it knits together many dimensions of every day realities, but because it has dissolved the artificial boundary between “activism” and “non-activism.” All of life is an opportunity to celebrate and defend its preciousness, and this impulse gets worked out seamlessly in both watering the plants and getting carted off to a police van after engaging in nonviolent resistance at a nuclear weapons laboratory. Nonviolent action is a seamless part of the rhythm of life. It is a crucial part of the ordinary life. Once enough of us see this and fold into the rest of our life, its ordinariness will become even more evident than it is now. This was Gandhi’s feeling—nonviolence and nonviolent resistance is a normal part of being human—and David has taken this assumption up in a clear and thoughtful way.

Anne Symens-Bucher reports that she’s increasingly living the ordinary life—she’s developed a powerful example of it called Canticle Farm in Oakland, Calif. And I feel I’m getting closer to it day by day. But if you want to read a page-turner that reveals how one person has been doing it for the last fifty years, get a copy of David Hartsough’s new autobiography, Waging Peace. (Review first published on WagingNonviolence.org.)

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Leilani

5.0 out of 5 starsIf you believe in power to the peaceful, this is your handbook!June 21, 2015
Format: Paperback
If you believe in power to the peaceful, this is your handbook!

David Hartsough and Joyce Hollyday narrate David's lifelong journey of peace activism. From Pennsylvania to Palestine, David Hartsough joins the cry for peace, forgiveness and justice. I kept having to tell myself to breathe while reading many of the accounts in David's life. I was holding my breath whenever I felt in awe, hopeful and when I was terrified for his life and for humanity.

David is making peace his pilgrimage. Wherever he hears, sees and encounters injustice, there is a power to his Quaker spirit that gives him the strength to live another day and serve peace for and with the people.

Please, read it.

==========
Winner of:
2015 Skipping Stones Honor Award, International and Multicultural Books

David Hartsough knows how to get in the way. He has used his body to block Navy ships headed for Vietnam and trains loaded with munitions on their way to El Salvador and Nicaragua. He has crossed borders to meet “the enemy” in East Berlin, Castro’s Cuba, and present-day Iran. He has marched with mothers confronting a violent regime in Guatemala and stood with refugees threatened by death squads in the Philippines. Hartsough’s stories inspire, educate, and encourage readers to find ways to work for a more just and peaceful world. Inspired by the examples of Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr., Hartsough has spent his life experimenting with the power of active nonviolence. Engaging stories on every page provide a peace activist’s eyewitness account of many of the major historical events of the past 60 years, including the Civil Rights and anti–Vietnam War movements in the United States as well as the little-known but equally significant nonviolent efforts in the Soviet Union, Kosovo, Palestine, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. Waging Peace is a testament to the difference one person can make; however, it is more than one man’s memoir: it shows how this struggle is waged all over the world by ordinary people committed to ending the spiral of violence and war. (less)




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Jul 07, 2016HBalikov rated it liked it
Waging Peace is both a memoir and a call for action. David Hartsough documents his commitment to non-violence from an early age. His father, a Congregational minister, was of a similar mind and participated in many American Friends Service activities.

The writing conveys a great deal of conviction and there are numerous examples of where the non-violent approach has been successful. A better gift for writing might have made it more engaging.

In the last portion of the book, Hartsough makes his case for active participation by his readers. He offers a Declaration of Peace and the opportunity to join “people from around the world” in organizing “A Global Movement to End All War and Promote Enduring Peace.”

Even if you do not choose to join, Hartsough raises enough ideas and issues so that a real conversation can begin. Here are some of those potential discussions that I have drawn from the book.

What kind of impact on peace would a reinvigorated Peace Corps have?

How much more participation in religion would take place in faith communities if they were more engaged in the true “world’s needs?”

How much have the peoples movements of Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador changed government policy?

Did the Marshall Plan of post- World War II demonstrate that it is much cheaper to wage peace than war?

Did non-violent students in Serbia bring down the Milosevic regime, when N.A.T.O could not? Can the same success in deposing dictatorships be attributed to non-violent movements in South Africa, India, the Philippines, South Korea, Chile, Bolivia, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Ukraine, Tunisia, Egypt, and Liberia?

We should have that discussion.
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Dec 18, 2016Eve rated it really liked it
An inspirational journey told by a truly amazing visionary peace activist. This should provide a sense of hope and empowerment to all those who read this - particularly in these very dark times. And it shows the power of what just one person can do - for good. Well worth the read.
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Feb 08, 2016Connie Kronlokken added it
David Hartsough grew up Quaker. He watched his parents protesting and early on wanted to get to know our "enemies," so he went camping in Russia! Had a great time. This memoir displays his consistent nonviolent-oriented sensibility in the many difficult situations he got himself into. He is now 74.

In El Salvador Hartsough's delegation was asked "Could you come to our village and just walk down the main street? This will save lives, because the death squads will know the world is watching." Learning that merely his presence could make a difference was a lesson he didn't forget. He started a group called Nonviolent Peaceforce which now works with the UN in some countries with refugees, as well as a smaller group called Peaceworkers. I believe he would agree with E.O. Wilson, who said that humans have some genetic predisposition to aggression, but the best way of subverting it is a "confusion of cross-binding loyalties." If people meet in the world, they are always forging bonds.

Hartsough also addresses the American addiction to consumption, saying we are using almost six times our rightful share of the world's resources. His family has always lived simply and he describes its advantages. (less)
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An American Casualty of U.S. Economic Sanctions on Iran - David Hartsough



An American Casualty of U.S. Economic Sanctions on Iran - David Hartsough



An American Casualty of U.S. Economic Sanctions on Iran
by David Hartsough on March 12, 2019


David Hartsough with Dr. Tiznobeyk in Iran. Photo courtesy the author.

I went to Iran with a peace delegation of 28 Americans organized by Code Pink, a women‐led peace activist group.

The first day in Iran we had a very fruitful hour‐and‐half conversation with Javad Zarif, the foreign minister of Iran. He listened to our thoughts and concerns and then shared his perspectives about what is needed to help move our countries to a more peaceful and mutually respectful relationship.

Unfortunately, during that day I got increasingly severe chest pains. Friends encouraged me to go to a hospital to have my heart checked. We went to the Shahram Hospital where they quickly did tests and discovered that there was major blockage in the arteries of my heart. The doctor in charge encouraged me to undergo surgery immediately (angioplasty) to avoid having a heart attack.




We appealed that decision but were told the decision was final: no money could be sent to Iran for medical care, even of an emergency nature for U.S. citizens.

My heart was heavy in more ways than one. I had been working on and looking forward to this trip to Iran for many months. I hoped that our delegation could contribute to moving our government from extreme economic sanctions and threats of war toward building peace and mutual understanding.

The hospital was ready to do the medical procedure the next morning. My health insurance in the United States is with Kaiser Permanente, and Kaiser tells all their members that they are covered for any medical problems while traveling outside of the United States. However, when we checked with Kaiser, I was told that they could not send the money to cover the procedure because of the U.S. economic sanctions against Iran.

We appealed that decision but were told the decision was final: no money could be sent to Iran for medical care, even of an emergency nature for U.S. citizens. The doctors also told me that if I were to fly back to the United States without surgery, I could very possibly have a heart attack—which could be fatal.

For each of three days they prepared me for the surgery, but for three days the answer came back “No. No money could be sent to Iran for this procedure. It was not permitted by U.S. government.”

Fortunately for me, two wonderful women at the U.S. interest section of the embassy of Switzerland in Iran heard about my situation and were able to convince the U.S. embassy in Switzerland to loan the money to me to be used for my medical procedure. Within hours I was moved to the Pars Hospital, which specializes in heart work; the procedure was done by Dr. Tiznobeyk, a very skilled heart surgeon.

After the angioplasty, while I was still in the operating room, Dr Tiznobeyk said to the staff who had been working with him, “This man met Martin Luther King. David, tell them about that.” So still flat on my back, I shared my experience of meeting King and the impact that has had on my life ever since.

I spent another night in the hospital and then went back to the hotel to recuperate. I am, of course, very grateful to be alive but am acutely aware that people in Iran can’t turn to the Swiss embassy for help.


I hope my personal story may be helpful to assist Americans to realize the violence of economic sanctions under which millions of people of Iran continue to suffer and die because of our government’s policies.

While in hospitals in Iran I talked with doctors and nurses, and heard many stories about people who could not get needed medicines for their illnesses and died as a result. For example, one person had cancer and the medicines were available in Europe, but they could not do the financial transactions to buy them and she died.

The economic sanctions have also caused extreme inflation and the cost of food, medicine, and other necessities grows almost daily.

I have come to understand that economic sanctions are indeed acts of war. And the people who are suffering are not the government or religious leaders of Iran, but the ordinary people. I hope my personal story may be helpful to assist Americans to realize the violence of economic sanctions under which millions of people of Iran continue to suffer and die because of our government’s policies. I fully agree with what the Iranian foreign minister told us: You cannot get security for one country at the expense of security for other countries. We badly need to learn that real security can only be found when we have security for all nations.

I come back home with a heart which is much stronger, but also with a much greater commitment to stop U.S. policies of economic sanctions, which I believe are acts of war. I will continue the work of getting the United States to rejoin the Iran nuclear agreement and get on the track of peacebuilding rather than threatening acts of war. I hope you will join me.

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David Hartsough is a Quaker from San Francisco, author of Waging Peace: Global Adventures of a Lifelong Activist, director of Peaceworkers, and co-founder of World Beyond War and Nonviolent Peaceforce.

For more info on the trip, see Code Pink's "Blogs from Iran." For more info on the effect of U.S. sanctions on Iran, see World Beyond War's "Iranian Sanctions: Iraq Redux?" and "Fear, Hate and Violence: The Human Cost of US Sanctions on Iran."Posted in: Witness


Code Pink, contribute, heart, iran, Javad Zarif, Pars Hospital, Shahram Hospital, Switzerland, United States, US, violence, war, work

2019/03/24

불교입문 - 035 보살사상



불교입문 - 035 보살사상

보살사상

보디사트바 : 깨달음 + ~을 가지고 있는 존재, 중생, 유정, 覺有情, 보리살타, 보살
쟈타카 : 본생담에 처음 나옴, 전생이야기 모음집, 보살 : 전생의 구도자
의미부여 : 이상적인 인간형의 전형, 上求菩提 下化衆生, 自利利他의 겸비
미륵보살, 보현~, 관세음~, 지장~, 역사적으로 실재한 인물이 아니라 상징적
부처님, 가교적인 역할이 아니다.
수기보살 : 얼마후에 성불. 부처님과 동등한 자격. 마음속에 있는 일심의 발호

자력적인 매력, 타력적인 종교, 미수기보살
자력과 타력의 비교 : 법화경 관세음보살보문품 : 남섬염부제, 실제적 사고방식
초기에 타력, 다음 단계엔 내 마음의 일심, 내가 관세음이 되어야 한다.
내 마음에 문수, 보현보살이 다 있다.
내가 문수보살이 아니다라고 하는 것이 무명이다. 이의지가 자력, 조화
가피력 : 자력위주만도 아니다. 조화와 균형.

보살 : 이상적인 모델, 같은 인격으로 화현. 상징적인 관점. 스스로 보살임을 강조
나머지는 聲聞乘, 緣覺乘<獨覺>, 이타행의 결핍. 법화경 : 會三歸一

대승블교의 특징(다불사상, 보살사상, 반야사상)

대승블교의 특징(다불사상, 보살사상, 반야사상)

대승 보살의 이념 - 불교신문

대승 보살의 이념 - 불교신문



대승 보살의 이념“중생이 병들었으므로 나도 아프다”
대승불교(大乘佛敎)가 인류 정신문화사에 기여한 두 가지 이념은 보살(菩薩)사상과 공(空)사상이라 할 수 있다. 공사상이 대승불교의 사상적 기반이 되었다면 보살 사상은 대승불교가 종교로서 성공하게 된 원동력이 된 이념이었다. 보살 (Bodhisattva)이란 ‘깨달음’을 뜻하는 산스크리트의 ‘bodhi’라는 말과 ‘존재’ 또는 ’본성‘이라는 의미를 지닌 ‘sattva’라는 단어의 합성어이다. 초기 불교에서의 보살은 싯다르타 태자가 출가하여 수행하던 시대의 구도자를 가리킬 때 쓰이는 용어였으나, 대승불교의 보살은 완전한 깨달음을 성취하여 부처가 되고자 하는 원력과 모든 중생을 구하고자 노력 하는 이를 의미한다. 보살은 용맹스러운 깨달음의 마음을 일으켜 정진하는 구도자로써 모든 무리 가운데 가장 위대하고 수승한 존재라는 의미에서 ‘마하살’(mahasattva)라고도 부른다. 아라한(阿羅漢)은 대승불교 이전의 전통 교단에서 이상적으로 생각했던 불교적 성자상이었다. 그러나 실제로 이러한 이상에 도달하는 성자는 많지 않았으며 그것도 출가한 승려에 한한 것이었다. 또한 깨달음을 얻는 것이 곧 타인(他人)을 위한 자비(慈悲)의 실천으로 연결되지 못하는 문제가 있었다. 성문(聲聞)과 연각(緣覺)은 자기 스스로의 해탈에 머물지만 보살은 스스로의 깨달음을 남을 위해 회향(廻向)하는 성인(聖人)이다. 대승의 출발에 있어서 출가승(出家僧)과 재가신자(在家信者)와의 관계는 정확하게 규정짓기 곤란한 점이 있으나 재가 신자의 비중이 높아진 것은 틀림없는 일이었다. 재래의 승단(僧團) 중심의 교단(敎團)에서 아라한의 이상이 퇴색되어 가자 재가 신자의 새로운 종교적 역할이 요청되었던 것이다. 대승경전 가운데 〈유마경〉은 보살도를 행하는 재가신자의 우월함을 보여주는 한 예이다. 재가신자 유마는 출가한 장로 비구보다 수행의 경지나 실천에 있어 뛰어남을 보여주고 있다. 그러나 대승이 출가와 재가라는 이원적 대립의 입장에 있는 것은 아니다. 오히려 이러한 입장을 초월하여 중생을 구하기 위해서는 승속을 문제삼지 않는다는 특징이 있다. 그것은 생사와 열반을 둘로 보지 않는 대승의 불이(不二) 사상에서 볼 때 당연한 논리라 할 것이다. 범부는 생사에 집착하고 소승의 불자는 열반에 집착하지만, 보살은 생사를 싫어하지도 않고 열반에도 집착하지 않는다는 것이다. 대승의 자비의 논리는 너와 내가 둘이 아니라는 연기법의 자각에서 오는 동체대비(同體大悲)의 마음에 그 바탕을 두고 있다. 자비는 무아 연기의 체험에서 나오는 뜨거운 사랑이며 연민이다. 자(慈, maitri)란 다른 존재에 대한 평등한 사랑을 말하며, 비(悲, karuna)란 동정과 연민을 의미한다. 〈청정도론(淸淨道論)〉에 “비심(悲心)이란 타인의 괴로움에 대해 견디지 못하는 심정”이라고 정의하고 있는 바와 같이 비심은 타인의 고통에 대한 아픔을 같이 느끼고 그 고통을 없애주려는 마음이다. 타인의 고통에 대한 공감과 연민의 정을 유마거사는 “모든 중생이 병들었으므로 나도 아프다”라고 표현하고 있다. 〈현양론顯揚論)〉에는 대승보살이 어떠한 마음 가짐과 태도를 갖아야 할 것인가에 대해 다음과 같이 설하고 있다. 첫째, 보살은 십이분교 (十二分敎)가운데 보살장 (菩薩藏)에 나타나는 광대한 방편을 배우는 구도자이다. 둘째, 보살은 위없는 바른 깨달음을 성취하려는 마음을 일으킨 이로써 깨달음의 마음을 실현하고자 깊은 결의를 다진 큰 뜻을 갖은 자이다. 셋째, 보살은 그가 수행해야 할 대승의 진리가 무엇인가를 훌륭히 이해하는 자이다. 넷째, 보살은 불안이나 절망 등의 마음을 벗어나 희망과 환희(歡喜)와 자신에 넘치는 맑고 밝은 마음을 지닌 자이다. 다섯째, 보살은 지혜와 복덕을 성취해 나가는 자이다. 여섯째, 보살은 오랜 세월에 거친 수도 끝에 자신의 이상을 이루는 존재이다. 일곱째, 보살은 그리하여 위없는 온전한 깨달음 (無上正等覺, anuttarasamyaksambodhi)을 원만히 성취하는 존재이다. 이와 같이 보살은 오묘(奧妙)하고 광대(廣大)한 대승의 진리(眞理)를 깨닫고 그대로 행하는 대승불교의 이상적 인간상인 것이다. 대승보살의 이상은 다음의 ‘네 가지 큰 서원’으로 요약된다. ① 가없는 중생을 기어이 건지리라(衆生無邊誓願度), ② 끊없는 번뇌를 기어이 끊으리라(煩惱無盡誓願斷), ③ 한없는 법문을 기어이 배우리라(法門無量誓願學), ④ 위없는 불도를 기어이 이루리라(佛道無上誓願成). 여기에서 주목해야 하는 것은 자신이 불도(佛道)를 성취하여 부처가 되는 일보다 중생(衆生)을 구제하겠다는 서원(誓願)이 먼저 있다는 사실이다. 동국대 불교학과

Bodhisattva - Wikipedia



Bodhisattva - Wikipedia
Bodhisattva
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This article is about Buddhism. For the 2010 film, see Bodhisattva (film). For the song by Steely Dan, see Countdown to Ecstasy.
Translations of
Bodhisattva
English Bodhisattva
Pali बोधिसत्त
Sanskrit बोधिसत्त्व
Bengali বোধিসত্ত্ব
Burmese ဗောဓိသတ်
(IPA: [bɔ́dḭθaʔ])
Chinese 菩提薩埵(菩薩), 菩提萨埵(菩萨)
(Pinyin: pútísàduǒ (púsà) )
(Wade–Giles: p'u2-sa4)
(Jyutping: pou4 tai4 saat3 do3))
Japanese 菩薩
(rōmaji: bosatsu)
Khmer ពោធិសត្វ
(UNGEGN: Pothisat)
Korean 보살, 菩薩
(RR: bosal)
Mon တြုံလၟောဝ်ကျာ်
([kraoh kəmo caik])
Sinhalese බෝධි සත්ත්ව
Tibetan བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་
(byang chub sems dpa)
Thai โพธิสัตว์
phothisat
Vietnamese Bồ Tát
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In Buddhism, a Bodhisattva (/ˌboʊdiːˈsʌtvə/BOH-dee-SUT-və)[1] is any person who is on the path towards Buddhahood but has not yet attained it.

In the Early Buddhist schools as well as modern Theravada Buddhism, a bodhisattva (Pali: bodhisatta) refers to anyone who has made a resolution to become a Buddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living Buddha that this will be so.[2]

In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generated bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.[3]


Contents
1Early Buddhism and the Nikāya schools
1.1Later Theravāda
2In Mahāyāna Buddhism
2.1Early Mahāyāna
2.2Mature Mahāyāna
2.3Bodhisattva grounds or levels
2.4School doctrines
3Gallery
4See also
5Notes
6References
7External links
Early Buddhism and the Nikāya schools[edit]

Gandharan relief depicting the bodhisatta (future Gautama Buddha) taking a vow at the foot of Dipankara Buddha, Art Institute of Chicago.

Probable early image of a Bodhisattva (Bimaran casket, 50 CE).[4]

Modern depiction of the bodhisatta resolution (praṇidhāna) in front of Dipankara.

Bronze statue of the bodhisatta Avalokiteśvara. Sri Lanka, ca. 750 CE.

In early Buddhism, the term bodhisatta is used in the early texts to refer to Gautama Buddha in his previous lives[5] and as a young man in his current life in the period during which he was working towards his own liberation. During his discourses, to recount his experiences as a young aspirant he regularly uses the phrase "When I was an unenlightened bodhisatta..." The term therefore connotes a being who is "bound for enlightenment", in other words, a person whose aim is to become fully enlightened. In the Pāli canon, the bodhisatta is also described as someone who is still subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement, and delusion. Some of the previous lives of the Buddha as a bodhisattva are featured in the Jataka tales.

According to the Theravāda monk Bhikkhu Bodhi, the bodhisattva path is not taught in the earliest strata of Buddhist texts such as the Pali Nikayas(and their counterparts such as the Chinese Āgamas) which instead focus on the ideal of the Arahant.[6]

The oldest known story about how Gautama Buddha becomes a bodhisattva is the story of his encounter with the previous Buddha, Dīpankara. During this encounter, a previous incarnation of Gautama, variously named Sumedha, Megha, or Sumati offers five blue lotuses and spreads out his hair or entire body for Dīpankara to walk on, resolving to one day become a Buddha. Dīpankara then confirms that they will attain Buddhahood.[2]Early Buddhist authors saw this story as indicating that the making of a resolution (abhinīhāra) in the presence of a living Buddha and his prediction/confirmation of one's future Buddhahood was necessary to become a bodhisattva. According to Drewes, "all known models of the path to Buddhahood developed from this basic understanding."[2]

The path is explained differently by the various Nikaya schools. In the Theravāda Buddhavaṃsa (1st-2nd century BCE), after receiving the prediction, Gautama took four asaṃkheyyas (‘incalculable aeons’) and a hundred thousand, shorter kalpas (aeons) to reach Buddhahood.[2]

The Sarvāstivāda school had similar models about how the Buddha Gautama became a bodhisattva. They held it took him three asaṃkhyeyas and ninety one kalpas (aeons) to become a Buddha after his resolution (praṇidhāna) in front of a past Buddha. During the first asaṃkhyeya he is said to have encountered and served 75,000 Buddhas, and 76,000 in the second, after which he received his first prediction (vyākaraṇa) of future Buddhahood from Dīpankara, meaning that he could no longer fall back from the path to Buddhahood.[2] Thus, the presence of a living Buddha is also necessary for Sarvāstivāda. The Mahāvibhāṣā explains that its discussion of the bodhisattva path is partly meant to “stop those who are in fact not bodhisattvas from giving rise to the self-conceit that they are.”[2]

The Mahāvastu of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādinspresents four stages of the bodhisattva path without giving specific time frames (though its said to take various asaṃkhyeya kalpas):[2]
Natural (prakṛti), one first plants the roots of merit in front of a Buddha to attain Buddhahood.
Resolution (praṇidhāna), one makes their first resolution to attain Buddhahood in the presence of a Buddha.
Continuing (anuloma), one continues to practice until one meets a Buddha who confirms one's future Buddhahood.
Irreversible (anivartana), at this stage, one cannot fall back.
Later Theravāda[edit]

The Sri Lankan commentator Dhammapala in his commentary on the Cariyāpiṭaka, a text which focuses on the bodhisatta path, notes that to become a bodhisatta one must make a valid resolution in front of a living Buddha, which confirms that one is “irreversible” (anivattana) from the attainment of Buddhahood. The Nidānakathā, as well as the Buddhavaṃsa and Cariyāpiṭaka commentaries makes this explicit by stating that one cannot use a substitute (such as a Bodhi tree, Buddha statue or Stupa) for the presence of a living Buddha, since only a Buddha has the knowledge for making a reliable prediction. This is the generally accepted view maintained in orthodox Theravada today.[2] The idea is that any resolution to attain Buddhahood may easily be forgotten or abandoned during the aeons ahead. The Burmese monk Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) explains that though it is easy to make vows for future Buddhahood by oneself, it is very difficult to maintain the necessary conduct and views during periods when the Dharma has disappeared from the world. One will easily fall back during such periods and this is why one is not truly a full bodhisatta until one receives recognition from a living Buddha.[2]

Because of this, it was and remains a common practice in Theravada to attempt to establish the necessary conditions to meet the future Buddha Maitreya and thus receive a prediction from him. Medieval Theravada literature and inscriptions report the aspirations of monks, kings and ministers to meet Maitreya for this purpose. Modern figures such as Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933), and U Nu (1907–1995) both sought to receive a prediction from a Buddha in the future and believed meritorious actions done for the good of Buddhism would help in their endeavor to become bodhisattas in the future.[2]

Over time the term came to be applied to other figures besides Gautama Buddha in Theravada lands, possibly due to the influence of Mahayana. The Theravada Abhayagiritradition of Sri Lanka practiced Mahayana Buddhism and was very influential until the 12th century.[7] Kings of Sri Lanka were often described as bodhisattvas, starting at least as early as Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247-249), who was renowned for his compassion, took vows for the welfare of the citizens, and was regarded as a mahāsatta (Sanskrit mahāsattva), an epithet used almost exclusively in Mahayana Buddhism.[8] Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattvas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with the practice of the Ten Pāramitās.[9] In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives.[2]

Theravadin bhikkhu and scholar Walpola Rahula stated that the bodhisattva ideal has traditionally been held to be higher than the state of a śrāvaka not only in Mahayana but also in Theravada Buddhism. He also quotes the 10th century king of Sri Lanka, Mahinda IV (956-972 CE), who had the words inscribed "none but the bodhisattvas will become kings of a prosperous Lanka," among other examples.[10]


But the fact is that both the Theravada and the Mahayana unanimously accept the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest...Although the Theravada holds that anybody can be a Bodhisattva, it does not stipulate or insist that all must be Bodhisattva which is considered not practical.
— Walpola Rahula, Bodhisattva Ideal in Buddhism[11]

Jeffrey Samuels echoes this perspective, noting that while in Mahayana Buddhism the bodhisattva path is held to be universal and for everyone, in Theravada it is "reserved for and appropriated by certain exceptional people."[12] Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in Thailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.[13]
In Mahāyāna Buddhism[edit]

Wood carving of Avalokiteśvara. Liao China, 907-1125

Mural of Padmapani in Ajanta Caves. India, 5th century

Clay sculpture of a bodhisattva. Afghanistan, 7th century
Early Mahāyāna[edit]

Twenty-five Bodhisattvas Descending from Heaven. Japanese painting, c. 1300

Mahāyāna Buddhism (often also called Bodhisattvayāna, or the "Bodhisattva Vehicle") is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva.[14] This path was seen as nobler than becoming an arhat or a solitary Buddha. According to David Drewes, "Mahayana sutras unanimously depict the path beginning with the first arising of the thought of becoming a Buddha (prathamacittotpāda), or the initial arising of bodhicitta, typically aeons before one first receives a Buddha’s prediction, and apply the term bodhisattva from this point."[2]

The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, one of the earliest known Mahayana texts, contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva, which is also the earliest known Mahāyāna definition.[15][16] This definition is given as the following:[17]


Because he has bodhi as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called.

The Aṣṭasāhasrikā, also divides the path into three stages. The first stage is that of bodhisattvas who “first set out in the vehicle” (prathamayānasaṃprasthita), then there is the “irreversible” (avinivartanīya) stage, and finally the third “bound by one more birth” (ekajātipratibaddha), as in, destined to become a Buddha in the next life.[2]Drewes also notes that:


When Mahāyāna sūtras present stories of Buddhas and bodhisattvas’ first arising of the thought of attaining Buddhahood, they invariably depict it as taking place in the presence of a Buddha, suggesting that they shared with all known nikāya traditions the understanding that this is a necessary condition for entering the path. In addition, though this key fact is often obscured in scholarship, they apparently never encourage anyone to become a bodhisattva or present any ritual or other means of doing so. Like nikāya texts, they also regard the status of new or recent bodhisattvas as largely meaningless. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā, for instance, states that as many bodhisattvas as there grains of sand in the Ganges turn back from the pursuit of Buddhahood and that out of innumerable beings who give rise to bodhicitta and progress toward Buddhahood, only one or two will reach the point of becoming irreversible.[2]

Drewes also adds that early texts like the Aṣṭasāhasrikā treat bodhisattvas who are beginners (ādikarmika) or "not long set out in the [great] vehicle" with scorn, describing them as "blind", "unintelligent", "lazy" and "weak". Early Mahayana works identify them with those who reject Mahayana or who abandon Mahayana, and they are seen as likely to become śrāvakas (those on the arhat path). Rather than encouraging them to become bodhisattvas, what early Mahayana sutras like the Aṣṭa do is to help individuals determine if they have already received a prediction in a past life, or if they are close to this point.[2]The Aṣṭa provides a variety of methods, including forms of ritual or divination, methods dealing with dreams and various tests, especially tests based on one's reaction to the hearing of the content in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā itself. The text states that encountering and accepting its teachings mean one is close to being given a prediction and that if one does not "shrink back, cower or despair" from the text, but "firmly believes it", one is irreversible. Many other Mahayana sutras such as the Akṣobhyavyūha and the Śūraṃgamasamādhi Sūtra present textual approaches to determine one's status as an advanced bodhisattva. These mainly consist in one's attitude towards listening to, believing, preaching, proclaiming, copying or memorizing and reciting the sutra.[2] According to Drewes, this claim that merely having faith in Mahāyāna sūtras meant that one was an advanced bodhisattva, was a departure from previous Nikaya views about bodhisattvas. It created new groups of Buddhists who accepted each other's bodhisattva status.[2]

Some of early depictions of the Bodhisattva path in texts such as the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtradescribe it as an arduous, difficult monastic path suited only for the few which is nevertheless the most glorious path one can take. Three kinds of Bodhisattvas are mentioned: the forest, city, and monastery Bodhisattvas - with forest dwelling being promoted a superior, even necessary path in sutras such as the Ugraparipṛcchā and the Samadhiraja sutras.[18] The early Rastrapalapariprccha sutra also promotes a solitary life of meditation in the forests, far away from the distractions of the householder life. The Rastrapala is also highly critical of monks living in monasteries and in cities who are seen as not practicing meditation and morality.[19] The Ratnagunasamcayagatha also says the Bodhisattva should undertake ascetic practices (dhutanga), "wander freely without a home", practice the paramitas and train under a guru in order to perfect his meditation practice and realization of prajñaparamita.[20] Some scholars have used these texts to argue for "the forest hypothesis", the theory that the initial Bodhisattva ideal was associated with a strict forest asceticism. But other scholars point out that many other Mahayana sutras do not promote this ideal, focusing on sutra based practices.[21]

Some Mahayana sutras promoted another revolutionary doctrinal turn, claiming that the three vehicles of the Śrāvakayāna, Pratyekabuddhayāna and the Bodhisattvayāna where really just one vehicle (ekayana). This is most famously promoted in the Lotus Sūtra which claims that the very idea of three separate vehicles is just an upaya, a skillful device invented by the Buddha to get beings of various abilities on the path. But ultimately, it will be revealed to them that there is only one vehicle, the ekayana, which ends in Buddhahood.
Mature Mahāyāna[edit]

Over time, Mahayana Buddhists developed mature systematized doctrines about the bodhisattva path. The authors of the various Madhyamaka shastras (treatises) often presented the view of the ekayana. The texts and sutras associated with the Yogacaraschool developed a different theory of three separate gotras or lineages, that inherently predisposed a person to either the vehicle of the arhat, pratyekabuddha or samyak-saṃbuddha (fully self awakened one).[21] However, the term was also used in a broader sense. According to the eight century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra, the term "bodhisattva" can refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards bodhi (awakening). Therefore, the specific term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a mahāsattva (great being) bodhisattva.[22] According to Atiśa's 11th century Bodhipathapradīpa, the central defining feature of a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is the universal aspiration to end suffering for all sentient beings, which is termed bodhicitta (the heart set on awakening).[23] Later Sanskrit Mahayana Buddhists also developed specific rituals and devotional acts for the arising of this absolutely central quality of bodhicitta, such as the "seven part worship" (Saptāṇgapūjā or Saptavidhā Anuttarapūjā). This ritual form is visible in the works of Shantideva (8th century) and includes:[24]
Vandana (obeisance, bowing down)
Puja (worship of the Buddhas)
Sarana-gamana (going for refuge)
Papadesana (confession of bad deeds)
Punyanumodana (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and others)
Adhyesana (prayer, entreaty) and yacana (supplication) - request to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma
Atmabhavadi-parityagah (surrender)

Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism follows this model and encourages everyone to give rise to bodhicitta and ceremonially take bodhisattva vows. With these vows, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings by practicing the transcendent virtues or paramitas.[25]

Related to the different views on the different types of yanas or vehicles is the question of a bodhisattva's relationship to nirvāṇa. In the various Mahāyāna texts, two theories can be discerned. One view is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained (at which point one ceases to be reborn, which is the classical view of nirvāṇa). This view is promoted in some sutras like the Pañcavimsatisahasrika-prajñaparamita-sutra.[26] The second theory is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called apratiṣṭhita (non-abiding) that allows a Buddha to remain engaged in the world. This doctrine developed in Yogacara. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature, therefore while earlier sutras may sometimes speak of "postponement", later texts saw no need to postpone the "superior" apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa.[26]

In this Yogacara model, the bodhisattva definitely rejects and avoids the liberation of the śravaka and pratyekabuddha, described in Mahāyāna literature as either inferior or "Hina" (as in Asaṅga's fourth century Yogācārabhūmi) or as ultimately false or illusory (as in the Lotus Sūtra).[27] That a bodhisattva has the option to pursue such a lesser path, but instead chooses the long path towards Buddhahood is one of the five criteria for one to be considered a bodhisattva. The other four are: being human, being a man, making a vow to become a Buddha in the presence of a previous Buddha, and receiving a prophecy from that Buddha.

Over time, a more varied analysis of bodhisattva careers developed focused on one's motivation. This can be seen in the Tibetan Buddhist teaching on three types of motivation for generating bodhicitta. According to Patrul Rinpoche's 19th century Words of My Perfect Teacher (Kun bzang bla ma'i gzhal lung), a bodhisattva might be motivated in one of three ways. They are:
King-like bodhicitta - To aspire to become a Buddha first in order to then help sentient beings.
Boatman-like bodhicitta - To aspire to become a Buddha at the same time as other sentient beings.
Shepherd-like bodhicitta - To aspire to become a Buddha only after all other sentient beings have done so.

These three are not types of people, but rather types of motivation. According to Patrul Rinpoche, the third quality of intention is most noble though the mode by which Buddhahood actually occurs is the first; that is, it is only possible to teach others the path to enlightenment once one has attained enlightenment oneself.[28] The ritualized formulation of the bodhisattva vow also reflects this order (becoming a buddha so that one can then teach others to do the same). A bodhisattva vow ritual text attributed to Nāgārjuna, of the second-third century CE, states the vow as follows: "Just as the past tathāgata arhat samyaksambuddhas, when engaging in the behavior of a bodhisattva, generated the aspiration to unsurpassed complete enlightenment so that all beings be liberated, all beings be freed, all beings be relieved, all beings attain complete nirvana, all beings be placed in omniscient wisdom, in the same way, I whose name is so-and-so, from this time forward, generate the aspiration to unsurpassed complete enlightenment so that all beings be liberated, all beings be freed, all beings be relieved, all beings attain complete nirvana, all beings be placed in omniscient wisdom."[29]

The six perfections that constitute bodhisattva practice should not be confused with the actual acts of benefiting beings that the bodhisattva vows to accomplish once he or she is a buddha. The six perfections are a mental transformation and need not actually benefit anyone. This is seen in the story of Vessantara, an incarnation of Śākyamuni Buddha while he was still a bodhisattva, who commits the ultimate act of generosity by giving away his children to an evil man who mistreats them. Vessantara's generous act causes indirect harm, however, the merit from the perfection of his generosity fructifies when he attains complete enlightenment as Śākyamuni Buddha.[30]
Bodhisattva grounds or levels[edit]

According to many traditions within Mahāyāna Buddhism, on the way to becoming a Buddha, a bodhisattva proceeds through ten, or sometimes fourteen, grounds or bhūmis.Below is the list of the ten bhūmis and their descriptions according to the Avataṃsaka Sūtra and The Jewel Ornament of Liberation, a treatise by Gampopa, an influential teacher of the Tibetan Kagyu school. (Other schools give slightly variant descriptions.)

Before a bodhisattva arrives at the first ground, he or she first must travel the first two of five paths:
the path of accumulation
the path of preparation

The ten grounds of the bodhisattva then can be grouped into the next three paths
bhūmi 1 the path of insight
bhūmis 2-7 the path of meditation
bhūmis 8-10 the path of no more learning

The chapter of ten grounds in the Avataṃsaka Sūtra refers to 52 stages. The 10 grounds are:
Great Joy: It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for all sentient beings, one achieves great joy, hence the name. In this bhūmi the bodhisattvas practice all perfections (pāramitās), but especially emphasizing generosity (dāna).
Stainless: In accomplishing the second bhūmi, the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, this bhūmi is named "stainless". The emphasized perfection is moral discipline (śīla).
Luminous: The light of Dharma is said to radiate for others from the bodhisattva who accomplishes the third bhūmi. The emphasized perfection is patience (kṣānti).
Radiant: This bhūmi it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment. The emphasized perfection is vigor (vīrya).
Very difficult to train: Bodhisattvas who attain this ground strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do. The emphasized perfection is meditative concentration (dhyāna).
Obviously Transcendent: By depending on the perfection of wisdom, [the bodhisattva] does not abide in either saṃsāra or nirvāṇa, so this state is "obviously transcendent". The emphasized perfection is wisdom (prajñā).
Gone afar: Particular emphasis is on the perfection of skillful means (upāya), to help others.
Immovable: The emphasized virtue is aspiration. This "immovable" bhūmi is where one becomes able to choose his place of rebirth.
Good Discriminating Wisdom: The emphasized virtue is the understanding of self and non-self.
Cloud of Dharma: The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom.

After the ten bhūmis, according to Mahāyāna Buddhism, one attains complete enlightenment and becomes a Buddha.

With the 52 stages, the Śūraṅgama Sūtra recognizes 57 stages. With the 10 grounds, various Vajrayāna schools recognize 3–10 additional grounds, mostly 6 more grounds with variant descriptions.[31][32]

A bodhisattva above the 7th ground is called a mahāsattva. Some bodhisattvas such as Samantabhadra are also said to have already attained buddhahood.[33]
School doctrines[edit]

Some sutras said a beginner would take 3–22 countless eons (mahāsaṃkhyeya kalpas) to become a buddha.[34][35][36] Pure Land Buddhism suggests buddhists go to the pure landsto practice as bodhisattvas. Tiantai, Huayan, Zen and Vajrayāna schools say they teach ways to attain buddhahood within one karmic cycle.[37][38]

Various traditions within Buddhism believe in specific bodhisattvas. Some bodhisattvas appear across traditions, but due to language barriers may be seen as separate entities. For example, Tibetan Buddhists believe in various forms of Chenrezig, who is Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, Guanyin in China, Gwan-eum in Korea, Quan Am in Vietnam, and Kannon in Japan. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas to be an emanation of Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion.

Kṣitigarbha is another popular bodhisattva in Japan and China. He is known for aiding those who are lost. His greatest compassionate vow is:


If I do not go to the hell to help the suffering beings there, who else will go? ... if the hells are not empty I will not become a Buddha. Only when all living beings have been saved, will I attain Bodhi.

The place of a bodhisattva's earthly deeds, such as the achievement of enlightenment or the acts of Dharma, is known as a bodhimaṇḍa, and may be a site of pilgrimage. Many temples and monasteries are famous as bodhimaṇḍas. Perhaps the most famous bodhimaṇḍa of all is the Bodhi Tree under which Śākyamuṇi achieved buddhahood. In the tradition of Chinese Buddhism, there are four mountains that are regarded as bodhimaṇḍas for bodhisattvas, with each site having major monasteries and being popular for pilgrimages by both monastics and laypeople. These four bodhimandas are:
Mount Putuo: Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva
Mount Emei: Samantabhadra Bodhisattva
Mount Wutai: Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva
Mount Jiuhua: Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva

4 Great Bodhisattvas (in Chinese Buddhism)

四大菩薩. (菩薩 is short for菩提薩埵)

In this order: Compassion, Wisdom, Vow and Practice.

悲 智 願 行

1, Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva 觀世音 菩薩 short: 觀音 菩薩

Stands for Great Compassion.

2, Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊師利 菩薩 short: 文殊 菩薩

Stands for Great Wisdom.

3, Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva 地藏 菩薩

Stands for Great Vow.

4, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普賢 菩薩

Stands for Great Practice.
Gallery[edit]



Standing bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd-3rd century.



Standing bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd-3rd century.



Gathering of bodhisattvas. China, 6th century.



Mural of bodhisattvas. China, Tang Dynasty, 7th-9th century.



Boddhisattva Vajrapani. Mendut near Borobudur, Central Java, Indonesia. Sailendran art c. 8th century.



A bronze boddhisattva Maitreya. Komering, Palembang, Indonesia. Srivijayan art c. 9th-10th century.



ĀkāśagarbhaBodhisattva. Japan, 9th century.



Mural of a bodhisattva. China, 10th century.



9th century CE Srivijayan art, Chaiya, Surat Thani, Southern Thailand.



Seated Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Guanyin), wood and pigment, 11th century, Chinese Northern Song dynasty, St. Louis Art Museum.



AvalokiteśvaraBodhisattva. India, 11th-12th century.



Gold coated bronze statue of Avalokitesvara in Malayu-Srivijayanstyle c. 11th century, Jambi, Sumatra, Indonesia.



MahāsthāmaprāptaBodhisattva. China, 13th century.



Youthful MañjuśrīBodhisattva silver statue. Java, 9th century Indonesia.



Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva crossing the sea. Japan, 14th century.



Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva. Japan, 15th century.



SamantabhadraBodhisattva. Japan.



Maitreya Bodhisattva. Thiksey Monastery, Ladakh, India.



"Standing Bodhisattva" (pre-1234). Brooklyn Museum, New York City.



Daizuigu MahapratisaraBodhisattva. Guimet Museum.



Shrine with an Image of a Bodhisattva. Brooklyn Museum.
See also[edit]
Bodhicharyavatara (A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life)
Bodhisattvas of the Earth
Bodhisattva vows
Buddhist holidays
Karuna (compassion in Sanskrit)
List of bodhisattvas
Vegetarianism in Buddhism
Notes[edit]

^ "Bodhisattva". Collins English Dictionary.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Drewes, David, Mahāyāna Sūtras and Opening of the Bodhisattva Path, Paper presented at the XVIII the IABS Congress, Toronto 2017, Updated 2019.

^ The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, page 1, Tharpa Publications(2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
^ "The crossroads of Asia", edited by Ellizabeth Errington and Joe Cribb, The ancient India and Iran Trust, 1992, ISBN 0951839918, p.189-190
^ Basham, A.L. (1981). The evolution of the concept of the bodhisattva. In: Leslie S Kawamura, The Bodhisattva doctrine in Buddhism, Published for the Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion by Wilfred Laurier University Press, p.19
^ "Arahants, Bodhisattvas and Buddhas".
^ Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). "Abhayagiri". Encyclopædia Britannica. I: A-ak Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
^ Holt, John. Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka.1991. p. 59
^ Holt, John. Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka.1991. pp. 59-60
^ Holt, John. Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka.1991. p. 60
^ Rahula, Walpola. "Bodhisattva Ideal in Buddhism (from Gems of Buddhist Wisdom)". Buddhist Missionary Society, 1996.
^ Samuels, J. THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN THERAVAADA, BUDDHIST THEORY AND PRACTICE: A REEVALUATION OF THE BODHISATTVA-`SRAAVAKA OPPOSITION; Philosophy East and West Volume 47, Number 3 July 1997 P.399-415 (C) by University of Hawai'i Press
^ Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Taylor & Francis, 1989, page 328.
^ Nattier, Jan (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 174
^ Mall, Linnart. Studies in the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita and Other Essays. Motilal Banarsidass. 2005. pp. 53-54.
^ Hirakawa, Akira. A history of Indian Buddhism: from Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna. Motilal Banarsidass. 2007. p. 297.
^ Conze, Edward. The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary. Grey Fox Press. 2001. p. 89.
^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist saints in India, page 252.
^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist saints in India, page 265.
^ Ray, Reginald. Buddhist saints in India, page 255.
^ Jump up to:a b Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, Religion Compass 4/2 (2010): 66–74, 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x
^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 55.
^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 195-196.
^ Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1999, p. 54.
^ The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, pages 4-12, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
^ Jump up to:a b Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, pp. 59-60.
^ "bodhisattva" In The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 135.
^ Words of My Perfect Teacher: A Complete Translation of A Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Translated by The Padmakara Translation Group. (Walnut Creek: Altamira, 1994), 218.
^ Nagārjuna. Byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga (Bodhicittotpadaviddhi, Ritual for Generating the Intention for Supreme Buddhahood). Toh. 3966 Tengyur, mdo, gi. (sems can thams cad bsgral ba dang/ sems can thams cad dgrol ba dang/ sems can thams cad dbugs dbyung ba dang/ sems can thams cad yongs su mya ngan las 'da' ba dang/ sems can thams cad thams cad mkhyen pa'i ye shes la dgod pa'i slad du ci ltar bla na med pa yang dag par rdzogs pa'i byang chub tu thugs bskyed pa de bzhin du bdag ming 'di zhes bgyi ba yang dus 'di nas bzung)
^ "Vessantara" In The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013), 965.
^ "ԲϢ - Ŀ ļ". Archived from the original on 8 September 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ 鄔金旺度. "吉祥鄔金密嚴寺". Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ 459 因地菩薩和果地菩薩
^ 三大阿僧祇劫 Archived November 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
^ 成佛的目的是到每一個世界去度眾生. Archived April 11, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
^ 即身成就與三大阿僧祇劫之修行 Archived May 26, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
^ "顯教與密教". Retrieved 21 August 2015.
^ 「無諍之辯」導讀
References[edit]

Analayo, The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal, Hamburg Buddhist Studies 1, Hamburg University Press 2010
Gampopa; The Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Snow Lion Publications; ISBN 1-55939-092-1
White, Kenneth R.; The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment: Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo; The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005; ISBN 0-7734-5985-5
Lampert, K.; Traditions of Compassion: From Religious Duty to Social Activism. Palgrave-Macmillan; ISBN 1-4039-8527-8
Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0
Shantideva: Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life: How to Enjoy a Life of Great Meaning and Altruism, a translation of Shantideva's Bodhisattvacharyavatara with Neil Elliott, Tharpa Publications (2002) ISBN 978-0-948006-88-3
The Making of a Savior Bodhisattva: Dizang in Medieval China, by Zhiru (Kuroda Institute Studies in East Asian Buddhism series no. 21), University of Hawaii Press, 2007; ISBN 978-0-8248-3045-8 at Google Books
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bodhisattva.

The Ethical Discipline of Bodhisattvas, by Geshe Sonam Rinchen (Tibetan Gelug Tradition)
Bodhisattva, probably Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin), Northern Qi dynasty, c. 550--60, video, Smarthistory.
The 37 Practices of Bodhisattvas online with commentaries.
The Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattvas, all-in-one page with memory aids & collection of different versions.
Audio recitation of 'The 37 Practices of Bodhisattvas' in MP3 format (Paul & Lee voices).
What A Bodhisattva Does: Thirty-Seven Practices by Ngulchu Thogme with slide show format.
Access to Insight Library: Bodhi's Wheel409
Arahants, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas by Bhikkhu Bodhi
The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Theory and Practice by Jeffrey Samuels
Online exhibition analyzing a Korean Bodhisattva sculpture
Buddhanet.net Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva
Sacred visions : early paintings from central Tibet, fully digitized text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries