TAOISM AND SAGES, HERMITS AND SEX | Facts and Details

TAOISM AND SAGES, HERMITS AND SEX | Facts and Details



TAOISM AND SAGES, HERMITS AND SEX

1. HERMITS AND TAOIST ASCETICS
2. Dao De Jing: on the Person of the Sage
3. Hermits and Chinese Religion
4. Hermits and Early Taoism
5. Analects on Taoist Hermits
6. Zhongnan Mountain Hermits
7. New Breed of Taoist Mountain Hermits
8. Attraction of the Hermit Lifestyle and Zhongnan Mountain
9. Taoist Hermit at Zhongnan Mountain
10. Taoism, Sexuality and Love
11. Yin and Yang, Sexuality, Health and Love
12. Taoist Sexual Training
13. Taoist Sexual Training Techniques

1] HERMITS AND TAOIST ASCETICS








Laozi

Taoism has traditionally extolled those who lived like recluses and communed alone with nature. Sennin were Taoist mountain ascetics who lived in caves. Through rigorous training and frugal living, it was said, they obtained full understanding of the Tao, achieved immortality and were able to call up the wind and move between heaven and earth. The tradition lives on in Japan in the Yamabushi cult. Taoist texts did not have much nice to say about those who challenged nature. One line from the Tao Te Ching reads: "Those who would take over the earth and shape it to their will, never, I notice, succeed."

Taoist mountain hermits are called “xian." According to the Encyclopedia of Religion: Usually written using the characters for "man" and for "mountain," the character for xian is said originally to have been composed of those for "man" and for "ascend." An early dictionary explains that it refers to those who, "when they grow old, do not die." Xian means "to move into the mountains"; that is why it is written with the character for "man" next to that for "mountain." Together, these etymologies circumscribe a field of meaning that links the search for survival beyond death to mountains and to the heavens—a range that quite accurately reflects both the practice and the status of xian throughout Chinese history. It also explains why the term is translated in English either as "immortal" or "transcendent."

Xian has been translated to mean both “hermit” and immortal: In an article entitled “Transcendence and Immortality”, Russell Kirkland wrote: A common problem involves the term xian, commonly mistranslated as "immortal." Both in China and beyond, this term has widely been regarded as a key feature of "Taoism" as it developed in imperial times. In the early and mid-20th century, leading scholars (e.g., Henri Maspero and H. G. Creel) argued over whether the ancient writers of Laozi and Zhuangzi envisioned such attainment of a deathless state. Some argued that the classical Taoists only sought a more spiritualized life and an unworried acceptance of inevitable death. The 4th-century text Liezi, which borrowed much from the Zhuangzi, seems to insist upon the finality of death, with no indication that one can transcend it. Certainly, many passages of Laozi and Zhuangzi suggest that one's goal should be to live a spiritualized life until death occurs, but others (e.g., Laozi 50) clearly commend learning how to prevent death. The term xian occurs in neither the Laozi nor the Neiye, and in Zhuangzi it does not appear among his many terms for the idealized person ( zhenren, etc.). But in Zhuangzi, a wise border guard tells Yao that the "sage" ( shengren) "after a thousand years departs and ascends as a xian," and in Zhuangzi 1 a character is ridiculed for doubting the reality of the invulnerable "spiritual person" ( shenren) of Mt. Gushe, who ascends on dragons and extends protection and blessings to people. These passages are quite consistent with most later images of the xian, and suggest that such a state is both theoretically possible and a worthy goal. [Source: “Transcendence and Immortality”, Russell Kirkland, February 15, 1998]

Writings of Han times (Kaltenmark 1953) mention xian as denizens of distant realms, often winged beings who can fly between earth and higher worlds. Sima Qian (“Shiji” 28.1368-69), mentions men of Yan who "practiced the Way of expansive Transcendence ( fangxian tao): they shed their mortal forms and melted away, relying upon matters involving spiritual beings ( gueishen)." Though such images are quite vague, they provided fuel for centuries of religious and literary elaboration, both Taoist and non-Taoist. For instance, in literature from Han to Tang times, the goddess Xiwangmu "controlled access to immortality," but while poets wove bittersweet images of "immortality" as an unattainable beatitude (Cahill 1993), Taoist writers firmly believed that one can transcend "the human condition" if one can only learn the subtle secrets and practice them diligently enough.

Good Websites and Sources on Taoism: Robert Eno, Indiana University indiana.edu; Religion Facts Religion Facts Religious Tolerance religioustolerance.org ; Stanford Education plato.stanford.edu ; Taoist Texts Chinese Text Project ; Taoism chebucto.ns.ca ; Chad Hansen's Chinese Philisophy hku.hk/philodep

Good Websites and Sources on Religion in China: Chinese Government White Paper on Religion china-embassy.org ; United States Commission on International Religious Freedom uscirf.gov/countries/china; Articles on Religion in China forum18.org ; Wikipedia article Wikipedia ; Council of Foreign Relations cfr.org ; Brooklyn College brooklyn.cuny.edu ; Religion Facts religionfacts.com; Religious Tolerance religioustolerance.org ; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy stanford.edu ; Academic Info academicinfo.net ; Internet Guide to Chinese Studies sino.uni-heidelberg.de

RELATED ARTICLES IN THIS WEBSITE:TAOISM factsanddetails.com; RELIGION IN CHINA factsanddetails.com; CONFUCIANISM factsanddetails.com; CLASSICAL CHINESE PHILOSOPHY factsanddetails.com; BUDDHISM IN CHINA factsanddetails.com; FOLK RELIGION, SUPERSTITION, FUNERALS factsanddetails.com; TAOISM factsanddetails.com; HISTORY OF TAOISM factsanddetails.com; TAOIST BELIEFS, PRACTICES AND DIETIES factsanddetails.com; ZHUANGZI factsanddetails.com; PASSAGES AND STORIES FROM THE ZHUANGZI factsanddetails.com; JIXIA AND THE NATURALIST SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN CLASSICAL CHINA factsanddetails.com; RELIGIOUS TAOISM, TEMPLES AND ART factsanddetails.com; TAOISM, IMMORTALITY AND ALCHEMY factsanddetails.com; TAO TE CHING: CHAPTERS 1 TO 40 factsanddetails.com; TAO TE CHING: CHAPTERS 41 TO 81 factsanddetails.com; GUANZI, QI AND INNER ENTERPRISE factsanddetails.com


2] Dao De Jing: on the Person of the Sage



According to the Dao de jing: “Heaven endures; earth long abides. Heaven endures and earth long abides because they do not give birth to themselves. Hence they are long lived. Hence the sage places his person last, and it comes first; he treats it as something external to him and it endures. Does he not employ selflessness? Hence he attains his self-regarding ends. (ch. 7) [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana University indiana.edu /+/ ]

“As you carry your bodily soul embracing one.ness, can you never depart from it? As you concentrate your qi and extend your suppleness, can you be as a new born babe? As you polish the dust from your mysterious mirror, can you render it free of all blemishes? As you cherish the people and order the state, can you do so without awareness? As heaven's gate swings open and shut can you keep to the female? As your brilliant awareness penetrates everywhere can you refrain from employing it in action? You give birth to it, you nurture it – yet in giving birth you do not possess it, in doing it you do not retain it, in leading it you employ no authority: this is called mysterious power (de). (ch. 10) /+/

“The five colors blind men's eyes, The five tones deafen men's ears, The five flavors numb men's mouths, Racing at a gallop in pursuit of the hunt, maddens men's minds. Rare objects obstruct men's conduct. Therefore the sage is for the belly and not for the eye. Therefore he discards the one and selects the other. (ch. 12) /+/

“Without going out your door, know the world; without looking out the window, know the Dao of Heaven. The further you travel, the less you know. Hence the sage knows without going to it, names it without seeing, does nothing and it is achieved. (ch. 47) /+/

“One who possesses virtue in abundance may be compared to a new born babe. Wasps and scorpions, poisonous snakes: none will bite him. Fierce beasts will not maul him, predatory birds will not swoop down upon him. His bones are weak, his muscles pliable, and his grasp is firm. He knows nothing of the female and the male, yet his male organ stirs. His essence is at its most pure. He can scream all day and not become hoarse. This is harmony at its height. Knowing harmony is called constant;, knowing the constant is called enlightened. To increase one's nature is called inauspicious;, when the mind directs the qi it is called self-coercion. For a thing at its peak to emulate the aged, is called failing to be with the Dao. What fails to be with the Dao soon comes to an end." (ch. 55) [The caution against the mind directing the qi may be contrasted with Mencius's position in the long section on the “flood-like qi."] /+/


3] Hermits and Chinese Religion




Hermits have lived in the mountains since ancient times. There are Taoist and Buddhist ones as well as one ones with closer affiliations to traditional Chinese folk religion. But they are not limited to Taoists or Buddhists. Poets, political figures and average people have also been hermits. [Source: Jiang Yuxia, Global Times, February 17, 2011 <*>]

Hermits are "unique images that ancient Chinese culture has nurtured. [They] represent Chinese people's pursuit of an ideal way of life," the writer Zhou Yu told the Global Times. "Their lifestyle is completely self-supporting, without demanding too much from the outside world...For hermits, to live a secluded life and practice Daoism or Buddhism is not solely about 'benevolence,' but living a real, simple life---What they do is to make their heart bright, clear and natural," explained Zhou, who is also editor of Wendao (Seeking Way), a magazine dedicated to promoting traditional Chinese culture." <*>

AFP reported: "Today's hermits are following a well-beaten historical path, and experts say quiet types have preferred to live alone in the mountains of China for more than 3,000 years. Unlike their Western equivalents, religiously inspired outsiders who often shunned society completely, China's mountain dwellers have historically been sought out by politicians. "Hermits played a political role, they pushed society forward and maintained ancient ideas," said Zhang Jianfeng, part-time mountain dweller and founder of a Taoism magazine. [Source: AFP, December 16, 2014 \=/]

“The officially atheist Communist Party came to power in 1949, cutting the hermits' political connections. Anti-religious campaigns reached fever pitch during the decade of upheaval beginning in 1966 known as the Cultural Revolution, when many of the temples and shrines in the Zhongnan mountains were destroyed and their denizens dispersed. Nonetheless experts estimate several hundred hermits survived the period unscathed deep in the hills, with some even said to be unaware the Communists had taken power. \=/

In recent years, more and more people have become interested in the exclusive life led by the hermits in Zhongnan Mountain, especially following the publication of books such as Road to Heaven: Encounters with Chinese Hermits by American author and translator Bill Porter in 1993.


4] Hermits and Early Taoism




Taoist immortal Dongfang Shuo stealing a peach

Dr. Robert Eno of Indiana University wrote: “Righteous hermits were much admired in Classical China, and men who withdrew from society to live in poverty “in the cliffs and caves” paradoxically often enjoyed a type of celebrity status. The legend of Bo Yi and Shu Qi, the hermits who descended from their mountain retreat because of the righteousness of King Wen of Zhou, led to the popular idea of hermits as virtue-barometers – they rose to the mountains when power was in the hands of immoral rulers, but would come back down to society when a sage king finally appeared. Patrician lords very much valued visits from men with reputations as righteous hermits, and this probably created the opportunity for men to appear at court seeking patronage on the basis of their eremitic purity. [Source: Robert Eno, Indiana University indiana.edu /+/ ]

“Possibly during the fourth century B.C., this eremitic tradition seems to have generated a complex of new ideas that included appreciation for the majestic rhythms of the natural world apart from human society, a celebration of the isolated individual whose lonely stance signaled a unique power of enlightenment, and a growing interest in the potential social and political leverage that such renunciation of social and political entanglements seemed to promise. The product that emerged from these trends is the “Dao de jing”, perhaps the most famous of all Chinese books." /+/

“The “Dao de jing” is a mix of poetry and prose that conveys a deep sense of mystery and awe. In it, two very different types of ideas are combined. The first expresses the anti-social voice of the hermit who has found in his retreat to Nature an order and beauty utterly lacking in the chaotic and sordid world of the late Zhou. The second is a political voice that claims that the lessons learned from a renunciation of the world of human values and an immersion in the world of Nature may be used to obtain the greatest of all human prizes – the kingship of China!, As we read the text, we cannot help but be struck by the awe-inspiring isolation of the secluded hermit and the intimate and original vision of nature that he presents." /+/


5] Analects on Taoist Hermits



Book XVIII of the “Analects” provides in order to get an idea of the role which Daoist hermits played in Warring States society, and the ambivalent attitude of Confucians towards them (you may safely assume that Book XVIII was compiled a century or two after Confucius’ death).

Chapter I. 1. The Viscount of Wei withdrew from the court. The Viscount of Chi became a slave to Chau. Pi-kan remonstrated with him and died. 2. Confucius said, 'The Yin dynasty possessed these three men of virtue.' [Source: ca. 500 B.C., Project Gutenberg, translated by James Legge, 1861]

Chapter II. Hui of Liu-hsia being chief criminal judge, was thrice dismissed from his office. Some one said to him, 'Is it not yet time for you, sir, to leave this?' He replied, 'Serving men in an upright way, where shall I go to, and not experience such a thrice- repeated dismissal? If I choose to serve men in a crooked way, what necessity is there for me to leave the country of my parents?'

Chapter III. The duke Ching of Ch'i, with reference to the manner in which he should treat Confucius, said, 'I cannot treat him as I would the chief of the Chi family. I will treat him in a manner between that accorded to the chief of the Chi, and that given to the chief of the Mang family.' He also said, 'I am old; I cannot use his doctrines.' Confucius took his departure.

Chapter IV. The people of Ch'i sent to Lu a present of female musicians, which Chi Hwan received, and for three days no court was held. Confucius took his departure.

Chapter V. 1. The madman of Ch'u, Chieh-yu, passed by Confucius, singing and saying, 'O FANG! O FANG! How is your virtue degenerated! As to the past, reproof is useless; but the future may still be provided against. Give up your vain pursuit. Give up your vain pursuit. Peril awaits those who now engage in affairs of government.' 2. Confucius alighted and wished to converse with him, but Chieh-yu hastened away, so that he could not talk with him.


ancient version of the Analects from Dunhuang

Chapter VI. 1. Ch'ang-tsu and Chieh-ni were at work in the field together, when Confucius passed by them, and sent Tsze-lu to inquire for the ford. 2. Ch'ang-tsu said, 'Who is he that holds the reins in the carriage there?' Tsze-lu told him, 'It is K'ung Ch'iu.' 'Is it not K'ung Ch'iu of Lu?' asked he. 'Yes,' was the reply, to which the other rejoined, 'He knows the ford.' 3. Tsze-lu then inquired of Chieh-ni, who said to him, 'Who are you, sir?' He answered, 'I am Chung Yu.' 'Are you not the disciple of K'ung Ch'iu of Lu?' asked the other. 'I am,' replied he, and then Chieh-ni said to him, 'Disorder, like a swelling flood, spreads over the whole empire, and who is he that will change its state for you? Than follow one who merely withdraws from this one and that one, had you not better follow those who have withdrawn from the world altogether?' With this he fell to covering up the seed, and proceeded with his work, without stopping. 4. Tsze-lu went and reported their remarks, when the Master observed with a sigh, 'It is impossible to associate with birds and beasts, as if they were the same with us. If I associate not with these people," with mankind," with whom shall I associate? If right principles prevailed through the empire, there would be no use for me to change its state.'

Chapter VII. 1. Tsze-lu, following the Master, happened to fall behind, when he met an old man, carrying across his shoulder on a staff a basket for weeds. Tsze-lu said to him, 'Have you seen my master, sir!' The old man replied, 'Your four limbs are unaccustomed to toil; you cannot distinguish the five kinds of grain:— who is your master?' With this, he planted his staff in the ground, and proceeded to weed. 2. Tsze-lu joined his hands across his breast, and stood before him. 3. The old man kept Tsze-lu to pass the night in his house, killed a fowl, prepared millet, and feasted him. He also introduced to him his two sons. 4. Next day, Tsze-lu went on his way, and reported his adventure. The Master said, 'He is a recluse,' and sent Tsze-lu back to see him again, but when he got to the place, the old man was gone. 5. Tsze-lu then said to the family, 'Not to take office is not righteous. If the relations between old and young may not be neglected, how is it that he sets aside the duties that should be observed between sovereign and minister? Wishing to maintain his personal purity, he allows that great relation to come to confusion. A superior man takes office, and performs the righteous duties belonging to it. As to the failure of right principles to make progress, he is aware of that.'

Chapter VIII. 1. The men who have retired to privacy from the world have been Po-i, Shu-ch'i, Yu-chung, I-yi, Chu-chang, Hui of Liu-hsia, and Shao-lien. 2. The Master said, 'Refusing to surrender their wills, or to submit to any taint in their persons;— such, I think, were Po-i and Shu-ch'i. 3. 'It may be said of Hui of Liu-hsia, and of Shao-lien, that they surrendered their wills, and submitted to taint in their persons, but their words corresponded with reason, and their actions were such as men are anxious to see. This is all that is to be remarked in them. 4. 'It may be said of Yu-chung and I-yi, that, while they hid themselves in their seclusion, they gave a license to their words; but, in their persons, they succeeded in preserving their purity, and, in their retirement, they acted according to the exigency of the times. 5. 'I am different from all these. I have no course for which I am predetermined, and no course against which I am predetermined.'

Chapter IX. 1. The grand music master, Chih, went to Ch'i. 2. Kan, the master of the band at the second meal, went to Ch'u. Liao, the band master at the third meal, went to Ts'ai. Chueh, the band master at the fourth meal, went to Ch'in. 3. Fang-shu, the drum master, withdrew to the north of the river. 4. Wu, the master of the hand drum, withdrew to the Han. 5. Yang, the assistant music master, and Hsiang, master of the musical stone, withdrew to an island in the sea.

Chapter X. The duke of Chau addressed his son, the duke of Lu, saying, 'The virtuous prince does not neglect his relations. He does not cause the great ministers to repine at his not employing them. Without some great cause, he does not dismiss from their offices the members of old families. He does not seek in one man talents for every employment.'

Chapter XI. To Chau belonged the eight officers, Po-ta, Po- kwo, Chung-tu, Chung-hwu, Shu-ya, Shu-hsia, Chi-sui, and Chi-kwa.


6] Zhongnan Mountain Hermits




Zhongnan Mountain Hermit

AFP reported: “His unheated hut is half way up a mountain with no electricity, and his diet consists mostly of cabbage. But Master Hou says he has found a recipe for joy. "There is no happier way for a person to live on this earth," he declared, balancing on a hard wooden stool outside his primitive mud brick dwelling. Hundreds of millions have moved to China's urban areas during a decades-long economic boom, but some are turning their backs on the bright lights and big cities to live as hermits. Their choice puts them in touch with an ancient tradition undergoing a surprising modern-day revival. [Source: AFP, December 16, 2014 \=/]

“Hundreds of small huts dot the jagged peaks of the remote Zhongnan mountains in central China, where followers of Buddhism and local Taoist traditions have for centuries sought to live far from the madding crowds. "The Zhongnan mountains have a special aura," said Hou, who moved to the hills almost a decade ago and wrapped himself in a long black robe, smiling as the wind rustled the surrounding woods. Hou grew up in the bustling coastal city of Zhuhai, next to the gambling Mecca of Macau, but now his days consist almost entirely of meditation, with pauses to chop firewood and vegetables. "Cities are places of restless life. Here is where you can find inner joy," he said. "Now I'm happy to be alone." \=/

“Winter temperatures can drop below minus 20 degrees Celsius and deadly snakes lurk under rocks, but the mountaintops are growing increasingly crowded amid rising dissatisfaction with materialism. Hou -- who looks in his 40s but says Taoists do not reveal their age -- was recently joined by two apprentices. Wang Gaofeng, 26, has a wispier beard than his master, and said he had quit a management-level job in China's vast railway system a year ago. "Watching TV and playing video games are just temporary excitement, like opium. That kind of pleasure is quickly gone," he said, chomping on some freshly boiled cabbage. It is a radically individualistic contrast to the collectivist mantras of past decades. \=/


7] New Breed of Taoist Mountain Hermits



The numbers of mountain hermits have risen since the government relaxed religious controls in the 1980s. "Twenty years ago, there were just a few hundred people living in the Zhongnan mountains. But in the last few years, the number has increased very quickly," Zhang Jianfeng, part-time mountain dweller and founder of a Taoism magazine, told AFP. "Now perhaps there are too many people blindly moving to the mountains. There are incidents every year, people eating poisonous mushrooms, or freezing to death... some people lack common sense." [Source: AFP, December 16, 2014 \=/]


8] Zhongnan Mountain

AFP reported: “Much of the hermit revival can be attributed to American writer Bill Porter, who in the 1993 published the first book about the mountain dwellers. It was a commercial failure in the US, leaving Porter living on government food stamps. But its 2006 Chinese translation became a hit, selling more than 100,000 copies. "In the 1980s no one paid the hermits any attention, because everyone had a chance to make a buck and improve their lives materially," said the shaggy-bearded author. "People thought it absurd to go in the opposite direction." Now he notes more well-educated former professionals among the denizens of what he calls "hermit heaven", and one who did not want to be named told AFP he was a government official on sabbatical. "You get a much wider mix, people who are jaded or disillusioned in the current economy and are seeking something more," said Porter. \=/

“China's decades of breakneck economic growth have created a substantial middle class, but a few of them now openly question materialist values. Around a dozen young people from across China live in a clump of wooden huts which acts as a testing ground for aspiring hermits, albeit outfitted with electricity and a DVD player. \=/

“Liu Jingchong, 38, moved in after quitting a lucrative job in the southern city of Guangzhou this year, and plans to live completely alone. "I felt life was an endless circle: finding a better car, better job, a better girlfriend, but not going anywhere," he said, sitting cross-legged on a cushion. "When I'm alone on the mountain, I will just need shelter, a pot, and seeds from the pine trees." \=/

“More than half the hermits in the range are said to be women, and Li Yunqi, 26, spent several weeks at the cottages. "I like the life of a hermit, living on a mountain. I came here for inner peace and to escape the noise of the city," she said, wearing a puffy pink coat and fiddling with a smartphone as an off-road vehicle carried her down a muddy path to civilisation." \=/


9] Attraction of the Hermit Lifestyle and Zhongnan Mountain




Zhongnan mountain hermit huts

Jiang Yuxia wrote in the Global Times: “Cherishing his reverence and curiosity for Chinese hermits, writer Zhou Yu was eager to change his fast-paced urban life. He thus embarked on a journey, in the spring of 2010, to seek hermits in the legendary Zhongnan Mountain, one of the birthplaces of Taoism, in northwest China's Shaanxi Province. Also known as Taiyi or Difei Mountain, Zhongnan Mountain is a section of the Qinling Mountains with the reputation of "Fairyland," "the first paradise under heaven" and a home to hermits for over 3,000 years. Legend has it that Taoism founder Laozipreached scriptures and nurtured the idea for his classic work Tao the Ching here. [Source: Jiang Yuxia, Global Times, February 17, 2011]

"Everyone wishes that he or she has the chance to get to know about his or her own life again and the lifestyle of hermits provides us another picture. . . When they realize that they need to make adjustments to their lives, they go to the mountains to seek them," Zhou said. However, he added, real hermits don't have to live in mountains. "If you don't have peace and quiet in your heart, you cannot have tranquility even if you live deep in the mountains...Start with the simplest practice: To get to know your needs and desires, and find a proper position for yourself. If you can do that, you can find peace and quiet even if you live in the city."


Taoist Hermit at Zhongnan Mountain



After traveling to Zhongnan Mountain Zhou came across "Hermit Ming," who has resided in a thatched valley cottage for a decade, living an ascetic and self-sufficient life. Although Ming does not meet the typical image of ancient hermits, his unique lifestyle, both traditional and modern, and charisma aroused Zhou's interest enough for him to stay and turn the story of his solitary life into his latest book, Bai Yun Shen Chu (“Deep in the Clouds”). [Source: Jiang Yuxia, Global Times, February 17, 2011 <=>]


Painting of a hermit hut

"Hermit Ming lives in the mountain not only to practice Taoism, but to have a place where he can live a life in which he can face disputes peacefully," Zhou wrote in the book. "Only in this way are his mind and body able to grow like trees and flowers to show their natural side." Ming's daily routine, according to Jiang, consists of: “an early morning start to do chores including hoeing weeds, tilling land and picking herbs; two meals a day, snack and tea at lunchtime, dinner at four; then a walk before settling down to read sutras or do other chores." By sunset he returned home, “falling asleep to the sounds of springs, wind and birds." <=>

“Born into a wealthy South China family of Traditional Chinese Medicine practitioners for generations," Jiang wrote, “Ming was beset with strict rules, complex relationships and feuds among family members from a young age. After witnessing a series of mishaps and the death of his mother at eight, Ming left his family at 17 and began his long-cherished dream of traveling around the country to seek answers to the many questions that had bothered him, including life and death. With only an aluminum mug and two lighters, Ming traveled all the way to Fujian, Guangdong, Jiangxi, Hubei and other provinces before he finally settled down at Zhongnan Mountain." <=>

“In the valley, he built his own cottage with help from other hermits and villagers living at the foot of the mountain, spending time growing vegetables, practicing Taosim and doing his chores. Unlike those secluded hermits recorded in old books, Ming is unconventional: He does not reject the outside world or its civilization. He has a telephone at his place to keep contact with other hermit friends while they travel around and is skilled at riding a motorbike. He has shared quarters with a female hermit for a decade. Ming has explored as far as Nepal to have a look of the outside world and is friendly to unexpected, curious visitors." <=>

According to Ming, "the major reason that we have too many agonies is because we receive too much information and we are not good at dealing with it properly. Then you become unhappy... When you live in the mountain, you have time to think about problems." Ming's lifestyle has also evoked Zhou to ponder modern urban life and even seek a way out. "In our life, most of the time we are asking for things from others to satisfy our endless demands. Hermits, however, are the other way round," Zhou said. “I found the possibility of a [new] lifestyle. When we feel bothered, we begin to examine our lives and ask ourselves if there are chances to change it. To some extend, many hermits in Zhongnan Mountain can be called seekers of a new lifestyle." <=>


10] Taoism, Sexuality and Love



Wang Ping wrote: “In [D]aoist sexual alchemy, human bodies become symbolic furnaces where elixir could be extracted through sexual union between yin and yang. This practice was later turned into cai yin shu, a sheer harvesting of yin from female bodies through intercourse. A man gathered or stole yin from as many women as possible to repair his broken yang until he gained health, longevity, and even immortality." [Source: Wang Ping, Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in China (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), p. 92]


Ming-era erotica

According to the “Encyclopedia of Sexuality”:“Daoism is based essentially on the participation of man in the universal order. This order depends on the equilibrium of the two elements Yin and Yang, which represent the constant duality of nature: rest and motion, liquid and solid, light and darkness, concentration and expansion, and material and spiritual. The material world being imbued with these two principles, the Daoist believes that whoever is able to act according to these principles could become the master of the world. This belief, in turn, has promoted a kind of mysticism, reflected in the magical practices of certain shamans who claim to possess the secret of the universe. [Source: Zhonghua Renmin Gonghe Guo, Fang-fu Ruan, M.D., Ph.D., and M.P. Lau, M.D. Encyclopedia of Sexuality hu-berlin.de/sexology, 1997 \*/]

“The Daoist refrains from troubling the natural order of things; on the contrary, he conforms to it in every circumstance. He considers the taking of initiatives to be a waste of time and energy. In respecting the basic Daoist doctrines of passivity and absence of care, he avoids the active life. These doctrines, which were adopted by many Confucian scholars as well, are summed up in the Daoist maxim: “Do nothing and everything will be accomplished simultaneously." The supreme divinity of Daoism is the Emperor of Jade. With his ministers of Death and Birth, he controls the destiny of men. The cult is replete with incantations, charms, and amulets, which once made for prosperous trade, with the shamans intervening in every possible occasion in life. \*/

“Taoism had some definite ideas about sex. For example, the wife's purpose is to please the husband and conceive more children. If the wife is barren, the husband can have a concubine or mistress to bear children, especially sons, for him. Both philosophical and religious Taoism included in their classics some positive ideas about sex. For example, from Lao tzu's Tao Te Ching. “All things have their backs to the female and stand facing male. When male and female combine, all things achieve harmony”. And from Taiping Jing (The Canon of Peace and Tranquility), an early classic of religious Taoism: “Through the way of copulation between husband and wife, the Yin and Yang all obtain what they need and Heaven and Earth become peace and tranquility;” “Based on one Yin and one Yang, Heaven allows both man and woman to exist and to be sexually attractive to each other, therefore life can be continued." \*/


11] Yin and Yang, Sexuality, Health and Love




Mingero

According to the “Encyclopedia of Sexuality”: “Yin-Yang is a major philosophical concept developed during the Zhou dynasty (1027-221 B.C.). The concepts of Yin and Yang may be found in the majority of important Chinese classics, including such a major classic of Confucianism as the I-Ching, and such a Taoist classic as the Tao-te-ching. Thus, the Yin-Yang philosophy is among the most important unifying concepts of Chinese culture. According to the Yin-Yang philosophy, all objects and events are the products of two elements, forces, or principles: Yin, which is negative, passive, weak, and destructive; and Yang, which is positive, active, strong, and constructive. It was very natural for the Yin-Yang doctrine to become the basis of Chinese sexual philosophy. The Chinese have used the words Yin and Yang to refer to sexual organs and sexual behavior for several thousand years. Thus Yin Fu, “the door of Yin” means vulva, Yin Dao, “the passageway of Yin” means vagina, and Yang Ju, “the organ of Yang” means penis. The combination of these words into the phrases Huo Yin Yang or Yin Yang Huo He - ”the union or combination of Yin and Yang” - describes the act of sexual intercourse. [Source: Zhonghua Renmin Gonghe Guo, Fang-fu Ruan, M.D., Ph.D., and M.P. Lau, M.D. Encyclopedia of Sexuality hu-berlin.de/sexology \*/]

In the context of sexuality, yang is identified with semen or seminal essence (jing, yin), which is why Daoists are encouraged to have intercourse often but without ejaculating. The aim is to build up jing but retain yang through not ejaculating, but at the same time enabling the woman to reach orgasm and give off her yin essence, which additionally strengthens the man. Another Daoist practice is to get a young man and woman together and to gather up their sexual secretions and swallow them - a practice that is believed to prolong life for the Daoist. Jacobus X. (1898) reported that it was still very common at the end of the 1800s, although he did put it strongly as a “strange freak of eroticism” : “The old Celadon is accompanied by a servant or strong coolie, who copulates with a woman in his presence, and then retires ... When once the agent is retired, well and duly paid, the old debauchee is left alone with the woman, who is still resting upon the field of battle. Then the man approaches, and eagerly receives in bucca sua, the liquid which runs ex vulva feminae. \*/

Gregory Smits, a professor at Pennsylvania State University, wrote: “Daoists thought that sexual intercourse could nourish life by strengthening the forces of yin-yang. Specifically, proper sexual training could cure disease, make the body lighter, make the senses more acute, and increase one's store of healthy, vital qi. Daoists tended to regard men as being in greater danger of suffering from a weakening of their yang energies than were women from a weakening of their yin energies. Therefore, for men to have sex with women was a primary way of recharging their yang energies via contact with female yin energy. Sexual union with men would also be beneficial for women, enhancing their yin energies, though women were generally considered to be much stronger than men when it came to retaining their vital energies. So, in this way of thinking, men needed women more than women needed men. [Source: “Topics in Premodern Chinese History”, Chapter Seven: Later Daoism by Gregory Smits]


12] Taoist Sexual Training



Gregory Smits, a professor at Pennsylvania State University, wrote: “Be aware that such training was rigorous and bore little resemblance to modern recreational sex. Indeed such sexual training was more like a battle in which men and women sought to obtain each other's bodily fluids and essences. In this battle, to attain orgasm was to go down to defeat (mainly for men; in this view, women suffered little if any from orgasms). Insofar as people today might regard sexual activities as an aid to good health, the physical and psychological release of orgasm is usually a major beneficial component. In Daoist sexual training, precisely the opposite was the case. Especially for men, ejaculation was the road to a feeble and short life. [Source: “Topics in Premodern Chinese History”, Chapter Seven: Later Daoism by Gregory Smits; “Koshoku to Chugoku bunka: Chugoku no rekishi wa yoru ni tsukurareta [Lust and Chinese culture: Chinese history was created at night]," (Kawaguchi-shi, Japan: Nihon kyohosha, 2004), pp. 129-134 ==]


Mingero

“The actual details of the techniques varied, but the basic idea was for men to engage in sexual intercourses with one or more women (one text recommends 10 per day) and attain a high degree of excitement without ejaculation. This process cultivates sexual energy (jing ?) as a man absorbs as much yin as possible without relinquishing any of his yang. The additional yin strengthens him by further enhancing his store of yang vitality. A slight variation might involve a man having sexual intercourse with one woman such that she has a succession of orgasms but he has none. Suppose that such a couple were to start this process and not stop, orgasm after orgasm (for her only). There would be no long-term effect on the woman. For the man, however — according to one training manual — the following benefits would accrue from his partner's orgasms 1-9: 1) his voice becomes clear; 2) his skin is clarified; 3) his eyes and ears become acute; 4) his bones and connective tissues are strengthened; 5) his buttocks and groin becomes tight; 6) the vessels carrying blood and qi open up; 7) life-long diseases are cured; 8) his lifespan is extended; 9) he attains immortality. Good luck guys--and remember not to ejaculate!” ==

“In another variation of this basic idea, a man could indeed ejaculate, at least by contemporary understandings of this action. Suppose that a couple begins a training session and the man continues for a very long time without orgasm. But then, the moment of his climax approaches and his partner presses hard on his urethra between the scrotum and the anus just at the moment of ejaculation. This pressing will divert the seminal fluid into the bladder. Although the fluid thus diverted would eventually leave the body through urination, Daoists regarded it has having been "conserved." The entire process was thought to circulate vital essence, via jing, throughout a man's body, eventually nourishing his brain. (For those interested in the technical term for this practice, it is huanjing bunao shuo, which literally means something like "the theory of the circulation of jing enhancing the brain".) ==

“What about women? Could any of these techniques lead them closer to immortality? Yes, women could enhance their strength by contact with male yang energy generated via sexual intercourse and by absorbing male energy via a partner's ejaculation. Generally, the ideal conditions for a woman would be the converse of those described above for men. In other words, she would have sexual intercourse for a long time with one or more men, and they would attain orgasms and she would not. In this way, she would maximally absorb their vital essence, thereby strengthening hers. Obviously there is the quality of a zero-sum game in this situation, with benefit for women coming at the expense of harm to the men who give up their vital essence. Indeed, in Chinese literature is full of accounts of men being seduced by beautiful women (sometimes they are really foxes). Often these men become thinner, paler, weaker, and sometimes dead as a result of her draining him of his vitality. Such accounts are undoubtedly part of a male fear of female sexuality that seems to be found in all human cultures. ==

“Stepping back and taking a broader view of tradition Chinese concerns with male sexual activity and health (not necessarily from a strictly Daoist point of view), the situation was quite complicated. Ruth Rogaski wrote: “Unlike other aspects of qi within the body, jing is difficult to nurture or augment through breathing or the ingestion of food and drugs. Indeed, much like the Original qi bestowed before birth, jing exists within the body in finite quantities. Jing is essential for life and health, but one only has so much of it. Once it is spent, it is gone. It seems that one should avoid losing jing at all costs, and yet there were obvious forces working against that option. Many medical experts held that sexual abstinence resulted in blockages and infirmities, and thus consoled moderate sexual activities as part of a healthy life. Even Confucius recognized that sexual desire (along with a desire for food) was at the root of human nature, and thus impossible to avoid. Another one of Confucius' dictums held that there was nothing more unfilial than leaving this life without having fathered descendants. Nevertheless, the anxiety over the loss of seminal essence remained. In the words of the seventeenth-century physician and alchemist Sun Simiao, "When jing is reduced, illness results, when jing is used up, death results. One cannot help but be worried; one cannot help but be cautious." One of the crueler paradoxes of male existence, therefore, was the fact that the activity of sex and procreation, so vital to the survival of humankind, inevitably resulted in a loss of that which maintained individual human life. [Source: Ruth Rogaski, “Hygienic Modernity: Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty-Port China” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), pp. 38-39. |=|]

“This paradox fostered an approach to sex and health that can best be described as an economy. Certainly jing was something that needed to be "economized," carefully invested and not carelessly spent. But this "sexual economy" also meant that a careful calculus of inputs and outputs, of benefits and drawbacks, would determine how much sexual activity could be tolerated while still allowing for the maintenance of overall health. . . . the gravest advice warns against entering the bedchamber in a state of intoxication (zui yi ru fang). Sex was a serious business, and one needed a clear mind to keep track of its accounts." |=|

“Obviously, Daoist notions of sexual training are at variance with most of today's prevailing views of sexuality, relations between men and women, and related topics. Jin Wenxue, a scholar of cultural studies, is rather critical of Daoist notions of sexual training, particularly the idea of diverted semen nourishing a man's brain, which he calls an "absurd theory." However, he points out one aspect of the historical significance of Daoist sexual training that is often overlooked: it produced and codified a wide variety of sexual techniques that contributed to the broader sexual culture of China." ==


13] Taoist Sexual Training Techniques



What were Taoist sexual training techniques like. To prepare, according to one description: “The celebrants, not to exceed twenty in number, first bathe, burn incense, and offer salutations to the officiating priest . . . and invocations to the gods. The participants now begin meditative visualizations based on colored [qi] (white, yellow, red, green, and black) corresponding to the five directions and five organs. The couples kneel facing each other and carry out more . . . visualizations and petitions to the deities for health and salvation. Following this, the priest helps the supplicants remove their garments and loosen their hair. Now the couples interlace their hands in various ritual patterns and recite formulas, followed by a series of gestures with hands and feet relating to the eight trigrams, twelve Earthly Branches, and organs. [Source: Douglas Wile, Art of the Bedchamber: The Chinese Sexual Yoga Classics Including Women's Solo Meditation Texts [Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992], pp. 25-26).

On the main activities a sixth-century text reads: “ Raising his hand and inhaling living [qi] through his nose, he swallows yang according to the numbers 3, 5, 7, and 9, and recites: "May the [dao] of heaven be set in motion." The second partner now recites: "May the [dao] of earth be set in motion." Following this he enters the "gate of birth" to a depth of half the head, while reciting: "Oh celestial deities and immortals, I would shake heaven and move earth that the 'five lords' . . . might hear my plea." Now the second partner recites: "Oh, celestial deities and '[dantian] palace' . . . I would move earth and shake heaven that the five deities of the body might each be strong." He then penetrates to the greatest depth, closes his mouth and inhales living [qi] through his nose and exhales through his mouth three times. Gnashing his teeth, he recites: "May none and one be born in the midst." Now he withdraws and returns to a depth of half a head. (Quoted in Wile, Art of the Bedchamber, p. 26).

Smits wrote: “And the process continues as long as possible--no ejaculations please! Incidentally, Daoist training also featured other, ways of conditioning the body with respect to sexual energies that did not involve sexual intercourse. One of these techniques for men--apparently popular enough even today to generate some commercial activity--was "iron crotch training" [tiedang gong and other names]. It was designed to, quite literally, strengthen the genitals in a manner much like a weight lifter or body builder might develop other parts of the body. Another Daoist meditation technique took the opposite approach--it allegedly shrank the penis and testicles to a very small size to prevent vital energy leaking from them. For some reason, this shrinking technique seems to have less appeal today than the iron crotch approach." [Source: “Topics in Premodern Chinese History”, Chapter Seven: Later Daoism by Gregory Smits; “Koshoku to Chugoku bunka: Chugoku no rekishi wa yoru ni tsukurareta [Lust and Chinese culture: Chinese history was created at night]," (Kawaguchi-shi, Japan: Nihon kyohosha, 2004), pp. 129-134 ==]

Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons, Hermit: daoist wandering blog; hermit hut: View of China.

Text Sources: Robert Eno, Indiana University indiana.edu /+/ ; Asia for Educators, Columbia University afe.easia.columbia.edu <|>; University of Washington's Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization, depts.washington.edu/chinaciv /=\; National Palace Museum, Taipei npm.gov.tw \=/; Library of Congress; New York Times; Washington Post; Los Angeles Times; China National Tourist Office (CNTO); Xinhua; China.org; China Daily; Japan News; Times of London; National Geographic; The New Yorker; Time; Newsweek; Reuters; Associated Press; Lonely Planet Guides; Compton's Encyclopedia; Smithsonian magazine; The Guardian; Yomiuri Shimbun; AFP; Wikipedia; BBC. Many sources are cited at the end of the facts for which they are used.

Last updated September 2016

Buddha and Laozi on Happiness and Education

To do no evil deeds, to give effect to good,

To purify the heart; this is the Buddha’s teaching.

-Digha Nikaya 14, (trans.) Bhikkhu Nyanamoli (1992)-

Buddha and Laozi on Happiness and Education

Jeong-Kyu Lee, Ph.D.

<Abstract>

The purpose of this study is to explore the happiness principles and educational thoughts of Buddha and Laozi. The significance of the study is to provide the basic theories and the worthy resources of contemporary and future education, especially happiness education and moral education, for educational theorists and practitioners in the world. To discuss the paper systematically, three research questions are addressed. First, what are the happiness principles of Buddha and Laozi? Second, what are the educational thoughts of Buddha and Laozi? Third, what are significant similarities and differences between the two sages? In order to defend the research questions, a descriptive content analysis method will be used with a comparative approach. As for the limitations of the study, the principle of happiness is mainly discussed from a viewpoint of ethical philosophy, and the thought of education is reviewed from the perspective of happiness or moral education. This position paper is focused on the Dhammapada, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta of Buddha, and on the Tao Te Ching of Laozi. The writer in the study intends to use modern English second resources as well as the classical Chinese language. Based on the research results, the author asserts that the current society centered on highly scientific and pragmatic knowledge may be thrown into confusion or despair, unless we encourage intuitive and holistic education approaches which Buddha and Laozi suggested in their scriptures.

*Completion Date: July 1, 2020.

*This academic article is a descriptive position paper.

*Key Words: Buddha, Laozi, Buddhism, Taoism, happiness, education, educational philosophy, political theory, moral education, happiness education, religion education, cross cultural approach

I. Introduction

The investigation of happiness principle and educational thought from the great sages of different culture is a valuable study to reveal something to be desired in educational theory and happiness principle (Lee, 2020). Historically, Buddha and Laozi have greatly influenced spiritual and practical worlds in Asia. From the latter half of the 19th century to the present, two sages have been widely known to the Western world.

First of all, Buddha (Pali/ Siddhattha Gotama or Sanscrit/ Siddhārtha Gautama, c. around 480 BCE - c. 400 BCE) was the founder of Buddhism, and a spiritual teacher who lived in ancient India (Blomfield, 2011; Nyanamoli, 1992; Oliver,

2019). According to Buddhist traditions and scholars, they have proposed Buddha’s birth dates ranging from 623 BCE to 322 BCE, but the majority of religious historians and scholars have suggested his birth around 480 BCE and his death eighty years later, in 400 BCE (Oliver, 2019). Siddhartha Gautama was born in Lumbini (i.e. in modern-day Nepal) and raised in the small principality of Kapilavastu. Siddhartha’s father was King Suddhodana, the leader of the Shakya clan, and his mother, Queen Maha Maya, was a Koliyan princess who died during his birth (Blomfield, 2011; Nyanamoli, 1992). The meaning of the name Siddhartha is that “he who achieves his aim” (Buddha Dharma Education Association, Inc. [BDEA] & BuddhaNet, 2008; Clarici, 2019). In the history of Buddhism, Buddha’s birth and death dates are uncertain.

According to Buddhist tradition and texts, when Siddhartha spent about 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu, he departed from his palace for the life of a mendicant in an event known traditionally as the “Great Departure” (Conze, 1959; Gyatso, 2007; Hirakawa, 1990; Narada, 1995; Thaper, 2002). After six years of mendicancy, meditation, and asceticism, Siddhartha awakened to understand the mechanism that keeps humans trapped in endless cycles or in the cycle of rebirth called saṃsara. His teaching for 45 years is mainly based on his insight into duḥkha (suffering) and Nibbana or Nirvana (the state of the end of suffering (duḥkha) or the liberation (vimutti) from suffering), the ultimate spiritual goal in Buddhism. A couple of centuries after his death Siddhartha came to be known as the Buddha, which means the “Awakened One” or the "Enlightened One" (Gethin, 1998).

Additionally, he was sometimes called as “Shakyamuni”(Sage of the Shakyas) (Baroni, 2002; Gyatso, 2007). Buddha’s teachings were compiled by the Buddhist community in the Suttas (Buddhist Texts), which contain his discourses, and the Vinaya, the division of the Buddhist canon (Tripitaka) containing the rules and practices that govern the Buddhist monastic community, or sangha. Since the 20th century, Buddhism has gradually influenced on ‘The 4th Industrial Revolution Age’ spiritually and practically both in the Eastern and the Western worlds. In modern days, the doctrines and practices of Buddhism have influenced the development of modern psychology, especially not only the practice of mindfulness based modalities, but certain forms of modern psychoanalysis and psychotherapy (Epstein,

1995, 2018; Fromm, 1970; Fromm et al., 1974; Kuan, 2008; Langan & Coles, 2006; Monzo, 2018; Weischede & Zwiebel, 2015).

Next, Laozi or Lao Tzu, as an ancient Chinese philosopher (Chinese: 老子, literally "Old Master," c. around the 6th or 5th century BC), was traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism (also known as Daoism), and also the author of the Tao Te Ching (Chinese/ 道德經 Daodejing; Korean/ 도덕경), though the identity of its author(s) or compiler(s) has been debated throughout history (Chan, 2018; Eliade, 1984). According to the Records of the Grand Historian (史記, Shiji) collected by Sima Qian (司馬遷 c. 145 – c. 86 BC) who was a Chinese historian of the early Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220), Lao Tzu was born in the Ku County (the present day Luyi County of the Henan Province) of the state of Chu (c. 1030 BCE – 223 BCE) (Sima and Watson, 2011). The Records of the Grand Historian also mentions Laozi’s family name as ‘Li’(李), his actual personal name as ‘Li Er’ (李耳), his courtesy name as Boyang(伯陽), and his literary name as Li Dan(李聃), which became the deferential Lao Dan (老聃) that appears in early Daoist texts such as the Zhuangzi (莊子) (Baxter & Sagart, 2014; Hoff, 1981; Graham, 1986; Kohn,

1998, 2000; Sima & Watson, 2011; Rainey, 2014). He worked as a historian in the imperial archives (Sima & Watson, 2011). The origin and life of Laozi is extremely ambiguous and even after centuries of research very little is known about his life.

Nonetheless, his teachings have been handed down by his followers through centuries.

In the cultural history of China, Laozi is traditionally considered as the founder of philosophical and religious Taoism, intimately connected with the Tao Te Ching (道德經) and the Zhuangzi (莊子) as two fundamental texts. In the religious aspect,

Laozi was worshipped under the name "Supreme Old Lord" (太上老君, Taishang Laojun), and the title "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" (太上玄元皇帝, Taishang Xuanyuan Huangdi) during the Tang dynasty (618–907 A.D.)(Fu, 1996). Taoism strongly influenced other schools of Chinese philosophy and religion, including Legalism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. In addition, various artists, including poets, painters, and calligraphers, have used the Tao Te Ching (道德經) as a source of inspiration. The spiritual and practical influences of Taoism and the Tao Te Ching have extended beyond China and have spread widely outside East Asia (Chan, 1963). In East Asia, Taoism as a living tradition has contributed to the formation of Korean and Japanese culture, religiously, philosophically, and practically (Richey, 2018; Ro, 2019). In the modern era, Taoism has reached across Asia and the Western world (Clarke, 2000; Hardy, 1998; Johanson and Kurtz, 2011).

In the light of two great religious founders’ significant influence on the western and the eastern spiritual worlds, a great number of scholars and holy orders have reviewed and examined the ideas and teachings of two great sages. In the contemporary era, Buddha’s ideas on happiness or education have been reviewed or studied by numerous scholars and religious leaders (happiness related/ Aich, 2013; Bien, 2011; Bodhi, 1994; Burke, 2011; Dalai Lama, the 14th & Cutler, 1999;

Deng et al., 2020; Fink, 2013; Hanson, 2011; Gunaratana, 2001, 2012; Gyatso, 2011; Lee, 1998, 2012, 2017b, 2017c, 2018, 2019a; O'Brien, 2020; Quesada, 2018; Ricard, 2014; Shantideva, 2006; Thanissaro, 1993; Thich, 1998, 2006, 2009, 2019; Tran, 2004; Wayment et al., 2011; Winzer & Gray, 2019; Yeh, 2006; Zhang & Veenhoven, 2008; education related/ Altekar, 1948; Ananda, 1971; Ba, 2011; Clarici, 2011; Guruge, 1990; Jardine et al., 2015; Khakhlary, 2019; Langer, 1993; Lee, 1998, 2017b, 2017c, 2018, 2019a; Liu & Tee, 2014; Mazumder, 2015; McLeod, 2007; Mookerji, 2011; Nguyen-Huong, 2005; Rhea, 2018; Thero, 2017; White, 1998).

In addition, Laozi’s ideas on happiness or education have been studied by a large number of theorists (happiness related/ Bridgewater, 2017; Chiang, 2009; Dreher, 2000; Dyer, 2008; Dyer & House, 2006; Lee, 2017a, 2018, 2019b; Lin, et al., 2015; Lobel, 2017; Santee, 2020; Walker, 2013; Wilson, 2014; Yiping, 2010; Zhang, 2018; Zhang & Veenhoven, 2008; education related/ Glanz, 1997; Heller, 2012; Keiser, 2013; Lee, 2017a, 2018, 2019b; Moon, 2015; Wang, 2013; Wen & Hwang, 2008; Yang, 2019). Only several contemporary theorists examined or discussed the teachings and thoughts between Buddha and Laozi (Bowker, 1997; Brown et al., 2016; Compton, 2012; Fischer-Schreiber, et al., 1994; Jardine, 2016; Lobel, 2017; Mijares, 2015; Mollier, 2009; Smith, 2019; Wang & Wawrytko, 2019; Zhang & Veenhoven, 2008). These scholars generally describe the thought and philosophy of Buddha and Laozi from the perspectives of philosophy, religion, psychology, or education. Two scholars (Jardine, 2016; Smith, 2019) compared the philosophy and thought of several Eastern religions from the aspect of education, but they mainly discussed curriculum thinking and practice as well as interculturality issues in teaching and research, critical thinking, politics, and pedagogy.

Until now, the author could not find any books and academic articles which specifically compare education and happiness thoughts or principles between Buddha and Laozi yet. Thus, the author of this study intends to entirely explore the happiness principles and educational thoughts of Buddha and Laozi through the primary and secondary languages resources.

To discuss this paper systematically, three research questions are addressed. First, what are the happiness principles of Buddha and Laozi? Second, what are the educational thoughts of Buddha and Laozi? Third, what are significant similarities and differences between the two great thinkers? In order to defend the research questions, a descriptive content analysis method will be utilized with a culturally comparative approach. As for the limitations of the paper, the principle of happiness is reviewed in terms of religious and moral theories, and the thought of education is mainly discussed from the perspective of happiness or moral education. This position paper is mainly focused on Buddha’s two Texts, the Dhammapada and the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, and on the Tao Te Ching of Laozi. The author in the study intends to use modern English second resources as well as the classical Chinese language. Finally, the author concludes this position paper with the suggestion of future research. The significance of the study is to provide the basic theories and the worthy resources of contemporary and future education, especially happiness, religion, or moral education, for educational theorists and practitioners in the world.

II. The Happiness Principles of Buddha and Laozi

A. Buddha’s Happiness Principle

The author of this study firstly intends to discuss the happiness principle of

Buddha focusing on the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dharma or The Four Noble Truths Sutra) and the Dhammapada (The Path of the Dharma; Korean: 법구경; Chinese: 法句經; Japanese: ダンマパダ). In the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (Sanskrit: Dharmacakrapravartana Sutra; Korean: 초전법륜경; Chinese: 轉法輪經; Japanese: 転法輪経), Buddha asserts his happiness principle through ‘the Middle Path’ or ‘the Middle Way’ (Pali: Majjhimapaṭipada; Sanskrit: Madhyamapratipada) which the Buddha began to teach after the Great Awakening in his age 35. Buddha illustrates the character of “the Noble Eightfold Path” (Pali: ariya atthangika magga; Sanskrit: aryastangamarga) to lead a way for liberation from samsara, the endless cycle of rebirth (Anderson, 2013; Bodhi, 1994; Buswell & Lopez, 2013; Gethin, 1998; Kohn,

1991; Williams, 2002; Wynne, 2007). He taught ‘the Middle Way’ between sensual pleasure and self-affliction, and also taught a spiritual path that included ethical training and meditative practices such as meditation (Sanskrit/ dhyana or Paḷi/ jhana: the training of the mind) and mindfulness (Laumakis 2008; Vetter, 1988; Wynne, 2007).

SN 56, Sacca-samyutta of the Samyutta Nikaya (SN: The Book of the Kindred Sayings: the third division of the Sutta Pitaka), describes The Four Noble Truths. Especially, Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56.11: Setting in Motion the

Wheel of the Dharma) contains the Buddha’s essential teachings of the Middle Way,

the Four Noble Truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path, which present the way of true happiness. This Sutta is the Buddha's first discourse, delivered shortly after his Great Awakening to the group of five monks with whom he had practiced the austerities in the forest for several years. The Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path are illustrated in Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta as the following:

I have heard that on one occasion the Blessed One was staying at Varanasi in the Game Refuge at Isipatana. There he addressed the group of five monks:



There are these two extremes that are not to be indulged in by one who has gone forth. Which two? That which is devoted to sensual pleasure with reference to sensual objects: base, vulgar, common, ignoble, unprofitable; and that which is devoted to self-affliction: painful, ignoble, unprofitable. Avoiding both of these extremes, the middle way realized by the Tathagata — producing vision, producing knowledge — leads to calm, to direct knowledge, to self-awakening, to Unbinding….

"Now this, monks, is the noble truth of stress: Birth is stressful, aging is stressful, death is stressful; sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair are stressful; association with the unbeloved is stressful, separation from the loved is stressful, not getting what is wanted is stressful. In short, the five clinging-aggregates are stressful.

"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the origination of stress: the craving that makes for further becoming — accompanied by passion & delight, relishing now here & now there — i.e., craving for sensual pleasure, craving for becoming, craving for non-becoming.

"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of stress: the remainderless fading & cessation, renunciation, relinquishment, release, & letting go of that very craving.

"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of stress: precisely this Noble Eightfold Path — right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration…. (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: SN 56.11)

-translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1993), Retrieved May 15, 2020 from https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.than.html; https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/index.html#sn56



In brief, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: catvari aryasatyani; Pali: cattari ariyasaccani) are: dukkha (suffering, stress, pain, or unhappiness), the life is full of suffering; samudaya (arising, origin), there is a cause of this suffering which arises with desire; nirodha (cessation, ending, enclosing), it is possible to stop suffering, and marga (magga: path, way), there is a way (Noble Eightfold Path) to renounce desire (tanha) and to extinguish suffering (dukkha) (Gyatso, 1994; Rinpoche, 2018; Thich, 2015). The Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: ariya atthangika magga; Sanskrit: aryastangamarga) as advocated by Buddha consists of eight practices: right views, right resolve/aspiration, right speech, right action/conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditative (Bodhi, 1994; Thich, 2015).

By following the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddha, tanha (desire, craving) and dukkha (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness) can be confined and extinguished. When “the three unwholesome roots” (Sanskrit: akusala-mula) or “the three poisons” (Sanskrit: triviṣa) -- raga (greed, avarice, sensual attachment), dvesha (aversion, anger, hatred), and moha (ignorance, stupidity, delusion) -- are extinguished, no more action and reaction (karma) is being produced, peace of mind and true happiness (nirvana or nibbana) can be attained, and the cycle of rebirth (samsara) will be stopped (Buswell & Lopez, 2013; Gethin, 1998; Goldstein, 2011; Gombrich, 2006; Webster, 2005). In the tradition of Theravada Buddhism, nirvana (the liberation from cycles of rebirth) is the highest aim, while in the Mahayana tradition, the highest goal is Buddhahood (to become a Buddha), in which there is no abiding in nirvana (Keown, 2004; Gombrich, 2006). Nevertheless, the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism can be considered as the most important teaching of the Buddha, and the Four Noble Truths as the summary of his teachings (Sanskrit: dharma or Pali: dhamma) (Anderson, 1999; Harvey, 2016).

With ‘the Middle Way (Path)’ and ‘The Four Noble Truths,’ the Buddha preaches the basic doctrine of Buddhism in Samyutta Nikaya (Connected Discourses or Kindred Sayings; Samyuktagama Sutra), that is, ‘Three Marks of Existence’ or ‘Three Universal Truths.’ The Three Universal Truths are: firstly, annica (Sanskrit: anitya, impremanence) states that everything in this life changes; secondly, dukkha (Sanskrit: duhkha, suffering or unsatisfactoriness), suffering is innate in birth, aging, death, rebirth, redeath – the Saṃsara cycle of existence. Buddha teaches that humans’ desire brings about suffering as well as humans’ delusion results in suffering. However, humans can control their desires through following the Eightfold Path; and lastly, anatta (Sanskrit, anatman: no-soul, non-self, Korean: 무아(無我), Karma and Anatta doctrines), Buddha preaches that there is no soul, but rather an inexpressible self is reborn (Anderson, 2013; Buswell & Lopez, 2013; Harvey, 2012). According to Thich Nhat Hanh (1998), “the Three Marks of

Existence” as “the Three Dharma Seals” is “the heart of the Buddha's teaching.” In the Buddha's karmic doctrine, the Eightfold Path is necessary for nirvana or liberation to remove humans’ delusions which result in the end of suffering. Thus, nirvana is the state of absolute joy or happiness.

Several Buddhist sutras depict the Three Marks of Existence as core doctrines with the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Buddha mentions the characteristics of the Three Marks of Existence in Maggavagga (The Path) of the Dhammapada as follows:



Of paths, the eightfold is best. Of truths, the four sayings. Of qualities, dispassion.

Of two-footed beings, the one with the eyes to see (273)….

When you see with discernment, 'All fabrications are inconstant' — you grow disenchanted with stress. This is the path to purity. When you see with discernment, 'All fabrications are stressful' — you grow disenchanted with stress. This is the path to purity. When you see with discernment, 'All phenomena are not-self' — you grow disenchanted with stress. This is the path to purity (277-279).

-Dhp XX, PTS: Dhp 273-289, Maggavagga: The Path, translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997). Retrieved May 16, 2020 from

https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/dhp/dhp.20.than.html



Buddha shows that the Three Marks of Existence is the path to purity. In Dhammapada, he depicts central doctrines or themes in Buddhism. The Buddha strongly claims that the Eightfold is the best of paths, and that the Four is the best of truths (Dhp XX, PTS: Dhp 273). He also illustrates ‘the Law of Cause and Effect’ or ‘the Principle of Causality’ which is known as karma in Papavagga (Evil) of the Dhammapada:

Even the evil meet with good fortune as long as their evil has yet to mature. But when it's matured that's when they meet with evil. Even the good meet with bad fortune as long as their good has yet to mature. But when it's matured that's when they meet with good fortune (119-120).

-Dhp IX, PTS: Dhp 116-128, Papavagga: Evil, translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997) Retrieved May 16, 2020 from

https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/dhp/dhp.09.than.html



The Buddha also teaches how very happily we live. He asserts that knowing how to be free from human predicaments or how to be free from suffering well is essential to realizing true happiness. Like ‘The Noble One’s Happiness’ in Dvayatanupassana Sutta (SN 3.12, PTS: SN 756-765), the Buddha in the Dhammapada also claims that we should live free from hostility, misery, busyness, and possession for a happy life (Lee, 2017a). The Sukhavagga (Happy) of the Dhammapada shows:

How very happily we live, free from hostility among those who are hostile. Among hostile people, free from hostility we dwell. How very happily we live, free from misery among those who are miserable. Among miserable people, free from misery we dwell. How very happily we live, free from busyness among those who are busy. Among busy people, free from busyness we dwell. How very happily we live, we who have nothing. We will feed on rapture like the Radiant gods.

-Dhp XV PTS: Dhp 197-200, Sukhavagga: Happy, translated from the Pali by

Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997), Tipitaka Khuddaka Dhammapada, Retrieved May 16, 2020 from https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/dhp/dhp.15.than.html



As reviewed on the above Buddha’s sutras, the happiness principle of Buddha is summarized in the ‘the Middle Way’ and ‘The Four Noble Truths.’ The Buddha highlights that happiness can be attained through practicing the Middle Way and the Eightfold Path. Particularly, the Eightfold Path is a way to extinguish human suffering (Duhkha-nirodha-marga) and to attain nirvana (absolute happiness, the summum bonum destination) (Keown, 2000). The Buddha strongly asserts that ethical cultivation and spiritual training, such as to discard desire and possession, to keep peaceful and positive mind, to have mercy and compassion, to practice mindfulness, meditative concentration, and insight, are necessary to achieve authentic happiness.



B. Laozi’s Happiness Principle

The author of this paper intends to review the happiness principle of Laozi (LaoTzu) focusing on his scripture, Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing (The Book of the Way and of Virtue; The Scripture of the Tao and Virtue). The text has various titles, such as Tao Te Ching (Chinese: 道德經), Lao Tzu Tao Te Ching (Chinese: 老子道德經), The Perfect Scripture of the Way and Its Power (Chinese: 道德真經), The 5,000 Characters (五千文), and so on (Chan, 1963; Chan, 2018; Henricks, 2010; Kohn & LaFargue, 1998; Lau, 1989). The text of Tao Te Ching consists of approximately 5,000 Chinese characters in 81 chapters, and contains two parts, the Tao Ching (道經; chapters 1–37) and the Te Ching (德經; chapters 38–81) (Abbott, 2012; Feng & English, 1974; Giles et al., 2013 [1905]). The text was written in the poetic style, with using semantically complex and ambiguous words (Chan, 2018; Lee, 2016).

The title of Tao Te Ching (道德經) is composed of three Chinese characters. The Chinese word, 道 (dao or tao) literally means "a way," “a path,” “a doctrine,”

“a principle,” “the Truth,” or "the Way" (Mathews, 1993). In the Tao Te Ching, the Tao (道) is "eternally nameless" which is not a simple name for a "thing" but as the basic principle of the universe or as certain essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the universe balanced and ordered (Cane, 2002; Legge,

1891). The Te (德) literally means "virtue," “goodness,” or “moral excellence” (Mathews, 1993). The compound word “道德” (daode, taote) literally means "morality," "ethical principles," or "morals" (Chan, 2018; Lee, 2016). The last character 經 (jing, ching) means "canon," "scripture," “great book,” or "classic." The title of the Tao Te Ching has been translated into various languages. The titles in English are the following: The Book about the Way and Its Power (Legge, 1891), The Book of the Way and of Virtue (Giles et al., 1905), The Canon of Reason and Virtue (Suzuki et al., 1913), A Treatise on the Principle and Its Action (Bryce et al., 1991), The Book of the Tao and Its Virtue (Kohn et al., 1998), The Classic of the Way and Virtue (Lynn, 2004), and The Way to Goodness and Power (Trapp, 2019). The author (Lee, Jeong-Kyu) of this academic paper translates the Tao Te Ching as “The Scripture of the Tao and Virtue.”

In the Tao Te Ching (Dao De Jing), the two words, "Tao" and "Te," are concerned with significant happiness concepts and principles in the aspect of Lao Tzu's happiness theory (Lee, 2017). "Tao" has variously complex meanings, and is viewed as ‘a basic principle of the cosmos,’ 'a spiritual state of cultivated mind,’ or 'harmony and happiness,’ while "Te" is regarded as Tao's operation or inner nature virtue that is the active living or cultivation of the Tao (Bodde & Fung, 1997; LaFargue, 1992; Lee, 2016, 2017a; Marinoff, 2014; Maspero, 1988).

Laozi explains the Tao (Dao), such as the embodiment (Ch. 1), nameless (Ch. 32), and operation of the Tao (Ch. 51), as follows:

(Embodying the Dao) The Dao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Dao. The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name. (Conceived of as) having no name, it is the Originator of heaven and earth; (conceived of as) having a name, it is the Mother of all things. Always without desire we must be found, If its deep mystery we would sound; But if desire always within us be, Its outer fringe is all that we shall see. Under these two aspects, it is really the same; but as development takes place, it receives the different names. Together we call them the Mystery. Where the Mystery is the deepest is the gate of all that is subtle and wonderful.

-Dao De Jing, Chapter 1, English translation: James Legge-

道可道，非常道. 名可名，非常名. 無名天地之始；有名萬物之母. 故常無欲，以觀其妙；常有欲，以觀其徼. 此兩者，同出而異名，同謂之玄.

玄之又玄，衆妙之門. (道德經 1) Retrieved May 25, 2020 from

https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



(The Dao with no name) The Dao, considered as unchanging, has no name. Though in its primordial simplicity it may be small, the whole world dares not deal with (one embodying) it as a minister. If a feudal prince or the king could guard and hold it, all would spontaneously submit themselves to him. Heaven and Earth (under its guidance) unite together and send down the sweet dew, which, without the directions of men, reaches equally everywhere as of its own accord. As soon as it proceeds to action, it has a name. When it once has that name, (men) can know to rest in it. When they know to rest in it, they can be free from all risk of failure and error. The relation of the Dao to all the world is like that of the great rivers and seas to the streams from the valleys. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 32, English translation: James Legge-

道常無名 樸雖小, 天下莫能臣也. 侯王若能守之， 萬物將自賓. 天地相合，以降甘露，民莫之令而自均. 始制有名， 名亦既有，

夫亦將知止， 知止所以不殆. 譬道之在天下，猶川谷之與江海. (道德經 32)

Retrieved May 25, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



(The operation (of the Dao) in nourishing things) All things are produced by the Dao, and nourished by its outflowing operation [its Energy or Virtue]. They receive their forms according to the nature of each, and are completed according to the circumstances of their condition. Therefore all things without exception honour the Dao, and exalt its outflowing operation. This honouring of the Dao and exalting of its operation is not the result of any ordination, but always a spontaneous tribute. Thus it is that the Dao produces (all things), nourishes them, brings them to their full growth, nurses them, completes them, matures them, maintains them, and overspreads them. It produces them and makes no claim to the possession of them; it carries them through their processes and does not vaunt its ability in doing so; it brings them to maturity and exercises no control over them; - this is called its mysterious operation [sublime Virtue]. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 51, English translation: James Legge-

道生之，德畜之，物形之，勢成之. 是以萬物莫不尊道而貴德. 道之尊，德之貴，夫莫之命常自然. 故道生之，德畜之；長之育之；亭之毒之；養之覆之. 生而不有，為而不恃，長而不宰，是謂玄德.

(道德經 51) Retrieved May 25, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



In addition, Laozi views the virtue as the attributes of the Tao (Ch. 38), universal use of the Tao (Ch. 43), great or overflowing virtue (Ch. 45), and the outflowing operation of the Tao (Ch. 51) in the Tao Te Ching as the following:



(About the attributes of the Dao) (Those who) possessed in highest degree the attributes (of the Dao) did not (seek) to show them, and therefore they possessed them (in fullest measure). (Those who) possessed in a lower degree those attributes (sought how) not to lose them, and therefore they did not possess them (in fullest measure). (Those who) possessed in the highest degree those attributes did nothing (with a purpose), and had no need to do anything. (Those who) possessed them in a lower degree were (always) doing, and had need to be so doing…. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 38, English translation: James Legge-

上德不德，是以有德；下德不失德，是以無德.上德無為而無以為；下德為之

而有以為.…(道德經 38) Retrieved May 25, 2020 from https://ctext.org/daode-jing



(Great or overflowing virtue) Who thinks his great achievements poor, Shall find his vigour long endure. Of greatest fulness, deemed a void, Exhaustion never shall stem the tide. Do thou what's straight still crooked deem; Thy greatest art still stupid seem, And eloquence a stammering scream. Constant action overcomes cold; being still overcomes heat. Purity and stillness give the correct law to all under heaven. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 45, English translation: James Legge-

大成若缺，其用不弊. 大盈若沖，其用不窮. 大直若屈，大巧若拙，

大辯若訥. 躁勝寒靜勝熱. 清靜為天下正. (道德經 45) Retrieved May 25,

2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



In terms of happiness principle, the major principles of happiness in the Tao Te Ching are related to the Way and virtue which seek after harmony, inner peace, and happiness (Johnston, 2013; Lee, 2016; Marinoff, 2014; Wilson, 2014). Laozi asserts that a human being is a part of nature, and that one should live in sympathy with nature according to the natural law to achieve the "Tao" (Lee, 2016). The Tao Te Ching shows hidden or metaphorical concepts and principles of happiness (Lee, 2016): knowing the Tao as the Mother of all things (Ch. 1), doing nothing (Ch. 3,

Ch. 48), following the Way like water (Ch. 8), repletion of emptiness (Ch. 11),

balancing Yin and Yang/ (the harmony of male and female the principles) (Ch. 28; Ch. 76), knowing oneself and others (Ch. 33), hiding the light (Ch. 36), returning primordial nature (Ch. 40), pursuing the Tao (Ch. 48), desire what others do not desire (Ch. 64), keeping three precious things (Ch. 67), taking pleasure in one's rustic tasks (Laozi’s utopia) (Ch. 80), and following the Way of Heaven, with knowing and doing the Tao (Ch. 81). Several chapters of the Tao Te Ching related to these topics are cited as follows:

…Therefore the sage, in the exercise of his government, empties their minds, fills their bellies, weakens their wills, and strengthens their bones. He constantly (tries to) keep them without knowledge and without desire, and where there are those who have knowledge, to keep them from presuming to act (on it). When there is this abstinence from action, good order is

universal. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 3, English translation: James Legge-

…是以聖人之治，虛其心，實其腹，弱其志，強其骨. 常使民無知無欲.

使夫知者不敢為也. 為無為，則無不治.(道德經 3) Retrieved May 26, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



(Dispensing with the use (of means)) The movement of the Dao, By contraries proceeds; And weakness marks the course, Of Dao's mighty deeds. All things under heaven sprang from It as existing (and named); that existence sprang from It as non-existent (and not named). -Dao De Jing, Chapter 40, English translation: James Legge-

反者道之動；弱者道之用. 天下萬物生於有，有生於無. (道德經 40) Retrieved

May 26, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



Therefore the sage desires what (other men) do not desire, and does not prize things difficult to get; he learns what (other men) do not learn, and turns back to what the multitude of men have passed by. Thus he helps the natural development of all things, and does not dare to act (with an ulterior purpose of his own). -Dao De Jing, Chapter 64, English translation: James Legge-

是以聖人欲不欲，不貴難得之貨；學不學，復衆人之所過，以輔萬物之自然，

而不敢為. (道德經 64) Retrieved May 26, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-dejing



I have three precious things which I prize and hold fast. The first is gentleness [love]; the second is economy [thrift]; and the third is shrinking from taking precedence of others [modesty]. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 67, English translation:

James Legge- 我有三寶，持而保之。一曰慈，二曰儉，三曰不敢為天下先.

(道德經 67) Retrieved May 26, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



…They should think their (coarse) food sweet; their (plain) clothes beautiful; their (poor) dwellings places of rest; and their common (simple) ways sources of enjoyment. There should be a neighbouring state within sight, and the voices of the fowls and dogs should be heard all the way from it to us, but I would make the people to old age, even to death, not have any intercourse with it. Dao De Jing, Chapter 80, English translation: James Legge-

…甘其食，美其服，安其居，樂其俗。鄰國相望，雞犬之聲相聞，民至老死，

不相往來. (道德經 80) Retrieved May 26, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-dejing



(The manifestation of simplicity) Sincere words are not fine; fine words are not sincere. Those who are skilled (in the Dao) do not dispute (about it); the disputatious are not skilled in it. Those who know (the Dao) are not extensively learned; the extensively learned do not know it. The sage does not accumulate (for himself). The more that he expends for others, the more does he possess of his own; the more that he gives to others, the more does he have himself. With all the sharpness of the Way of Heaven, it injures not; with all the doing in the way of the sage he does not strive. -Dao De Jing, Chapter

81, English translation: James Legge-

信言不美，美言不信.善者不辯，辯者不善.知者不博，博者不知.聖人不積，既以為人己愈有，既以與人己愈多.天之道，利而不害；聖人之道，為而不爭.

(道德經 81) Retrieved May 26, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing

In the Tao Te Ching, Laozi does not present the definite concepts and principles of happiness clearly or specifically, but symbolically or metaphorically. He views the concepts of happiness as metaphysical and naturalistic perspectives. Therefore, it is not easy to explicate the theory of Laozi's happiness. Nonetheless, the author of this paper claims that the primary principle of happiness shown in the Tao Te

Ching is to attain the Tao (Way), and the following principle is to practice virtue

(Te). Laozi also emphasizes the theory of “inaction and naturalness” (無爲自然) according to the Tao and its operation. In sum, Laozi in the Tao Te Ching presents several major concepts and principles of happiness: doing nothing, following the nature like water, returning to the primordial nature, filling with emptiness, harmonizing between Yin and Yang, following the Tao and natural law to be oneness between self and nature, living rustic life with inaction and naturalness, knowing the self and others, hiding the light, and following the Way of Heaven (Lee, 2016, pp. 18-19).

III. The Educational Thoughts of Buddha and Laozi

A. Buddha’s Educational Thought

The author of this study intends to discuss the educational thought of Buddha focusing on the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta in terms of moral or happiness education. The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (SN 56.11: Setting in Motion the

Wheel of the Dharma) describes the Buddha’s core teachings of the Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path, which present the Buddha’s educational thought or principle as well as the Buddha’s happiness principle. The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta contains the first discourse of the Buddha after the Great Awakening. The writer of this paper mainly discusses the Buddha’s educational thought as depicted in the Noble Eightfold Path of the Sutta (SN 56.11).

Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta describes the Noble Eightfold Path:

"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of stress: precisely this Noble Eightfold Path — right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration…. (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: SN 56.11)

-translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1993), Retrieved May 15, 2020 from https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.than.html;

The Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: ariya atthangika magga; Sanskrit:

aryaṣṭangamarga) is the Buddha’s early instructions to reach the end of suffering and to lead to liberation from samsara, the painful cycle of rebirth (Anderson, 2013; Gethin, 1998; Prebish, 2000). The eight factors of the path to liberation are grouped into ‘three essential elements’ (threefold divisions) of Buddhist training and discipline: moral conduct (sila), mental discipline (samadhi), and wisdom (panna) (Ba, 2011; Prebish, 2000). The Buddha identified the threefold higher training (Sanskrit: trisiksa; Pali: tisikkha; or simply siksa or sikkha): the higher training of morality (Skt. adhisilasiksa, Pali adhisila-sikkha), the higher training of mind (Skt. samadhisikṣa, Pali adhicitta-sikkha), and the higher training of wisdom (Skt. prajnasiksa, Pali adhipanna-sikkha) (Ba, 2011; Nguyen-Huong, 2005; Prebish, 2000). In the Sutta-pitaka, the term “sikkha” (literally means learning or training) is used to name this threefold model of education as well as is related to the concept of education, and it also reveals a close connection between the Noble Eightfold Path and Buddhist concept of holistic education (Ba, 2011, p. 147).

Firstly, the moral conduct (Sanskrit: sila, Pali: sila) division contains three paths: right speech (samma vaca), right action (samma kammanta), and right livelihood (samma ajiva) (Harvey, 2016). Secondary, the mental discipline (samadhi, adhicitta) division consists of three paths: right effort (samma vayama), right mindfulness (samma sati), and right concentration (samma samadhi) (Bodhi, 2020; Spiro, 1982). Lastly, the wisdom training (prajna, panna) division includes two paths: right understanding or view (samma ditthi) and right thought, motivation, or intention (samma sankappa) (Anderson, 2013).

First, the Buddha in the higher training of moral conduct suggests “Five Precepts” (Sanskrit: pancasila, Pali: pancasila) as the method of practice moral or ethical conduct training through three paths, such as right speech, right action, and right livelihood (Davids & Stede, 1921). The Five Precepts as the core of Buddhist morality are commitments to abstain from killing living beings, stealing, misusing sex, falsehood, and intoxication (Taylor, 2012). The Five Precepts have been closely related to human rights, and described as individually and socially ethical values that bring not only the purification of the mind but also the harmony of society (Bodhi, 2020; Davids & Stede, 1921).

In the aspect of moral or ethical education, the first three paths are significant and necessary methods for practicing healthy moral or ethical conduct and attitude. Especially, the Five Precepts are pivotal ethical rules or moral guidelines to harmonize a social community as well as to cultivate individual morality in order to make progress on the path to enlightenment (Williams, 2000).

Second, the Buddha in the higher training of mind mentions the second three paths, right effort (samma vayama), right mindfulness (samma sati), and right concentration (samma samadhi), to progress from moral restraints to training the mind (Bodhi, 2020; Greenwalt & Nguyen, 2017; Spiro, 1982). First of all, ‘right effort’ (samyag-vyayama / samma-vayama) is not just for the practice of meditation but for the development of our good life. In other words, the path of right effort is to encourage and enhance the good quality of our life. Next, the aim of ‘right mindfulness’ (samma sati) is the end of suffering with calming the mindbody complex and becoming wholesome states through dwelling in meditation (jhana). The dhyana (Sanskrit) or jhana (Pali) is commonly translated as meditation, and uses the training of the mind to lead to a state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkha-sati-parisuddhi) (Brekke, 1999).

According to the Theravada tradition, the aim in this group is to develop clarity and insight into the nature of reality – dukkha, anicca and anatta, discard negative states, and dispel avidya (ignorance), ultimately attaining nirvana, that is, absolute happiness (Trainor, 2004). Last, the path of ‘right concentration’ (samma samadhi) in the fourth dhyana (meditation) is the practice of concentration-meditation to lead "the state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkha-satiparisuddhi)"(Brekke, 1999). In the Buddhist suttas, samadhi is defined as ‘onepointedness of mind’(Cittass'ekaggata)(Gunaratana, 1995), and translated as 'unification of mind' or ‘concentration,’ as in the limiting of the attention of the mind on one object.

In terms of happiness education, the mental discipline (Sanskrit/ samadhi) of the Noble Eightfold Path presents how to attain true happiness as well as how to cultivate and encourage mentality. In this vein, this mental training practically provides exemplary educational methods and psychological patterns for contemporary educators and theorists. Particularly, positive mental qualities, such as mindfulness, meditation, concentration, insight, awareness, equanimity, and happiness, can be promoted either as valuable teaching and learning methods or as educational objectives and goals in happiness studies.

Last, the Buddha in the higher training of wisdom as the culmination of the path is to clear one’s path and to gain right understanding of reality which one can become free from the vicious cycle of suffering, while the path of right view starts with correct knowledge or insight, which is needed to understand why this path should be followed (Anderson, 2013). The wisdom division consists of two paths, “right view” (samyak-drsti / samma-diṭṭhi) or "right understanding" and "right thought" (samyak-saṃkalpa / samma sankappa), right resolve, or "right intention” (Gunaratana, 2001). The aim of right view is to clear one's path from confusion, misunderstanding, and deluded thinking. The path of right thought leads to one’s mental states and one’s actions correctly. The goal of the higher training of wisdom is to resolve the Noble Eightfold Path as well as to clearly understand reality in order to plant the seeds of true happiness.

In the aspect of educational thought, the wisdom division is related to intellectual development. Numerous Buddhist sutras highlight “panna” (wisdom, understanding, insight) and “visuddhi” (purity, purification) of the mind from mental defilements (Nguyen-Huong, 2005). The Noble Eightfold Path shows three stages in the course of Buddhist education: pariyatti (learning, the learning of the theory of dharma, efficiency in the (knowledge of) thoughts of others), paṭipatti (conduct, practice, behavior, religious practice), and paṭivedha (realization, penetration, attainment, comprehension) (Bodhi, 2020; Nguyen-Huong, 2005). In this vein, learning (suta) is the first step to acquire knowledge and to lead on the way to Nirbana or Nibbana. Additionally, the four aspects of knowledge are shown: (1) dittha- what is seen, (2) suta- what is heard, (3) muta- what is thought of, and (4) vinnata- what is understood (Nguyen-Huong, 2005). In the tradition of Buddhist sutras, knowledge (nana) can be collected by learning (suta) and thinking (cinta), whereas wisdom (panna) by meditation (bhavana) (op. cit.). The two main goals of Buddha’s teachings are not merely to purify oneself through learning and practicing, but to learn the Buddha’s teaching and wisdom.

In sum, several major educational thoughts appeared in the Noble Eightfold Path are as the following: the threefold divisions of Buddhist training and discipline -- moral conduct (sila), mental discipline (samadhi), and wisdom (panna) -- can be considered as the three principles of education -- behavioral modification, mental cultivation, and intellectual development -- and also regarded as the foundations to set the goals and objectives of education (Ba, 2011, p. 225). Additionally, in terms of religion or happiness education, several good qualities, such as full-awakening, peaceful equanimity, and nirbanic happiness, that Buddha instructed can be regarded as the purposes of life as well as of education (Ba, 2011, p. 227).

B. Laozi’s Educational Thought

Laozi in the Tao Te Ching did not definitely and specifically mention education, but he suggested several educational thoughts symbolically or metaphorically in his text. Like the concepts and principles of happiness, educational concepts and thoughts in the Tao Te Ching are mainly concerned with the Way and virtue that pursue inner peace, harmony, and happiness (Johnston, 2013; Marinoff, 2014;

Wilson, 2014). The core doctrines of Laozi’s teaching are the Way (道 tao: the way), virtue (德 te: morality), doing nothing (無爲 wuwei: nonaction, nonbeing, not acting), and naturalness (自然 ziran: nature, returning primordial nature). The Tao Te Ching shows that “All things are produced by the Dao, and nourished by its outflowing operation [virtue]. They receive their forms according to the nature of each, and are completed according to the circumstances of their condition (道生之，德畜之，物形之，勢成之)” (Chapter 51). Additionally, “doing nothing” is a central concept of the Tao Te Ching, and “naturalness” is also another central concept which is used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as a key virtue, harmonizing with the Tao. Both terms are seen to reflect the function of the nameless and formless Tao (Chan, 2018). Laozi in his text said, “Man takes his law from the Earth; the Earth takes its law from Heaven; Heaven takes its law from the Dao. The law of the Dao is its being what it is (人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然)” (Chapter 25, Tao Te Ching).

From an educational viewpoint, Laozi mentions hidden or metaphorical concepts and thoughts of education: knowing the Tao as the mother of all things (Chapter 1), doing nothing (Ch. 2, Ch. 37, Ch. 48), following the Way like water (Ch. 8), repletion of emptiness (Ch. 11), renounce learning (Ch. 20), harmony principle (Ch. 28, Ch. 76), knowing oneself and others (Ch. 33), hiding the light (Ch. 36), nameless simplicity (Ch. 37), returning primordial nature (Ch. 40, Ch. 80), teaching without words (Ch. 2, Ch. 43), the way of learning (Ch. 48), practicing the Tao (Ch. 62), fine words and admirable deeds (Ch. 62, Ch. 81), without thinking of acting (Ch. 63), and knowing and doing the Tao (Ch. 81). Several chapters of the Tao Te Ching related to these themes are cited as the following:

He who devotes himself to learning (seeks) from day to day to increase (his knowledge); he who devotes himself to the Dao (seeks) from day to day to diminish (his doing). He diminishes it and again diminishes it, till he arrives at doing nothing (on purpose). Having arrived at this point of non-action, there is nothing which he does not do. He who gets as his own all under heaven does so by giving himself no trouble (with that end). If one take trouble (with that end), he is not equal to getting as his own all under heaven. -Dao De Jing,

Chapter 48, English translation: James Legge-

為學日益，為道日損。損之又損，以至於無為。無為而無不為。取天下常以無

事，及其有事，不足以取天下. -道德經 48, Retrieved June 10, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



The highest excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of water appears in its benefiting all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all men dislike…. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 8, English translation: James Legge-

上善若水。水善利萬物而不爭，處衆人之所惡…. 道德經 8, Retrieved June

10, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



…Therefore the sage manages affairs without doing anything, and conveys his instructions without the use of speech. All things spring up, and there is not one which declines to show itself; they grow, and there is no claim made for their ownership; they go through their processes, and there is no expectation (of a reward for the results). The work is accomplished, and there is no resting in it (as an achievement)…. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 2, English trans.: James

Legge…是以聖人處無為之事，行不言之教；萬物作焉而不辭，生而不有。為

而不恃，功成而弗居…. 道德經 2, Retrieved June 10, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



The softest thing in the world dashes against and overcomes the hardest; that which has no (substantial) existence enters where there is no crevice. I know hereby what advantage belongs to doing nothing (with a purpose). There are few in the world who attain to the teaching without words, and the advantage arising from non-action. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 43, English translation: James Legge-

天下之至柔，馳騁天下之至堅。無有入無間，吾是以知無為之有益。不言之教

，無為之益，天下希及之. 道德經 43, Retrieved June 10, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



The Dao in its regular course does nothing (for the sake of doing it), and so there is nothing which it does not do. If princes and kings were able to maintain it, all things would of themselves be transformed by them…. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 37, English translation: James Legge-

道常無為而無不為。侯王若能守之 萬物將自化…. 道德經 37, Retrieved June

10, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



When we renounce learning we have no troubles. The (ready) 'yes,' and (flattering) 'yea;' Small is the difference they display. But mark their issues, good and ill; What space the gulf between shall fill?... -Dao De Jing, Chapter

20, English translation: James Legge-

絕學無憂，唯之與阿，相去幾何？善之與惡，相去若何？… 道德經 20,

Retrieved June 10, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



The movement of the Dao, By contraries proceeds; And weakness marks the course, Of Dao's mighty deeds. All things under heaven sprang from It as existing (and named); that existence sprang from It as non- existent (and not named). -Dao De Jing, Chapter 40, English translation: James Legge- 反者道之動；弱者道之用。天下萬物生於有，有生於無. 道德經 40, Retrieved

June 10, 2020 from https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



Dao has of all things the most honoured place. No treasures give good men so rich a grace; Bad men it guards, and doth their ill efface. (Its) admirable words can purchase honour; (its) admirable deeds can raise their performer above others. Even men who are not good are not abandoned by it…. -Dao De Jing, Chapter 62, English trans.: James Legge-

道者萬物之奧。善人之寶，不善人之所保。美言可以市，尊行可以加人。人之

不善，何棄之有?... 道德經 62, Retrieved June 10, 2020 from

https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing



In addition, Laozi in his text used several metaphors or symbols, such as water (Ch. 8), emptiness (Ch. 4, Ch. 11, Ch. 16), softness and weakness (Ch. 36, Ch. 43), a log (Ch. 28), mother (Ch. 52), and infant (Ch. 55), to illustrate the concepts of ‘noaction naturalness’ (無爲自然: wuwei ziran). These symbols can be applied to educational principles (Lee, 2016).

From the standpoint of pedagogy, the significant metaphors and symbols are: non-action instruction, the movement of the Dao by contraries proceeds, the highest excellence like water, and teaching without words. Laozi emphasizes the theory of “inaction and naturalness” (無爲自然) according to the Tao and its operation. To learn and practice the Tao and its operation, he suggests two significant methods or theories, ‘non-action instruction’ (無爲之教) and ‘teaching without words’ (不言之教). He shows several major examples metaphorically or symbolically to apply to educational principle, with suggesting water, softness, simplicity (Ch. 28, Ch. 37), vacantness (Ch. 11, Ch. 16), mother, and infant. Laozi argues not merely the recovery of human nature in accordance with the Tao which is the order of nature and human beings, but the balance between the nature and humans.

In terms of education, Laozi also highlights reciprocal harmony to maintain the order of nature and humans through the theories of “teaching without words” and “doing nothing.” The theories support ‘discard wisdom’ (Ch. 19), ‘renounce learning’ (Ch. 20), ‘hiding the light’ (Ch. 36), ‘forget knowledge’ (Ch. 48), and

‘do admirable words and admirable deeds’ (Ch. 62), ‘act without acting’ (Ch. 63), and ‘learn what do not learn’ (Ch. 64). Considering the above pedagogical approach of Laozi’s metaphors and symbols, Laozi’s educational thoughts are: (1) to view the Tao and to practice ‘its operation’ (virtue), (2) to learn what people do not learn, (3) to discard doing anything by human knowledge and wisdom, (4) to follow the Tao and natural law to be oneness between nature and self, (5) to cultivate one’s morality to raise others with admirable words and deeds, (6) to understand the principle of being and nothing, (7) to harmonize between nature and oneself, between others and myself, between societies, and between states, and (8) to design intuitive education through hiding the light related to the Tao.

The aims of Laozi’s education are: (1) to nurture a natural human being who follows the way of nature, with cultivating oneself, (2) to pursue the harmony and to keep the order of natural operation in human relationship, society, and state, and (3) to restore human nature with inactivity practicing the Tao every day until arriving at doing nothing.



IV. Significant Similarities and Differences: Buddha v. Laozi



The author of this study maps briefly out significant similarities and differences between Buddha and Laozi on the basis of the examination results in the previous sections. He also reviews the similarities and differences of happiness principle and educational thought from a standpoint of happiness and moral education. First, the similarities and differences of happiness principles are discussed. Next, the similarities and differences of educational thoughts are reviewed between the two sages. The author examines and discusses significant similarities and differences separately, but several major themes are redundant because the two look alike in the aspect of thoughts and principles between happiness and education.

First of all, the commonly significant similarities of the happiness principles between Buddha and Laozi are: (1) to cultivate oneself for moral life, (2) to recover or pursue human nature, (3) to harmonize mutuality, (4) to emphasize training and practice for happiness, and (5) to maintain the heart of mercy or love, and to discard greed, hatred, and delusion or mundanity.

In spite of several similarities, the two great thinkers have several differences regarding happiness principle as the following: (1) to morally cultivate oneself, Buddha asserts the practice of the Middle Way and the Eightfold Path, while Laozi claims the no-action living or practice of the Tao and its operation; (2) to recover human nature, Buddha suggests “Three Universal Truths,” annica, duhkha, and anatta, whereas Laozi presents the Way of nature following the Tao; (3) to harmonize each other, Buddha stresses the principle of cause and effect as well as the heart of great mercy; and Laozi teaches following the Tao and natural law to be oneness between nature and self; (4) to emphasize higher training and practice for happiness, Buddha teaches the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path that lead to renounce desire, to extinguish suffering, to purify the heart, to stop the cycle of rebirth, and to attain perfect liberation, that is, nirvana which is the state of true happiness, but Laozi discourses the attainment of the Tao (Way) and its operation Te (virtue), with “inaction and naturalness” (無爲自然); and (5) to maintain the heart of mercy or love, Buddha in his Suttas advises to keep the heart of mercy, compassion, and purity, while Laozi in Tao Te Ching recommends love, thrift, and modesty for a happy life and a harmonious society.

Next, the significant similarities of educational thoughts between two great sages are: (1) learning and practice absolute truth, (2) moral cultivation for a good life, (3) reciprocal harmony or balance for a peaceful society and world, (4) the recovery of human nature with intuitive and holistic approaches, (5) the respect of human life and nature, and (6) the attainment of happiness.

Despite these similarities, the two great thinkers have some differences about educational thought as follows:

First, for learning and practice absolute truth, Buddha highlights the learning and higher training of his teaching and wisdom to purify the heart and to understand the absolute truth (Dhamma) with mindful teaching and learning, whereas Laozi emphasizes the following the natural way and its operation to know the Way (Tao) of Heaven, with wordless teaching and doing non-action. Laozi also insists that one should learn what people do not want to learn, with the method of inaction and naturalness, and that one should discard common knowledge and wisdom.

Second, regarding moral cultivation for a good life, Buddha presents the moral conduct (Sanskrit: śīla, Pali: sīla) division of the Noble Eightfold Path for the higher training of morality. The Buddha suggests “Five Precepts” as the method of practice moral or ethical conduct training through three paths, such as right speech, right action, and right livelihood. On the other hand, Laozi claims that one should cultivate one’s morality to raise others with admirable words and deeds as well as to know oneself and others. He also insists that one should devote oneself to the Tao every day to diminish one’s doing till one arrives at doing nothing.

Third, toward keeping reciprocal harmony or balance for a peaceful society and world, Buddha proposes the Middle Path, not only for the practice of middle path but also for the harmony of our good life. As this path leads to a state of harmony and balance, so it encourages reciprocal harmony or balance for a peaceful society and world. On the contrary, Laozi asserts that one should follow the Tao and natural law to be oneness between nature and self, to harmonize between others and myself, between societies, and between states.

Fourth, for recovering the human nature, Buddha presents the higher training of mental discipline (samadhi) in the Noble Eightfold Path through right effort (samma vayama), right mindfulness (samma sati), and right concentration (samma samadhi), not just for the practice of meditation but for the recovery of human nature. On the other hand, Laozi argues the restoration of human nature with inactivity practicing the Tao every day until arriving at doing nothing.

Fifth, for the respect of human life and nature, Buddha proposes the “Five Precepts” which highlights human rights and the esteem of nature, whereas Laozi argues not only the oneness between nature and oneself but also human beings as part of nature.

Last, regarding the attainment of happiness, Buddha instructs the Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path, which present how to attain true happiness as well as how to cultivate and to encourage morality and mentality. On the other side, Laozi teaches the achievement of the Tao (Way) and its operation Te (virtue), with following “inaction and naturalness” (無爲自然).



V. Conclusion



The purpose of this position paper is to explore the happiness principles and educational thoughts of Buddha and Laozi. To discuss the paper systematically, three research questions are addressed. First, what are the happiness principles of Buddha and Laozi? Second, what are the educational thoughts of Buddha and Laozi? Third, what are significant similarities and differences between the two sages? In order to defend the research questions, a descriptive content analysis method will be used with a cross-cultural comparative approach. As for the limitations of this study, the principle of happiness is mainly discussed from a viewpoint of ethical philosophy, and the thought of education is reviewed from the perspective of happiness or moral education. This position paper is focused on the Dhammapada, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta of Buddha, and on the Tao Te Ching of Laozi. The author in this study has used the second resources in English as well as in the classical Chinese language. The significance of the study is to provide the basic theories and the valuable resources of contemporary and future education, especially happiness and moral education, for educational theorists and practitioners in the world in the aspect of the mutual understanding of two different cultures.

The research results of the study are briefly summed up as the following:

First, the happiness principle of Buddha is summarized in the ‘the Middle

Way’ and ‘The Four Noble Truths.’ The Buddha highlights that happiness can be attained through practicing the Middle Way and the Eightfold Path. Especially, the Eightfold Path is a way to extinguish human suffering (Duhkha-nirodha-marga) and to attain nirvana (absolute happiness, the summum bonum destination) (Keown, 2004). The Buddha strongly argues that ethical cultivation and spiritual training, such as to keep peaceful and positive mind, to have mercy and compassion, to discard greed, hatred, and delusion, and to practice mindfulness, meditative concentration, and insight, are necessary to achieve authentic happiness.

On the contrary, Laozi in the Tao Te Ching claims that the primary principle of happiness is to attain the Tao (Way), and the following principle is to practice virtue (Te). Laozi also emphasizes the theory of “inaction and naturalness” (無爲自然) according to the Tao and its operation. The Tao Te Ching presents several major concepts and principles of happiness: doing nothing, following the nature like water, returning to the primordial nature, filling with emptiness, harmonizing between Yin and Yang, following the Tao and natural law to be oneness between self and nature, living rustic life with inaction and naturalness, desiring what one does not desire, knowing the self and others, hiding the light, and following the Way of Heaven (Lee, 2016, pp.

18-19).

Second, Buddha in his Suttas suggests several major educational thoughts. Especially, Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta shows the Noble Eightfold Path which contains the threefold divisions of Buddhist training and discipline -- moral conduct (sila), mental discipline (samadhi), and wisdom (panna) -- can be considered as the three principles of education -- behavioural modification, mental cultivation, and intellectual development --, and also regarded as the foundations to set the goals and objectives of education (Ba, 2011, p. 225). In terms of religion or happiness education, several good qualities, such as full-awakening, peaceful equanimity, and nirbanic happiness, that Buddha instructed can be regarded as the purposes of life as well as of education (Ibid., p. 227).

On the other hand, Laozi’s educational thoughts: (1) to view the Tao and to practice ‘its operation’ (virtue), (2) to learn what people do not learn, (3) to discard doing anything by human knowledge and wisdom, (4) to follow the Tao and natural law to be oneness between nature and self, (5) to cultivate one’s morality to raise others with admirable words and deeds, (6) to understand the principle of being and nothing, (7) to harmonize between nature and oneself, between others and myself, between societies, and between nations, and (8) to design intuitive education through hiding the light related to the Tao. The aims of Laozi’s education are: (1) to nurture a natural human being who follows the way of nature, with cultivating oneself, (2) to pursue the harmony and to keep the order of natural operation in human relationship, society, and state, and (3) to restore human nature and to practice the Tao everyday with “inaction and naturalness” until arriving at doing nothing.

Third, in the previous section of this paper, the author has examined the similarities and differences of happiness principle and educational thought between the two sages from a standpoint of happiness and moral education.

In conclusion, based on the research results of this paper reviewed, the author suggests that the principles of happiness as well as the thoughts of education may seem to impart the useful resources and valuable theories of happiness or moral education to contemporary or future educational practitioners and theorists in order to build not merely the healthy morals of individuals, but the harmony of societies for our happiness and peace. For future research, it is recommended that the future paper be broadly undertaken to explore the merits of the teaching and wisdom of great thinkers in the classics of both worlds, with various research methodology. Finally, the author asserts that the current society centered on highly scientific and pragmatic knowledge may be thrown into confusion or despair, unless we encourage intuitive and holistic education approaches which Buddha and Laozi suggested in their scriptures. Thus, the researcher suggests that the present and future education should put emphasis on spiritual training or moral cultivation to be able to pursue harmonious happiness and peace.



Acknowledgments

The author, Jeong-Kyu Lee (July 15, 1950 – present), would like to make a grateful acknowledgment for two great sages, Buddha and Laozi, who produced spiritually stupendous achievements in the cultural history of the world. Particularly, I (Jeong-Kyu Lee) am thankful to my beloved wife (Okhee), my lovely daughter (Kirym), and my precious grandson (Theo) who have given me love, hope, and happiness for their support and devotion. I willingly dedicate this academic article to my lovely family members who live in Calgary, Canada with my heartfelt love and deep gratitude. Moreover, I wish for the health and happiness of all the people who have coped with COVID-19 (Coronavirus disease).



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*Author:

Jeong-Kyu Lee (July 15, 1950 – present, born in Tongyoung in South Korea), educational scholar and poet, is The 2017-19 Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime

Achievement Award Winner, Marquis Who’s Who in the World 24th-37th Edition (2007-2020), a listed educator with a degree of Philosophy of Doctor (Higher Educational Administration at The University of Texas at Austin), former President of Central College, Canada, Guest Scholar of the University of British Columbia, Canada, Research Fellow of Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI) under the Korean Government, Joint Professor of Hongik University in Seoul, former Columnist at University News Network in South Korea, and reviewer of several international journals, such as The Cambridge Journal of Education, Higher Education, Educational Administration and Policy Studies, Radical Pedagogy, etc.

Dr. Jeong-Kyu Lee’s academic articles and books have been published in domestic and several foreign countries, and international organizations such as South Korea, Canada, the U.S.(ERIC), the U.K., France, Mexico, Spain, India, China, OECD, UNESCO (IAU/HEDBIB), and the UN (UNPAN). A number of academic articles and books were written in English and Korean, and several articles were translated into French, Spanish, and Chinese. There are three poetical works: The Songs of Nature and Spirituality, The Songs of Mountain Villages, and The Songs of Life.