Showing posts with label Steve Taylor. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Steve Taylor. Show all posts

2021/11/12

Read The Leap Online by Steve Taylor and Eckhart Tolle | Books

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The Leap: The Psychology of Spiritual Awakening


By Steve Taylor and Eckhart Tolle

5/5 (5 ratings)
435 pages
14 hours

Included in your membership!
at no additional cost

Description


What does it mean to be enlightened or spiritually awakened? In The Leap, Steve Taylor shows that this state is much more common than is generally believed. He shows that ordinary people — from all walks of life — can and do regularly “wake up” to a more intense reality, even if they know nothing about spiritual practices and paths. Wakefulness is a more expansive and harmonious state of being that can be cultivated or that can arise accidentally. It may also be a process we are undergoing collectively. Drawing on his years of research as a psychologist and on his own experiences, Taylor provides what is perhaps the clearest psychological study of the state of wakefulness ever published. Above all, he reminds us that it is our most natural state — accessible to us all, anytime, anyplace.








2021/11/08

Read The Leap Online by Steve Taylor and Eckhart Tolle | Books

Read The Leap Online by Steve Taylor and Eckhart Tolle | Books

The Leap: The Psychology of Spiritual Awakening

5/5 (5 ratings)
435 pages
14 hours

Included in your membership!
at no additional cost

Description

What does it mean to be enlightened or spiritually awakened? In The Leap, Steve Taylor shows that this state is much more common than is generally believed. He shows that ordinary people — from all walks of life — can and do regularly “wake up” to a more intense reality, even if they know nothing about spiritual practices and paths. Wakefulness is a more expansive and harmonious state of being that can be cultivated or that can arise accidentally. It may also be a process we are undergoing collectively. Drawing on his years of research as a psychologist and on his own experiences, Taylor provides what is perhaps the clearest psychological study of the state of wakefulness ever published. Above all, he reminds us that it is our most natural state — accessible to us all, anytime, anyplace.

2021/10/29

자아초월심리학 Transpersonal Psychology wikipedia

 자아초월심리학 Transpersonal Psychology

(from wikipedia | 역자 : 오세준)

자아초월 심리학Transpersonal psychology은 현대 심리학의 틀을 가지고 인간의 영적 · 종교적 측면 을 통합시킨 심리학의 하위-분야 혹은 "학파"이다. 이를 "영적 심리학spiritual psychology”이라고 정의 할 수도 있다. 자아초월transpersonal은 "정체성 혹은 자기감이 인류, 생명, 심혼 혹은 우주 전체를 포괄 하는 개체적 혹은 개인적 수준 너머로 확장되는 경험"[1]으로 정의된다. 이는 또한 "인습적, 개인적 혹은 개 체적 수준을 넘어선 발달"로 정의되기도 한다.[2]

자아초월 심리학에서 다루는 주제들은 영적 자기-발달self-development, 에고를 넘어선 자기, 절정 체험peak experiences, 체계적으로 유도된 트랜스systemic trance, 영적 위기, 영적 진화, 종교적 회심 religious conversion, 의식의 변성 상태altered states of consciousness, 영적 수행, 기타 숭고 체험 혹 은 비일상적으로 확장된 생명 체험을 포함한다. 이 분야는 현대 심리학의 이론 안에서 영적 체험을 기술하 고 통합하며 이 같은 경험들을 포괄할 수 있는 새로운 이론을 만드는 시도를 하고 있다. 자아초월 심리학은 인간 발달, 의식, 영성 연구와 관련 학계에 몇 가지 기여를 해왔다.[3][4] 자아초월 심리학은 또한 심리치료[5]와 정신의학[6][7]분야에도 기여하였다.

1. 정의

Lajoie과 Shapiro[8]는 1968년에서 1991년까지 학계의 문헌에서 나타난 자아초월 심리학의 정의 40 가지를 검토하였다. 그들은 이 정의들 속에서 특히 두드러지게 나타나는 다섯 가지 핵심 주제들을 발견하 였다 : 의식의 상태; 상위의 혹은 궁극적인 잠재력,; 에고 혹은 개인적 자기self 너머; 초월 transcendance; 영성the spiritual. 이 연구에 기초하여 그들은 자아초월 심리학에 대한 다음의 정의를 제시하였다 : 자아초월 심리학은 인류의 가장 높은 잠재력, 그리고 의식의 합일, 영적, 초월적 상태에 대한 인식, 이해, 그리고 깨달음과 관련되어 있다.

이전의 정의들을 검토하면서 Walsh와 Vaughan[1]은 자아초월 심리학은 자아초월적 경험과 그와 관 련된 현상을 집중적으로 연구하는 심리학의 한 분야라고 주장하였다. 이러한 현상에는 자아초월적 경험 의 원인과 결과, 그리고 발달과의 관련성 뿐만 아니라 자아초월적 경험으로부터 영감을 받은 훈련과 수행 법들을 포함한다. 그들은 또한 자아초월 심리학의 여러 정의들이 내포한 가정 혹은 전제들이 이 분야를 전 체적으로 정의하고 있지 못한 것 같다고 비판하였다(각주 a 참고)

Hartelius, Caplan과 Rardin[9]은 자아초월 심리학의 정의를 회고 분석retrospective analysis하였다. 그들은 이 분야를 정의하는 세 가지 주요 주제들을 발견하였다: 에고-너머의 심리학beyond-ego psychology , 통합적/전일적 심리학integrative/holistic psychology, 그리고 변용의 심리학psychology of transformation . 분석 결과 이 분야는 초기에는 의식의 변성 상태를 강조하였지만 이후 인간의 전일 성과 변용에 대한 보다 확장된 관점의 강조로 옮겨갔다. 이러한 발전은, 저자들에 따르면, 이 분야를 Ken Wilber와 포스트-오로빈도 이론가들의 통합적 접근법에 보다 근접시켰다.

카플란(2009: p.231)은 이 분야의 탄생기를 통해 관련 사항을 기술하고 정의를 시도하였다:

"비록 1969년 자아초월 심리학 저널The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology의 출판과 1971년 자아초월 심리학회the Association for Transpersonal Psychology 의 창립과 더불어 시작된 자아초월 심리학이 공식적인 학문 분야로선 상대적으로 생소하겠지만, 그것은 다양한 전통에서 기인한 고대의 비 전(秘傳) 지식에 의지하고 있다. 자아초월 심리학자들은 현대 서구의 심리학과 무시간의 지혜를 통합하고 영적 원리들을 과학적 근거를 갖춘 동시대의 언어로 번역하려는 시도를 하고 있다. 자아초월 심리학은 인 간의 심리영적 발달의 전체 스펙트럼을 다루고 있다- 우리의 가장 깊은 상처와 욕구부터 인간 존재의 실존 적 위기, 그리고 우리 의식의 가장 초월적인 역량에 이르기까지 말이다.[10]" 자아초월 심리학의 세계관의 핵심은 전일주의holism와 합일unity의 관점이다.[11]

2. 학문 분야의 발전상

기원

자아초월적 연구의 초석을 닦아 놓았다고 여겨지는 사상가들로는 윌리엄 제임스William James , 칼 융 Carl Jung , 로베르토 아싸지올리 Roberto Assagioli , 그리고 아브라함 매슬로우 Abraham Maslow 가 있다.[3][11][12][13][14] 또한 최근 쟝 피아제의 번역되지 않은 불어 연구서적들 중 일부의 자아초월적인 측면이 부각되면서 피아제의 자아초월적 경험과 이론적 관심이 그의 심리학 연구의 주요 동기였다는 주장이 나왔 다.[15] Vich의 문헌 리뷰에 따르면 "자아초월transpersonal"이란 용어는 윌리엄 제임스가 1905-6 년 하버드 대학에서 준비했던 강의 노트 속에서 찾아볼 수 있다. 그 때 당시의 의미는 제임스의 급진적 경 험주의 radical empiricism의 맥락 속에서 나온 것으로 오늘날과는 달랐으며, 거기에선 지각하는 주체와 지각되는 객체 사이에 접한 관련성이 존재하며, 모든 객체는 누군가에 의한 지각에 의존하고 있는 것으 로 여겨졌다.[17] 한편 주석자들은 들[18] 은 사이키델릭psychedelic 운동과 종교의 심리학적 연구, 초심리학 parapsychology, 그리고 동양의 영적 체계와 수행에 대한 관심이 자아초월 심리학의 초기 분야를 형성하 는데 영향을 끼쳤다고 언급하였다. 자아초월 심리학의 수립에 또 하나의 중요한 인물은 바로 아브라함 매 슬로우Abraham Maslow 이다. 그는 수립 이전에 이미 인간의 절정 체험에 대한 연구를 출판하였다. 그 는 1967년 "인간 본성의 저 너머farther reaches of human nature"라는 제목의 강의에서 심리학의 제 4세력, 이른바 초-인본주의transhumanistc 심리학의 운곽을 제시한 것으로 그 공로를 인정받고 있다.

[19] 1968년에 매슬로우는 자아초월 심리학을 심리학의 "제 4세력"이라고 선언한 이들 중 하나가 되었다.[20] 

그들은 자아초월 심리학을 나머지 심리학의 세 개의 세력과 구별하고자 하였다: 정신분석 psychoanalysis, 행동주의behaviorism 그리고 인본주의 심리학humanistic psychology. "자아초월"이 라는 용어의 초창기 사용은 스타니슬라브 그로프Stanislav Grof 와 앤소니 수티치Stanislav Grof 의 공 도 크다. 이 당시, 1967-68년도에, 매슬로우 또한 그로프, 그리고 수티치와 이 새로운 분야의 명칭과 지 향점에 대해 긴 한 대화를 나누었다.[16] 파워스Powers[21]에 따르면 "자아초월"이란 용어는 학계의 저널에 선 1970년 이후부터 나타나기 시작한다. 

인본주의와 자아초월 심리학 둘 다 인간 잠재력 운동Human Potential Movement과 관련있다. 또 한 1960년대의 반-문화 운동으로부터 파생된 대안적 치료와 철학을 위한 캘리포니아의 에살렌Esalen 같

은 곳과도 연관되어 있다.[22][23][24][25][26]

형성기

1960년대 동안 "자아초월"은 인본주의 심리학 운동 내에서 점차 별도의 심리학 학파로 여겨지기 시작 했다.[20] 아브라함 매슬로우, 스타니슬라브 그로프, 앤쏘니 수티치는 1969년 이 분야에선 선도적인 학술 지인 자아초월 심리학 저널Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 의 최초 출간을 뒷받침한 발기인들이 다.[19][20] 그 다음 10여년 동안 자아초월 심리학의 기치 아해 주요 단체들이 만들어졌다. 자아초월 심리학 협회The Association for Transpersonal Psychology가1972년에 설립되었고,[22] 이어서 1975년, 학위 취득이 가능한 자아초월 심리학 기구the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology(현재, 캘리포니아에 위 치한 Sofia University)가 설립되었다.[22][27] 이 기구는 1970년대 자아초월심리학의 학문적 바람에 힘입

어 Robert Frager와 James Fadiman[27][28]이 만들었으며 심리학에 대한 자아초월적, 영적 접근을 포함시 켰다.[27] 곧 자아초월 심리학 프로그램을 갖춘 타 기관들이 뒤를 이었다. 여기에는 세이브룩 대학교

Saybrook Graduate School, the California Institute of Asian Studies(현 California Institute of Integral Studies), JFK University, Naropa 대학이 포함된다.[29] 

1970년대 이 분야는 Robert Frager, Alyce Elmer Green, Daniel Goleman, Stanley Krippner, 찰 스 타르트Charles Tart, 로저 월시Roger Walsh, John Welwood, 그리고 켄 윌버Ken Wilber같은 저자 들의 저술과 더불어 발전하였다.[30] 초창기 자아초월 분야의 중요 인물인 켄 윌버는1970년대 후반과

1980년대 초반 수 많은 논문과 서적을 출간하였으며 이는 자아초월 심리학의 발전에 기여하였다. [33] 그

가 쓴 자아초월 심리학 관련 서적으로는 의식의 스펙트럼The Spectrum of Consciousness (1977),[33][34] 아트만 프로젝트The Atman Project - 인간 발달에 대한 자아초월적 관점a transpersonal view of human development(1980)[33][35] 등이 있다. Paulson [33]에 따르면, 윌버는 주로 다양한 학문 분야를 종합 하는 방식으로 자아초월 심리학 분야의 지적 토대를 제공해주었다. 이 분야의 또 다른 중요한 공헌자는 융 학파의 심층 심리학의 통찰을 끌고 온 마이클 워시번Michael Washburn이다.[38] 그는 1980년대 말, 에고 와 역동적 기반The Ego and the Dynamic Ground (1988)이란 책에서 자신의 자아초월 이론을 제시하 였다. Smith에 따르면,[40] 윌버(1977)와 워시번Washburn(1988)은 자아초월적 발달에 대한 핵심적 안 내 이론을 제시하였다. 1980년대는 또한 스타니슬라프 그로프와 크리스티나 스로프(역주: 스타니슬라브 그로프의 부인)의 작업을 비롯하여 영적 출현spiritual emergence과 영적 응급상황 spiritual

emergencies이라는 개념으로 특징지워지기도 한다.[6][41][42]

이 시기에는 또한 조직적 수준에서의 발의가 이루어지기도 하였다. 1980년대 초기 미국심리학회 32 번 분과(인본주의 심리학)에 속한 한 집단이 심리학회의 틀 내에서 별도로 자아초월 심리학 분과를 만들 자고 저징하였다. 이 청원은 1984년 미국심리학회 회의에 제츨되었지만 결국 거부당했다. 새로운 발의가 1985년에 이뤄졌지만, 이 또한 회의에서 과반수를 획득하는데 실패하였다. 1986년, 세번째이자 마지막 으로 제출되었지만 32번 분과 위원회에 의해 철회되었다.[9][22] 여기에 관심을 가졌던 집단은 이후 자아초월 심리학 관심 집단he Transpersonal Psychology Interest Group (TPIG)으로 변모하여 계속해서 32번 분과와의 협력 하에 자아초월적 이슈들을 활발히 다루고자 하였다.[22]

1990년대에는 분야에 새로운 통찰들을 던져주는 이들이 등장하였다. 여기에는 Brant

Cortright, Stuart Sovatsky, David Lukoff, Robert P. Turner 등이 포함되며 Francis Lu. Cortright[43]와

Sovatsky[44]는 특히 자아초월 심리치료 분야에 공헌하였다. 이 두 저자들은 모두 자신의 주 저작을 SUNY 시리즈의 일부로 출간하였으며(각주 b), 임상분야의 Lukoff, Turner, Lu는 미국 정신의학 학회American

Psychiatric Association의 DSM-매뉴얼에 “심리종교적 혹은 심리영적 문제”라는 새로운 진단 범주를 포 함시켜야 한다는 제안을 뒷받침하였다. 이는 1993년 DSM-IV에 포함되었으며 이후 그 명칭을 종교적 혹 은 영적 문제로 변경하였다.[6][45] 켄 윌버가 자아초월 심리학 분야의 영향력 있는 저술가이자 이론가로 간주 되었지만, 1990년대 동안 그의 자아초월심리학과의 결별은 더욱 분명해졌다. 그가 결별한 시점은 불분명 하지만[9] Freeman[31]은 윌버가 1990년대 중반 이후로 “자아초월적”이라는 명칭과 거리를 두고 “통합적 integral”이라는 표현을 선호하였다고 언급하였다. 1998년 그는 통합 기구Integral Institute(현재는 Integral Life로 변모)를 설립하였다.

1990년대는 자아초월 심리학회 회원들이 꾸준히 늘어난 시기이기도 하며, 90년대에 이미 약 3,000 명에 육박하였다.[20] 1996년, 영국 심리학 협회(미국의 APA에 해당)는 자아초월 심리학 분과를 설립하였 다. 이는 David Fontana, Ingrid Slack와 Martin Treacy에 의해 공동설립 되었으며, Fontana에 따르 면 “서구의 과학자 사회에서 이러한 종류로는 최초의 분과이다"[46][47] 90년대 후반부는 주석자들에 따르면 자아초월 심리학이 꾸준히[20], 그리고 급격히[3] 성장한 시기이다. 

최근의 발전상

2000년대 초반은 조르쥬 페레Jorge Ferrer의 수정revision 프로젝트가 두드러지며, 이는 이 분야의 중대한 공헌으로 여겨진다.[48] 이 분야에서 그의 핵심 저작은 자아초월 이론의 수정-인간 영성의 참여적 비 전Revisioning Transpersonal Theory - A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality (2001)이며,

[49] 이는 자아초월과 인본주의 심리학에 관한 SUNY 시리즈의 일부로 출판되었다.

2012년 자아초월 심리학 기구the Institute of Transpersonal psychology는 명칭을 소피아 대학 Sofia University으로 변경하였음을 선언하였다. 이러한 변화는 학계의 새로운 학문적 지평이 열렸고, 학 위 프로그램이 더욱 확장되었음을 의미한다[50]

분파와 관련 분야들

자아초월 심리학에는 몇몇 학파 혹은 분파가 존재하며, 이는 자아초월 심리학 분야에 영향을 끼쳐왔 다. 여기에는 칼 융의 분석심리학,[3][12][43] 로베르토 아사지올리의 정신통합[3][13] 그리고 아브라함 매슬로으의

인본주의 심리학[3][13]이 포함된다. 심리치료의 주요 자아초월적 모델로는, Cortright의 리뷰에 따르면[43] 켄 윌버, 칼 융, 마이클 워시번, 스타니슬라브 그로프, 그리고 하미드 알리Hameed Ali의 모델이 있다.

Dr. William J. Barry는 그의 박사 논문과 변용적 질 이론Transformational Quality (TQ) Theory의 개발을 통해 교육 분야에서 쓸 수 있는 타당한 행동 연구 방법론으로서의 자아초월 심리학을 구축하였다.

[51] 비지니스와 경영 연구 분야에서의 응용 또한 발전하였다.자아초월 인류학, 자아초월 비지니스 연구 Other transpersonal 같은 기타 자아초월적 학문 분야 또한 자아초월 분야의 목록에 포함되었다.

Boucovolas[52]가 언급한 자아초월적 예술은 자아초월 심리학이 다른 자아초월적 연구 분야와 연결될 수 있는 사례로 볼 수 있다. 자아초월적 예술에 대한 글에서, Boucovolas는 Breccia와 1971년 국제 자아 초월 협회의 정의를 언급하면서, 자아초월적 예술이 어떻게 자아초월적 의식처럼 개인적 자기를 넘어선 중요한 주제들에 기초한 예술 작업으로 이해될 수 있는 지를 논하였다. 자아초월적 예술 비평은 창조성 creativity에 대한 신비주의적 접근과 접하게 연결되어 있다. Boucovolas가 언급한 것처럼, 자아초월적 예술 비평은 기존의 관습적 예술 비평들이 예술의 이성적 차원을 지나치게 강조하면서 영적 차원은 소흘 히 하였고, 예술 작품이 개인을 넘어선 어떤 의미를 지니고 있다고 여겼다. 칼 융의 심리학 같은 경우나 음 악치료나 예술 치료 또한 이 분야와 관련되어 있다. Boucovolas은 Breccia (1971)를 자아초월적 예술의 초기 사례로 인용하면서 통합이론가 켄 윌버Ken Wilber가 최근 이 분야에 기여해왔다고 주장하였다. 보 다 최근인 2005년 자아초월심리학 저널 37호는 미디어를 주제로 한 특별판을 내놓았으며 이 분야와 관 련된 영화 비평글들을 실었다.

몇몇 학문 분야는 자아초월 심리학 분야와 깊은 관계를 맺고 있다. 여기에는 임사체험 연구Neardeath studies, 초심리학Parapsychology 및 인본주의 심리학Humanistic psychology이 포함된다. 임 사체험 연구의 주요 발견들은 자아초월과 정신의학 교과서Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology와 자아초월 심리학 핸드북The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology.[53]에 잘 나타나 있다. 임사체험은 또한 다른 자아초월적, 영적 범주들과 연관되어 논의되고 있다.[6] 초심리학Parapsychology의 주요 발견들 또한 자아초월과 정신의학 교과서Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology와 자아초월 심리학 핸드북The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology.[53]에 잘 나타나 있다. 

한편 Donald Moss의 책에서 언급한 것처럼, 심리학에 대한 자아초월적 접근과 인본주의적 접근 사이 에는 강력한 연관성이 존재한다.[54][55] 비록 자아초월 심리학이 인본주의 심리학 내부[22] 에서 출발한 것 혹은 그로부터 발달한 것으로 간주되지만, 영성, 의식의 양태 처럼 자아초월 심리학의 관심사 대부분은 인본주 의 이론에서 논하는 관심 영역 너머에 있다.[18] 이 분야의 저자들에 따르면[18], 자아초월 심리학은 인본주의 심리학에서 필수적으로 다루진 않는 신체적 정신적 건강에 대한 보다 확장되고 영적인 관점을 옹호한다. 몇몇 논평가들은 자아초월 심리학과 때때로 자아초월 연구라고 불리는 보다 넓은 범주의 자아초월 이

론들 사이에는 차이점이 존재한다고 주장하였다.[20][56][57]Friedman[57]에 따르면 이 범주에는 과학의 틀 바깥 에 놓인 자아초월적 접근 몇 가지도 포함될 수 있다. 하지만 Ferrer [58]에 따르면, 자아초월 심리학 분야 는 “자아초월적 연구라는 보다 큰 우산 안에 위치하고 있다" 

자아초월 심리학은 또한, 이따금이긴 하지만, 뉴에이지New Age 신념과 연관될 수 있다.[56][59][60] 하지 만 Sovatsky,[44] Rowan,[61] 같은 선도적인 작가들은 “뉴에이지”라고 불리는 철학과 담화의 본질을 비판하 였다. Rowan[61]은 심지어 “자아초월 심리학은 뉴에이지가 아니다”라고까지 언급하였다.[62] 자아초월 심리 학 분야를 리뷰하면서 Friedman[56]은 책임감있는 자아초월적 과학은 “뉴에이지”의 아이디어와 철학에 대 해 반드시 거리낌을 표해야 한다고 강조하였다. 

비록 일부는 자아초월 심리학과 종교 심리학 사이의 구별이 점점 희미해진다고 여기지만(예: 심리학과

영성에 대한 옥스포드 핸드북The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality), 이 둘은 여전히 분명히 구분된다고 볼 수 있는 지점이 있다. 종교심리학의 초점 대부분은 자아초월 심리학 내에선 ‘초월적 transcendent’인 것으로 간주되지 않을 이슈들에 맞춰져 있다. 따라서 두 분야는 분명 서로 다른 초점을

지니고 있다.[63]

3. 연구, 이론, 그리고 임상적 측면

연구 관심사와 방법론

자아초월적 관점은 여러 연구 관심사들에 뻗어 있다. 다음의 목록은 자아초월 정신의학과 심리학 교과 서Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology[4]에서 차용한 것이다 : 도교Taoism, 힌두교 Hinduism, 요가Yoga, 불교Buddhism, 카발라Kabbalah, 기독교 신비주의Christian mysticism, 샤머니 즘Shamanism, 미국 원주민식 힐링같은 영적 전통들의 공헌부터 정신의학과 심리학에까지 이른다; 명상

Meditation 연구와 명상의 임상적 측면; 사이키델릭Psychedelics; 초심리학Parapsychology; 인류학 Anthropology; 종교적 영적 문제의 진단Diagnosis of Religious and Spiritual Problem; 공격적 영성 과 영적 방어Offensive Spirituality and Spiritual Defenses; Phenomenology and Treatment of 쿤달 리니Kundalini의 현상학과 다루기; 심리치료Psychotherapy; 임사체험Near-Death Experience; 종교적 컬트Religious Cults; 정신약리학Psychopharmacology; 유도된 심상Guided Imagery; 호흡작업 Breathwork; 전생치료Past life therapy; 생태학적 생존 Ecological survival 그리고 사회적 변화Social change; 노화와 성인의 영적 발달spiritual development. 

자아초월 심리학 연구는 양적, 질적 방법 모두에 기초하고 있다.[11] 하지만 Taylor 같은 몇몇 논평가들 은 자아초월 심리학의 주된 공헌이 주류 심리학의 양적 방법론에 대한 대안을 제공해온 것이라고 주장하 였다.[11] 비록 이 분야가 임상적 이슈에 대한 실증적 지식에는 별다른 공헌을 하지 못했지만,[18] 명상 연구

같은 분야에서는 중요한 양적 연구로 공헌하였다.[11]

인간 발달에 대한 이론

자아초월 이론에서의 중요한 경계선 중 하나는 인간 발달에 대한 위계적/홀라키적, 순차적sequential,

혹은 유사-단계 모델과 관련되어 있다. 여기에는 켄 윌버Ken Wilber, 존 바티스타John Battista, 그리고 융학파의 관점과 관련된 저자들, 혹은 마이클 워시번Michael Washburn과 스타니슬라브 그로프 Stanislav Grof 처럼 퇴행의 원리를 포함한 모델을 주장한 이들이 포함되어 있다.

켄 윌버와 존 바티스타Ken Wilber and John Battista 켄 윌버의 자아초월 심리학은 종종 이 분야에서 유력한 이론적 작업틀로 언급된다.[3][9][18][31] 윌버는 흔히

선도적인 이론가[9]이자 자아초월 운동transpersonal movement[3]의 선구자로 간주된다. 하지만 그는 상

당기간 동안 자아초월이라는 명칭과 적극적으로 연관되지 않았다 .몇몇 논평가들은[9][31][64] 그가 통합적 Integral이라고 부르는 새로운 모델을 선호하면서 스스로 자아초월 분야와 거리를 두었다고 언급하였다. 하지만 그의 심리학적 모형은 여전히 자아초월 심리학의 수행과 발전[18]에 영향을 끼치고 있으며 자아초월 적 주제 역시 그의 저작의 핵심적인 부분으로 남아 있다. 인간 발달의 이해에 대한 그의 초기 공헌은 심리 학의 스펙트럼-모형이었으며,[3][18][38][65][66] 그의 첫 번째 저서 의식의 스펙트럼The spectrum of consciousness(1977)[34]과 아트만 프로젝트-인간 발달에 대한 자아초월적 관점The Atman Project - A transpersonal view of human development(1980)[35]에서 개술되었다. 이 책들은 대략적으로 동양과 서양을 통합한 것으로 묘사되곤 한다;[67] 힌두-불교 전통의 영적 철학과 서구 학계의 영적 심리학의 통합. 윌버의 의식의 스펙트럼은 세 가지 커다란 발달적 범주로 이루어져 있다: 전개인 혹은 전-에고의, 개인적 혹은 에고의, 그리고 자아초월적 혹은 초-에고의[3] 이 스펙트럼 이론의 보다 자세한 버전은 인간 발달에 대 한 아홉가지 서로 다른 수준들을 포함하고 있다. 수준 1-3은 전개인 수준이고, 수준 4-6은 개인적 수준,

수준 7-9는 초개인 수준이다.[68] 이후의 버전은 10번째 수준까지 포함하고 있다.[69][70] 자아초월적 단계 혹은

스펙트럼의 상위 수준은 영적 사건과 발달의 고향이다.[18][38] 윌버가 제시한 작업틀은 인간 발달이 이러한

의식의 단계들을 통과해 앞으로 나아가는 움직임임을 제안하고 있다.[66][68] 그의 모델은 심리학의 서로 다른

학파들이 스펙트럼의 서로 다른 수준과 연관되어 있으며,[65][67] 각각의 조직화 수준 혹은 자기-발달 수준은

해당 수준과 관련된 특정 병리에의 취약성을 내포하고 있음을 시사하고 있다.[18][66][68] 각각의 수준은 또한 반 드시 적절하게 이루어져야 하고 그렇지 않으면 발달적 구속 상태로 귀결되는 발달 과업들을 지니고 있다. [38] 윌버의 자아초월 심리학의 기본 신조는 “전/초 오류”라 불리는 개념이다. 즉, 전개인적 퇴행과 초개인적 진보의 혼동.[67] 이 분야의 저술가들에 따르면, 서구의 심리학 학파들은 자아초월적 수준들을 병리적인 것 으로 간주하고, 그것들을 스펙트럼의 낮은 수준에 속하는 퇴행적이고 병리적인 현상과 동일시하는 경향 이 있다. 전/초 오류는 이러한 두 범주 사이의 차별화의 결여를 묘사하고 있는 것이다.

윌버의 물질, 몸, 마음, 혼, 영[31]에 이르는, 혹은 전개인에서 개인, 초개인 [71][72]에 이르는 의식 혹은 실재 의 수준에 대한 이해는 종종 “존재의 대사슬 Great Chain of Being”로 지칭된다. 이 대단히 중요한 작업 틀은, 세계의 위대한 영적 전통들의 “영원의 철학”으로부터 채택된 것이며, 이후 윌버에 의해 “존재의 대 둥지”라는 새로운 명칭을 부여 받았다.[31] 이것은 단순한 선형적 위계질서가 아니라 일종의 겹진 위계질서, 혹은 홀라키[65][71]이다. 인간 발달, 그리고 진화는 이 홀라키를 따라 올라가는 것으로 간주된다.[65]

1990년대는 윌버에게 있어 통합적 사상의 세계로 나아가는 시기였다. 논평가들에 따르면 그는 1990 년대 중반부터 통합적integral이라는 용어를 선호하면서 자신의 작품을 자아초월적이라고 언급하기를 멈 추었다고 한다.[31] 문헌들은 이제 그가 자아초월 심리학에서 통합적 심리학으로 옮겨갔음을 확신하고 있 다.[9] Brys & Bokor에 따르면, 윌버는 1997년에서 2000년 사이에 그의 통합적 접근의 주요 저서들을 내 놓았다.[73] 통합적 이론은 의식의 사상한 모델과 발달을 포함하고 있으며, 각각의 차원은 단계 혹은 수준의 순서에 따라 펼쳐진다고 언급된다. 사상한과 수준의 결합은 온-상한 all-quadrant, 온-수준all-level 접근 으로 귀결된다. 이 이론은 또한 다른 전체의 부분이면서 동시에 전체인 것을 가리키는 홀론과 홀론 속의 홀론이 존재하는 위계질서를 가리키는 홀라키라는 개념을 포함하고 있다.[74] 이러한 아이디어들 중 일부는

이미 1995년에 출간된 성, 성태, 영성에 나타나 있다.[69][74]

논평가들에 따르면,[75][76] 윌버의 통합 비전integral vision에서 영적 차원은 핵심에 위치하고 있다. 윌버가 제시한 모델과 비슷한 것이 바로 존 바티스타John Battista가 제시한 의식의 정보 이론이다. 바티스타는 자기-시스템,그리고 인간 심리의 발달이 성숙과 심리적 안정성의 강화, 그리고 자아초월적이고 영적인 범 주들을 향한 일련의 전환들로 이루어져 있다고 주장하였다. 그의 모델은 의식과 정신병리의 수준 각각에 해당하는 일련의 발달 과업들을 제시하고 있으며 서로 다른 수준들 및 전환과 관련된 치료적 개입에 대해

논하고 있다.[77]

마이클 워시번과 스타니슬라브 그로프

마이클 워시번은 정신분석, 대상-관계 이론, 그리고 융 학파의 심층 심리학으로부터 영향을 받은 인간

발달 모형을 제시하였다.[38][78][78] 자아초월 심리치료의 맥락에서, 워시번의 접근은 융의 분석 심리학의 개정 판으로 묘사되기도 한다.[5] 그의 세미나 수업의 결과물이기도 한 저서 에고와 역동적 기반: 발달의 자아초 월 적 이 론 T h e E g o a n d t h e D y n a m i c G r o u n d : A Tr a n s p e r s o n a l T h e o r y o f Development (1988/1995)[39]에서, 그는 발달의 “역동적-변증법적 모형”을 제시하였다.[79] 이 모형은 신

성한 세계에서의 체화된 영성Embodied spirituality in a sacred world (2003)[78][80] 같은 이후의 저서들 에서 갱신되었다. 워시번에 따르면, 자아초월적 발달은 나선형 경로의 원리를 따른다.[78] 그의 모형의 핵심은 역동적 기반 에 대한 이해이다; 역동적 기반은 깊은 심층의 무의식이며[78], 영적인 특질을 지니고 있고[81], 개인이 전개인 적 발달 수준일 때 접촉하고 있던 것이다.[78] 논평가들에 따르면, 워시번은 인간 발달의 세 단계에 대해 기 술하였다; 전-개인, 개인, 그리고 초개인,[78] 이는 또한 전-에고적, 에고적, 초-에고적으로 기술되기도 한다. [81] 전-단계(5세까지)에서, 아이는 역동적 기반과 통합되어 있다. 이후의 삶에서 이 접촉은 약화되며, 에고

가 역동적 기반으로부터 분리되는 새로운 발달단계가 뒤따른다.[78][81] 이것은 억압,[79][81]의 과정을 통해 일어

나며 성인기[78]와 정신적 에고mental ego(에고적 단계) [79][81]의 특징이기도 하다. 하지만, 이후의 삶의 초-에고적 단계에서 역동적 기반과 재-통합될 가능성이 남아 있다.[78][79][81] 워시번에 따르면 이 자아초월적 발달에선 에고가 그 무의식적인 역동과 더불어 통합되기 위해선 역동적 기반을 향

한 일종의 유U-턴, 혹은 회귀가 필요하다.[38][78][79][82] 워시번의 모형의 이러한 측면은 논평가들 [82]에 의해 위로

나아가기 전에 뒤로 물러서기라고 묘사되었다. 초월[38], 그리고 온전히 체화된 삶[78]을 위한 길을 닦아주는 퇴행인 것이다. 자아초월적 발달에 대한 워시번의 접근은 종종 “초월을 위한 퇴행regression in the

service of transcendence”으로 요약된다.[38][78][79][81] 이는 Lev[79]에 따르면, “에고를 위한 퇴행”이란 말을 살 짝 바꾼 것이다. 워시번은 그가 나선형-역동적이라고 부른 자신의 관점과 그가 구조적-위계적이라고 부른 켄 윌버의 발

달 이론을 대비시켰다.[81][83] 워시번과 윌버의 관점상의 차이에 대해 몇몇 논평가들이 언급하였다.[78][81][82]

한편, 스타니슬라브 그로프는 세 가지 종류의 영토들로 구성된 의식의 지도를 가지고 작업하였다: 감 각적 장벽과 개인 무의식의 영역(정신분석이 묘사한), 주산기perinatal 혹은 탄생-관련된 영역(정신 psyche의 조직화 원리인), 그리고 초개인적 영역.[31][38] 이러한 관점에 따르면 첫 두 영역에 대한 적절한 관 여는 세 번째의 자아초월적 영역을 오르기 위한 계단 역할을 한다.[38] 그의 초기 치료와 연구는 리세르그산 다이에틸아마이드lysergic acid diethylamide(LSD), 실로시빈 psilocybin(역주: 멕시코산(産) 버섯에서 얻어지는 환각 유발 물질), 메스컬린mescaline(역주: 북미 남부 인디언들의 종교적 의식에서 섭취하는 선 인장 Hophophora williamsii에 들어 있는 마취성 알칼로이드 물질), dipropyl-tryptamine (DPT), methylene-dioxy-amphetamine (MDA) 같은 싸이키델릭 물질의 도움으로 수행되었다.[84][85] 이후, LSD

가 금지되자 그로프는 홀로트로픽 호흡작업[85][86] 같은 다른 치료 방법을 개발하였다.

그의 초기 발견들은[87] LSD 연구에서의 관찰을 기반으로 이루어졌으며, 그로프에 따르면 인간 무의식 의 각 단계에 상응하는 경험들에는 네 가지 주요 유형이 존재함이 밝혀졌다: (1) 추상적이고 미적인 체험;

(2) 정신역동적인 체험Psychodynamic experiences; (3) 주산기 체험Perinatal experiences; (4) 자아 초월적 체험Transpersonal experiences. 그로프는 이후의 책들에서도 이러한 발견들을 반복적으로 언급 하였다.[85] 지그문트 프로이드의 이론에 해당하는 정신역동적 수준은 생물학적 기억, 정서적 문제, 풀리지 않은 갈등과 공상의 영역이다. 주산기 수준은, 오토 랭크Otto Rank의 이론에 해당하며, 신체적 고통과 괴 로움, 죽음의 과정과 죽음, 생물학적 탄생, 노화, 질병과 노쇠의 영역이다. 자아초월적 수준은 칼 융의 이 론에 해당하며, 여러가지 영적, 초정상적, 그리고 초월적 경험의 영역이며, 여기에는 초능력 현상, 에고의 초월, 그리고 기타 확장된 의식 상태들이 포함된다. 정신역동적 수준과 주산기 수준에 구조를 부여하기 위 해, 그로프는 두 가지 통제 체계 혹은 조직화 원리를 도입하였다: 정신역동적 수준을 통제하는 시스템인

COEX체계(system of condensed experience; 반복에 의해 굳어진 응축된 경험체계), 그리고 출생단계 를 나타내며 주산기 수준을 관할하는 체계인 주산기 기본 매트릭스the Basic Perinatal Matrices(줄여서

BPM).[85][87]

그로프는 보다 큰 심리적 통합을 추구하기 위해 퇴행적 방식의 치료를 적용하였다(원래는 싸이키델릭 물질을 활용했지만, 이후에는 다른 방법을 활용하였다).이는 진정한 정신 건강을 낳는 구축과 탈구축 과 정의 모형의 직면으로 귀결되었다: 윌버가 전/초 오류로 본 것이 워시번과 그로프에겐 존재하지 않는다. 왜냐하면 전-합리적 상태는 진실로 초개인적일 수 있으며, 그것들을 재-활성화하는 것은 온전한 정신을 되찾는 과정에서 필수적일 수 있기 때문이다.[88]

Stuart Sovatsky

발달 개념은 Stuart Sovatsky의 영적 심리치료와 심리학에서도 부각되었다. 인간 발달에 대한 그의 이 해는, 주로 동양/서양의 심리학과 요가 전통과 해석에 영향을 깊이 받았으며 인간 존재를 요가 철학에서 묘사된 영적 에너지와 과정들 사이에 위치시켰다. Sovatsky에 따르면, 이것들은 성숙의 과정이며, 우리의 몸과 영혼에 영향을 끼친다.[44][89] Sovatsky는 인간 발달을 이끄는 힘으로서의 쿤달리니Kundalini 개념을 받아들였다. 그의 모형에 따르면, 여러가지 고급 요가 과정들은 “영혼이 깃든 몸의 성숙maturation of

the ensouled body”을 돕는 것으로 언급된다.[90]

조르주 페레의 자아초월 이론

조르주 페레Jorge Ferrer의 학문은 영적, 존재론적 차원에 보다 다원적이고 참여적인 관점을 도입하였 다. 그는 저서 자아초월 이론의 수정revision of transpersonal theory을 통해 자아초월 연구에서 지배적 이었던 세 가지 주요 전제, 혹은 해석을 위한 작업틀에 의문을 제기하였다. 여기에는 경험중심주의

Experientalism(개인의 내적 경험으로 이해되는 자아초월성)의 작업틀; 내면의 경험주의(경험주의 과학 의 기준에 따라 자아초월적 현상을 연구하는 것); 그리고 영원주의perennialism(자아초월 연구에서 영원

의 철학이 남긴 유산)가 포함된다.[24][31][49][64][91][92] 비록 자아초월적 현상의 초기 연구에서 이러한 참조틀들이 중요한 역할을 했지만, 페레Ferrer는 이러한 가정들이 이 분야의 발전을 제한하고 문제를 불러일으켰다고

믿었다.[92]

이러한 주요 인식론적, 철학적 조류의 대안으로 페레는 자아초월적 질문에 의해 개방될 수 있는 영적 통찰과 세계로 구성된 위대한 다양성 혹은 다원주의에 초점을 맞추었다. “영원의 철학”의 영향을 받은 자 아초월 모형과 대비하여, 그는 “역동적이고 결정되지 않은 영적 힘dynamic and indeterminate

spiritual power”이라는 개념을 도입하였다.”[49][92] 이러한 구절과 더불어 그는 또한 “해방의 바다ocean of emancipation”라는 은유를 도입하였다. 페레에 따르면 “해방의 바다는 여러 바닷가를 지니고 있다”. 즉, 서로 다른 영적 바닷가에 도달함으로써 서로 다른 영적 진리에 도달할 수 있다는 것이다.[49]

그가 가한 수정의 두 번째 측면은 바로 “참여적 전환the participatory turn”이며, 그는 자아초월적 현 상이 참여적이고 공동-창조적인 사건이라는 개념을 도입하였다. 그는 이러한 사건들을 “개인이라는 축 뿐 만 아니라, 관계 속, 공동체 안, 어떤 집단적인 정체성 혹은 장소 속에서도 일어날 수 있는 자아초월적 존 재의 출현”으로 정의하였다. 이러한 참여적 앎은 다차원적이며, 자아초월적 작업틀을 이해함으로써, 인간

존재(몸/가슴/영혼)의 모든 힘을 받아들이는 것이다.[49][64][83][91] Jaenke[92]에 따르면, 페레의 비전은 다원적이 고 다양한 영적 실재와 다양한 계시와 통찰을 낳는 영적 힘을 포함하고 있으며, 이는 서로 겹쳐 있거나, 심 지어 모순되기도 한다.

자아초월적 심리치료

월시Walsh와 본Vaughan의 접근은 초창기 자아초월 심리치료 분야에 공헌하였다. 그들은 자아초월 적 치료에 대해 개술하면서, 치료의 목표는 증상의 완화나 행동적 변화 같은 전통적인 결과물 뿐만 아니 라, 정신역동적 이슈를 넘어선 자아초월적 수준에서의 작업 둘다를 포함해야 함을 강조하고 있다. 카르마 요가와 의식의 변성상태 둘 다 자아초월적 치료 접근의 일부이다. 월시Walsh와 본Vaughan에 따르면, 카 르마 요가, 그리고 봉사라는 맥락은 이 과정을 촉진시키며 이로 인한 치료자의 심리적 성장은 내담자의

성장을 위한 지지적 환경을 제공해줄 수 있다.[93]

이 분야의 몇몇 저자들, 예를 들면, Stuart Sovatsky와 Brant Cortright는 서구의 심리치료와 영적 심 리학의 통합을 제시하고 있다. 서구 심리치료를 다시 다듬으면서, Sovatsky는 동양/서양의 심리학과 영성 의 관점에서 시간, 덧없음, 그리고 구원론을 다루었다. D. W. 위니콧 같은 후기-프로이드주의자들의 통 찰을 끌어당겼을 뿐 아니라, Sovatsky는 심리치료에 대한 그의 접근과 요가 철학의 영향을 받은 몸과 마

음에 대한 확장된 이해를 통합시켰다.[44][89]

한 편 Cortright는 자아초월 심리치료 분야와 심리치료에 대한 주요 자아초월적 모델들, 윌버, 융, 워 시번, 그로프, 알리Ali의 모델들 뿐 아니라 실존주의, 정신분석, 그리고 신체-주심 접근법을 검토하였다. 그는 또한 자아초월 심리치료 분야를 위한 통일된 이론적 틀작업을 제시하였으며 자아초월적 영역에서 인 간 의식의 차원이 핵심임을 발견하였다. 그는 또한 명상, 영적 응급상황, 그리고 의식의 변성상태와 관련

된 임상적 이슈들을 다루었다.[5][43] 논평가들에 따르면.[5] Cortright는 영적으로 진보하려면 심리학적 이슈 를 다루는 것이 필수적이라는 자아초월 심리학의 전통적인 관점에도 도전하였다. 대신 그는 이러한 두 가 지 발달 라인이 서로 엉켜 있으며, 강조점이 바뀜에 따라 둘 중 하나가 전면에 등장하게 된다고 주장하였 다.

현재의 정신분석 내에선, 임상적 관점으로 볼 때, 인간 경험의 초월적 차원을 상정하는 것은 치료에 대

한 비-환원적 접근을 촉진한다는 점에서 이론적으로 필요하다.[94]

임상 및 진단 이슈

자아초월 심리학은 또한 영적 위기spiritual crisis 주제에 임상적 주의를 기울였다.Note d 영적 위기와 관 련된 여러 심리적 어려움들은 일반적으로 주류 심리학에선 다뤄지지 않는다. 이에 해당하는 임상적 문제 들에는 신비 체험과 연관된 정신과적 합병증들이 있다; 임사체험near-death experience; 쿤달리니 각성

Kundalini awakening; 샤먼적 위기shamanic crisis (샤먼의 병shamanic illness이라고도 불림); 심령 적 열림psychic opening; 강렬한 명상체험intensive meditation; 영적 스승으로부터의 분리separation from a spiritual teacher; 의학적 혹은 치명적 질환; 중독.[6][7]

스타니슬라브 그로프와 크리스티나 그로프[41][95]는 한 개인의 삶 속에서의 영적 현상, 그리고 영적 과정 의 출현을 묘사하기 위해 "영적 출현spiritual emergence"과 "영적 응급상황spiritual emergency"이라 는 용어를 고안해냈다.Note e “영적 출현”이라는 용어는 심리적, 사회적, 그리고 직업적 기능에 거의 문제를 일으키지 않는 영적 잠재력의 점진적인 펼쳐짐을 기술하고 있다.[6][7] 어떤 개인의 통제력을 넘어설 정도로 영적 현상의 출현이 강렬해진 경우, 그것은 “영적 응급상황”의 상태로 귀결될 수 있다. 영적 응급상황은 심

리적, 사회적, 그리고 직업적 기능에 심각한 문제를 야기할 수 있다.[6][7][38][96] 위에서 언급된 심리적 어려움들

의 다수는, 자아초월 이론에 따르면, 영적 응급상황의 삽화들을 야기할 수 있다.[6]Note f

1990년대 초반에 자아초월심리학 분야와 관련된 일군의 심리학자와 정신의학자들은 종교적, 영적 문 제와 연관된 새로운 정신의학적 범주의 필요성을 발견하였다. 그들은 이러한 문제들이 잘못 진단될 것을

우려하였다.[6][29][45][95] 방대한 문헌 연구에 기초하여, 이 집단은 미국 정신의학 학회의 종교와 정신의학 위원

회와 손을 잡고 “심리종교적 혹은 심리영적 문제Psychoreligious or Psychospiritual Problem” [6][45]라는 명칭의 새로운 진단 범주를 제안하였다. 이 제안은 1991년 DSM-IV의 위원회에게 제출되었고, 1993년

명칭을 “종교적 혹은 영적 문제 Religious or Spiritual Problem”로 바꾼 뒤 승인되었다.[6][97][98] 이것은 정신

질환 진단 및 통계편람 제 4판Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV),[3][96][99] [100]Note g과 그 뒤에 나온 개정판, DSM-IV-TR[101][102]에 포함되었다.

이러한 제안을 한 저자들에 따르면, 이 새로운 범주는 “임상적 주의의 초점이 종교적 혹은 영적 성격을 지니고 있으며 정신 장애로 귀인되지 않는 문제들을 다루고 있다”. 그들의 관점에 따르면 영적 문제와 정

신증psychosis 같은 정신 장애를 구별하는 기준이 존재한다.[96][103] 이 주제는 또한 DSM-IV의 자료집

Sourcebook[98][104][105]에서도 다뤄지고 있다. 이 범주의 공동-저자인 Lukoff[95]와 Lu[102]에 따르면, 종교적 혹 은 영적 문제들은 정신장애로 분류되지 않는다. Foulks[101] 또한 이 새로운 진단명이 DSM-IV-TR에서 비질 환 범주nonillness category에 포함되었다고 언급하였다(임상적 주의의 초점이 될 수 있는 기타 상황들).

DSM-체계에서 이 새로운 범주의 추가는 정신의학 언론[3][101][102][105][106]과 뉴욕 타임즈the New York Times[97]에 의해서도 주목받았다. 몇몇 논평가들 또한 자신들의 관점을 제시했다. Chinen[20]은 이러한 포 함이 “자아초월적 이슈들에 대한 전문가들의 수용이 증가함”을 나타내는 것이라고 언급하였고, Sovatsky[44]는 이것을 주류 임상 실천에서 영적 지향의 서사가 받아들여진 것으로 보았다. Smart와 Smart[107]는 이러한 범주의 추가와 제 4판에서의 이와 유사한 개선을 두고 DSM 매뉴얼의 문화적 민감성 이 진보한 것이라고 평가하였다. 임사체험 연구Near-death studies 분야의 대표주자인 Greyson[108]은 종 교적 혹은 영적 문제 진단 범주가 “임사체험과 정신 장애에서 기인한 유사 경험들을 구별할 수 있게 허용 하였다”고 결론 지었다. 2000년도에 이루어진 연구에서 Milstein과 동료들은 그들의 발견이 이 새로운 DSM-IV 종교적 혹은 영적 문제 범주(V62.89)의 구성 타당도를 위한 실증적 증거를 제공한다고 보고하

였다.[104]

논평가들에 따르면,[18] 자아초월 심리학은 초월적 심리 상태, 그리고 영성이 인간 기능에 부정적 영향과 긍정적 영향 둘 다를 끼칠 수 있음을 인정하고 있다. 발달과 성장은 건강을-촉진하는 영성의 표현에 해당 하며, 건강과-타협하는 영성의 표현 또한 존재한다.

조직, 출판 및 장소

자아초월 심리학 분야의 선도적인 기관은 자아초월심리학 협회Association for Transpersonal

Psychology이며, 이는 1972년에 설립되었다.[109] Alyce Green, James Fadiman, Frances Vaughan, Arthur Hastings, Daniel Goleman, Robert Frager, Ronald Jue, Jeanne Achterberg 그리고

Dwight Judy이 협회 회장직을 맡았었다.[110][111] 미국의 협회에 조응하여 유럽 자아초월 심리학 협회the

European Transpersonal Psychology Association (ETPA)가 훨씬 뒤에 설립되었다.[18]

이전에 자아초월 심리학 기구 the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology였던 소피아 대학교Sofia University는 최초로 대학원 과정을 개설하였다.[27][112][113] 소스에 따르면,[27] 소피아 대학은 사립이고, 무종파 이며, 학교 및 대학교 서부연합the Western Association of Schools and Colleges에 의해 공인되었 다.

분야의 선도적인 학술 출판물로는 자아초월심리학 저널the Journal of Transpersonal

Psychology과 국제 자아초월 연구 저널the International Journal of Transpersonal Studies이 있다. 이 보다 작은 규모의 출판물로는 자아초월 심리학 리뷰Transpersonal Psychology Review, 영국 심리학 협회British Psychological Society의 자아초월 심리학 저널 섹션이 있다. 1996년 베이직북스Basic

Books 출판사는 분야에 대한 철저한 훑어보기를 포함한 자아초월 정신의학과 심리학 교과서

the Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology를 출간하였다.[3][4] 1999년 그린우드 출판 사Greenwood Press는 “인본주의와 자아초월 심리학: 역사적 전기적 자료집 Humanistic and

transpersonal psychology: A historical and biographical sourcebook”[55][114][115]이라는 제목의 책을 출 간하였다. 이 책에는 인본주의와 자아초월 심리학의 핵심 인물들에 대한 전기적, 비판적 에세이가 실려 있 다.[54] 최근의 출판물로는, The Wiley Blackwell의 자아초월심리학 핸드북Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology이 있으며,[109][116] 이 책은 자아초월 심리학 분야에 대한 가장 최신의 업데이트된 입문서이다.

비록 자아초월 심리학적 관점이 미국과 유럽에 걸쳐 이에 관심을 지닌 여러 집단들에게 퍼지긴 했지 만, 그 기원은 미국 캘리포니아였으며, 이 분야는 항상 미국 서부 해안가의 기관들과 접한 연관을 맺고 있다.[9] 자아초월 심리학 협회와 자아초월 심리학 기구 둘 다 캘리포니아주에서 만들어졌으며, 이 분야의 선도적인 이론가들 다수가 이 지역에서 나왔다.[9]

4. 수용과 비판

수용

자아초월 심리학의 수용은, 이를 둘러싼 문화 속에서, 인정과 회의주의를 포함한 다양한 범위의 관점

과 견해를 반영하고 있다. 자아초월 심리학은 정신의학[3][54], 행동과학[55], 심리학[25][38][116][117][118], 사회 복지[40][68],

의식 연구[31][119][120], 종교 연구[14][32][64], 목회 심리학[72], 그리고 도서관학[122]을 포함한 여러 학문분야에서 수 많은 학술 논문과 책 리뷰글들의 주제였다. 몇몇 논평가들은 자아초월 심리학에 대한 자신의 관점과 자아초월

심리학이 학문적 지평에 기여한 바에 대해 표현하였다. 1980년대, 당대의 심리학을 대표하던 Hilgard[118] 는 자아초월 심리학을 인본주의 심리학 내의 보다 극단적인 추종자들을 끌어당기는 주변부의 움직임으로 간주하였다. 하지만 그는 그러한 움직임이, 비록 대다수의 심리학자들이 그러한 움직임에 참여하진 않았 지만, 그럼에도 불구하고 심리학의 연구 주제들을 보다 풍성하게 하였을 것이라고 평가하였다. Adams[32] 또한 자아초월 심리학의 주변부-지위를 관찰하면서, 켄 윌버의 작업이 이 분야에 상당 수준의 정통성을 부여했다고 언급하였다. 1990년대 사회복지학 이론을 대표하는 Cowley와 Derezotes[68]는 자 아초월 심리학을 원조 훈련에서의 영적 민감성의 개발과 관련이 있는 것으로 간주하였다. 목회 심리학을 대표하는 Bidwell[72]은 자아초월 심리학을 성직자들에 의해 거의 무시 당했던 분야를 발전시킨 것으로 보 았다. 그러면서 그는 자아초월 심리학이 못회 신학과 목회 상담 분야에 기여할 수 있을 것이라고 믿었다. 영성 지향 심리치료 분야의 저술가인 Elkins[123]는 자아초월 심리학이 인본주의 움직임에 뿌리를 내리고 자 랐지만 그러부터 벗어나 자신만의 이론과 관점을 세웠다고 여겼다. 인본주의 심리학 분야를 대표하는 Taylor[25]는 자아초월 심리학을 인본주의 심리학과의 관련성과 초월, 의식의 범주를 제외하곤 미국의 심리 학 학문과 역사적 관계가 거의 없는 가공의 대중-심리학으로 간주하였다. 미국 심리학의 역사가이자 자아 초월 심리학의 창시자들을 인터뷰한 Ruzek[124]은 이 분야가 보다 큰 분야인 미국 심리학에 별다른 영향을 끼치지 못했다는 것을 발견했다. 이러한 상황에 기여한 요인들로는 특히 영적, 철학적 발상에 대한 주류 심리학의 저항과 자아초월 심리학자들이 스스로를 보다 큰 맥락으로부터 고립시키려는 경향을 꼽을 수 있 다.

영성 지향 심리치료 분야에선 자아초월 심리학에 대한 약간의 인정이 있어왔다. 이 분야를 조사한 최 초의 책이 2005년 미국 심리학회American Psychological Association에 의해 출간되었으며, 자아초월 적-통합적 치료 접근에 대한 챕터를 포함시켰다.[125] 일반 임상 분야에서도 자아초월 심리학에 대한 어느 정 도의 인정이 있었다. The Menninger Clinic은 1992년 최초로 자아초월적 정신의학을 주제로 심포지엄 을 열었고, 1994년 미국 정신의학 협회는 자아초월 심리학과 정신의학과 관련된 임상가들로부터의 제안 이 있은 후 자신들의 공식적 매뉴얼(DSM-IV)에 새로운 진단 범주를 추가하였다.[20] 또한 자아초월 심리학 과 정신의학의 통찰들을 정신과 레지던트 수련 프로그램으로 채택하려는 몇 차례의 시도가 있어왔다. 예 를 들어, Grabovac와 Ganesan[126]은 캐나다 정신과 레지던트 훈련 프로그램에 종교와 영성에 대한 강의 시리즈 제안서에서 영적 변용의 경험, 쿤달리니 관련 삽화, 그리고 영적 응급상황을 대상으로 한 자아초월 심리학 세션을 가질 것을 제안하였다. 2007년 캘리포니아 대학교 University of California (Davis)의 교 육자들은 정신과 레지던트들을 위한 새로운 학술 프로그램을 제시하였다. 이 프로그램은 새크라멘토 지 역에서의 문화적으로 적절한 진단과 치료를 향상시키기 위해 고안되었다. 여기에는 자아초월 정신의학의 통찰 뿐 아니라 종교와 영성의 훈련도 PGY-3 커리큘럼의 일부로 포함되었다.[127] 자아초월 심리학은 또한 강의실에도 들어갔다. 자아초월 심리학의 관점들은 대학교에서 널리 쓰이는

성격 이론 교과서 [128][129]에도 포함되었으며, 이를 통해 자아초월적 주제들이 주류 학문의 세팅에도 들어가 게 되었다. 이 책에서 저자인 Barbara Engler[128]는 다음과 같이 질문하였다. "심리학 연구에 영성이 적절 한 주제인가?”. 그녀는 자아초월 심리학의 역사에 대해 짧게 논하면서 미래의 가능성을 들여다 보았다.

Robert Frager와 James Fadiman[130]의 성격 이론 관련서도 강의 교재로 쓰였는데, 이 책에서 그들은 자 아초월 심리학을 형성하고 발전시킨 여러 주요 역사적 인물들의 공헌에 대해 설명하였다(게다가 그와 관 련된 주요 개념과 이론들에 대해서도 논하고 설명하였다). 이는 대학교에서도 이 분야에 대해 이해할 수 있게 하는데 기여하였다. 물론 주류 심리학부 대다수가 자아초월적 이슈와 수행들을 커리큘럼상의 훈련 프로그램으로 제공하는 경우가 거의 없긴 하지만, 몇몇 북미 대학에선 인본주의와 자아초월 심리학의 대

학원 과정이 허용되었다.[9][20][68][131]Note c Orinda의 John F. Kennedy University는 전일적 연구 프로그램[132]에 자아초월 심리학을 포함시켰으며, Vermont의 Burlington College도 마찬가지이다.[60] 2012년 콜럼비아 대학Columbia University은 소피아 대학교(캘리포니아)Sofia University (California)와 마찬가지로 임

상 심리학 프로그램에 영적 심리학을 통합시키기로 했음을 선언하였다[113]

비록 자아초월 심리학이 주변 문화로부터 인정을 받았지만,[20] 꽤나 많은 회의와 비판에 직면하기도 하 였다. 몇몇 논평가들은 자아초월 심리학의 논란거리들을 언급하였다. 1980년대의 중도적 비판을 대표하

는 Zdenek[37]은 이 분야가 처음부터 논란거리로 간주되었다고 언급하였다. riedman[56]과 Adams[32] 같은 논평가들 또한 이 분야의 논쟁적 지위에 대해 언급하였다. 1998년 샌프란치스코 크로니클San Francisco Chronicle은 자아초월 심리학 학부를 지닌 Orinda의 John F. Kennedy University에서 개설된 전일적 연구 프로그램에 대한 보도를 하였다. 이 프로그램은 당시엔 특별한 것으로 여겨졌지만, 한편에선 논란의 대상이 되기도 하였다. 몇몇 논평가들은 이 프로그램에 대해 회의적인 태도를 드러냈다.[132] 또 다른 논쟁적 측면은 싸이키델릭 물질 주제들과 관련이 있다.[133] 현대 문화에서의 싸이키델릭과 entheogen(역주: 깊은 영적 경험을 하게 하는 마약이나 물질) 물질에 대해 Elmer, MacDonald & Friedman[18]은 이 약물들이 자아초월 운동에선 치료적 효과를 위해 쓰였음을 관찰하였다. 하지만 저자들은 이것이 현 시대의 자아초 월적 치료 개입의 가장 흔한 형태는 아님을 언급하기도 하였다. 

Lukoff와 Lu[29]에 따르면, 미국 심리학 협회는 과거 자아초월 심리학을 인정해 달라는 청원을 받았던 당시 자아초월 심리학의 “비과학적” 성격에 대한 몇 가지 우려를 표하였다. Rowan[53]은 협회가 자아초월 심리학 분과를 여는 것에 대해 매우 망설였다고 언급하였다. 청원은 APA 위원회에서 과반수를 득표하는 데 실패하였고, 분과는 결국 설립되지 못했다.[22] 논평가들은 또한 자아초월 심리학과 종교적 개념의 연관 성이 1984년 청원이 있던 당시 APA의 독립 분과가 되지 못한 이유들 중 하나라고 언급하였다.[22]

이 분야의 1990년대 중반의 상태에 대해 논평하면서, Chinen[20]은 그 때까지는 전문 출판사들이 자아 초월적 주제를 다루는 논문들을 출판하길 주저했다고 언급하였다. Adams[64]는 이 분야가 인정을 받기 위 해 고군분투해왔다고 언급하였지만, Freeman[31]은 초창기 자아초월 심리학이 이미 자신이 과학 공동체에 의해 거부당할 가능성이 있음을 알고 있었다고 말하였다 훈련된 내관introspection에 기초한 내면의 경 험주의inner empiricism는 이후 회의적인 외부자들의 타겟이 되곤 하였다.

비판과 회의주의

자아초월 심리학 분야를 향한 비판과 회의는 자아초월 심리학에 속한 저자들 뿐 아니라 다른 심리학

혹은 철학 분야의 저자 등 다양한 부류의 논평가들에 의해 제시되었다.[20] 하지만 Chinen[20]은 자아초월 심 리학과 그 보다 더 큰 분야인 자아초월 이론을 구별한 사람이 거의 없다고 언급하였다. 이 두 범주 사이의 구별의 필요성은 다른 논평가들에 의해서도 언급되었다.[56] 이 분야 내부에서 나온 비판적 논평에는

Lukoff와 Lu의 관찰, 그리고 Wallach의 비판이 있다. 영성 지향 심리치료 분야에 공헌한 Lukoff와 Lu[29] 는 자아초월 심리치료와 자아초월 심리학의 강점과 약점에 대해 논하였다. 강점들 중에선 특히, 다른 문화 권과 원주민 치유자들과의 소통과 대화를 허용하는 이론적, 실천적 기초를 꼽을 수 있다. 약점들 중에선, 내부의 논쟁으로 귀결된 이론적 동의의 결여를 꼽았으며, 이는 자아초월적 접근의 타당성에 의문을 제기 한 비판자들의 주의를 끌었다. 이 분야와 접한 또 하나의 소스는 바로 The Wiley-Blackwell 자아초월 심리학 핸드북Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology이다. 이 책의 한 챕터에서[134], Walach는 이 분 야에서 해소되지 않은 문제들에 주의를 기울였다. 이 책의 편집자들에 따르면, 이러한 비판은 “책임있는 분야 내에서 꼭 필요한 일종의 자기-비판”을 나타내고 있다. 이 분야와 접한 여타의 인물들, 켄 윌버와 조르쥬 페레Jorge Ferrer로부터도 비판이 제기되었다. 자 아초월 심리학의 초기 인물인 윌버는 반복적으로 자아초월 심리학의 죽음을 선포하였다[135][136] 하지만 윌버 의 초기 자아차월 이론은 그 자체로 이미 1980년대에 주로 인본주의 심리학자들로부터 비판을 받아왔다. [137] 비록 윌버가 통합 철학[9][31]을 선호하면서 스스로 자아초월 심리학과 거리를 두었으나, 그의 자아초월 모

델은 계속해서 인정[68][72]과 비판[32][72] 둘 다를 받아왔다. 윌버의 비평가들 중 하나로 Ferrer[31][64]를 꼽을 수 있다. 그는 2001년 자아초월 이론의 수정a revision of transpersonal theory을 주제로 한 책을 출간하였다. 이 책에서[49], 그는 자아초월 심리학이 지나치게 영원의 철학에 충실하면서, 미묘한 데카르트주의를 들여왔고, 지나치게 주체 내의 영적 상태들(내면의 경 험주의)에 몰두하였다고 비판하였다. 이러한 조류에 대한 대안으로 그는 다양한 종류의 영적 통찰, 영적 세계와 장소들을 존중하는 인간 영성의 참여적 비전을 제안하였다.

인본주의 심리학으로부터의 비판

이 분야에 대한 가장 초기의 비판들 중 하나는 인본주의 심리학자인 롤로 메이Rollo May로 부터 나왔 으며, 그는 자아초월 심리학의 개념적 토대에 이의를 제기하였다.[22] 논평가들에 따르면, 메이는 또한 이 분야가 초월의 추구[9]를 위에 놓음으로써 영혼의 개인적 차원을 무시하였으며, “인간 본성의 어두운 측 면”[29]을 무시했다고 비판하였다. 논평가들[9]은 메이가 표현한 이러한 우려들이 이후의 이론가들이 “영적 우회spiritual bypassing”라고 언급한 것을 반영한 것일 수 있다고 언급하였다. 또 다른 논평가들[29]은 메 이가 오로지 “자아초월적 접근을 하는 뉴에이지 집단들”에만 초점을 맞추고 있다고 주장하였다. 하지만 이러한 비판은 인본주의 심리학Humanistic psychology 분야의 다른 인물들로부터도 나왔다. 유진 테일 러Eugene Taylor와 커크 슈나이더Kirk Schneider는 자아초월 심리학의 몇몇 측면들에 대한 이의를 제기

하였다.[20]

과학 및 과학적 기준과의 관계

자아초월 심리학 분야는 개념적, 증거적, 그리고 과학적 엄격함이 부족하다는 비판도 받아왔다. 이 분 야의 비판을 리뷰하면서, Cunningham은 다음과 같이 기술하였다. "철학자들은 자아초월심리학의 형이 상학이 순진하고 인식론은 미숙하다고 비판한다. 정의의 다양성과 개념의 조작화가 부족하다는 점은 자 아초월 심리학 그 자체의 본질에 대한 개념적 혼동을 불러 일으킨다(즉, 어떤 개념이 서로 다른 이론가들 에 의해 서로 다르게 쓰이며 서로 다른 사람들에게 서로 다른 의미를 지닌다). 생물학자들은 자아초월 심 리학이 행동과 경험의 생물학적 기초에 대한 관심이 부족하다고 비판한다. 물리학자들은 자아초월 심리 학이 의식을 설명하는데 물리학 개념들을 부적절하게 갖다 쓴다고 비판한다."[138]

Friedman[56][57] 같은 경우, 이 분야가 과학 분야로서는 아직 미숙하고, 따라서 자아초월적 현상에 대한 훌륭한 과학적 이해를 낳고 있지 못하다고 주장하였다. 자아초월 심리학 분야 내에서 노력을 기울일 새로 운 분과를 만들어야 한다고 제안하면서, 그는 비-과학적 접근까지 포함할 수 있는 넓은 범주인 자아초월 적 연구와 과학적 심리학의 원리와 보다 가깝게 일치하는 자아초월 심리학을 구분해야 한다고 주장하였 다. 하지만 Ferrer [139]는 이 비판에 대해 Friedman의 제안이 자아초월 심리학을 영성의 영역에는 부적절 한 자연주의적 형이상학 세계관에 갖다 붙이는 셈이라며 반박하였다. 인지심리학자이자 인본주의자인 알버트 엘리스Albert Ellis는 자아초월 심리치료의 결과[140], 자아초월 심리학의 과학적 지위, 그리고 종교, 신비주의 그리고 권위주의적 신념체계와의 관계[141][142]에 의문을 제기 하였다. 이러한 비판은 Wilber[143]에 의해 다시 의문이 제기되었으며, 그는 조종교의 영역과 자아초월 심리 학에 대한 엘리스의 이해를 의문시했다. Walsh[144] 또한 비합리적-정서적 치료에 대한 엘리스의 비판에 의 문을 제기하였다. 한편, 논평가들[145]은 엘리스가 그의 나중의 저술에선 종교적/영적/자아초월적 경험에 대 한 중도적인 견해를 표했다고 언급하였다.

매튜스Matthews[5] 같은 논평가의 경우, 이 분야에 대해 보다 지지적이긴 하나, 자아초월 심리학과 자 아초월 심리치료이 연구 보다는 일화적 임상 경험에 의존한다며 그 약점에 대해 언급하였다. 반면

Adams[119]는 의식 연구의 관점에서, 자아초월 심리학의 ‘데이터베이스’를 구성하고 있는 듯 보이는 내관적 introspective ‘데이터’의 개념에 문제를 제기하였다. 자아초월 심리학은 영적, 자아초월적 범주에 대한 우 리의 지식을 향상시키기 위한 도구로서의 양적 방법론의 가치를 평가절하한다고 언급된다. 논평가들에 따르면[18], 이것은 영적, 자아초월적 경험을 개념화와 수량화를 거부하는 범주로 간주하는 자아초월 분야 내부의 전반적인 방향성의 결과이며, 그로 인해 전통적인 과학적 탐구에는 잘 맞지 않는 것이다.

불교 개념의 활용

불교와 족첸Dzogchen(역주: 비이원적 가르침을 요체로 삼은 티벳의 불교수행법)의 관점에서, Elías Capriles[146] [147][148]는 자아초월 심리학이 본질적으로 해방적인 열반이라는 자차아초월적 상태와, 삼사라 samsara(역주: 윤회) 안에 있으며 그렇기에 새로운 형태의 구속인 자아초월적 사아태(예를 들면 불교의 무색계의 4선정 혹은 4개의 세계, 이 속에서 형상에 기초한 구분은 사라지지만 여전히 주체-객체의 이원 성이 존재한다), 그리고 족첸의 가르침이 kun gzhi라고 부르는, 그 속에선 주체-객체의 이원성도 없고 모 든 현상의 진실한 상태(법성dharmata, 진여, 실상이라고도 함)이며 열반도 삼사라도 아닌 중도적 상태를 분명하게 구별하는데 실패하였다고 언급하였다(여기에서의 중도적 상태는 멸제(滅諦·nirodha) 혹은 멈춤, 

멸제의 달성, 무상삼매, 그리고 파탄잘리의 요가 철학의 지고의 깨달음인 삼매 혹은 투리야turiya를 포함한다). 자 아초월 심리학-너머에 대해 설명하면서, Capriles는 윌버, 그로프, 워시번에 대해 성실히 논박하였다. 이 는 Macdonald와 Friedman[149]에 따르면 자아초월 심리학의 미래를 위해 중대한 반향을 일으킬 것이다. 

기타 비판

Gary T. Alexander는 자아초월 심리학과 윌리엄 제임스William James의 사상 사이의 관계에 대해 비판하였다. 비록 제임스의 사상이 자아초월 분야의 핵심으로 간주되긴 하지만, Alexander[121]는 자아초 월 심리학이 제임스의 철학에서 표현된 의식의 부정적 차원(예를 들면 악evil에 대한 분명한 이해를 갖지 못했다고 생각했다. 이러한 중대한 비판은 후대의 자아초월 이론에 의해 받아들여졌으며, 이후에는 인간 실존의 중요한 부정적 차원들도 기꺼이 반영하려는 노력이 이루어졌다.[150]

Gray는 영적 응급상황이라는 개념과 정신의학의 자아초월적 차원에 대한 회의를 제기하였다.

[151] Cunningham에 따르면, 자아초월 심리학은 몇몇 기독교 저술가들에 의해 “조직화된 종교에 등을 돌린 취약한 젊은이들에게 대인적 믿음체계를 제공하는 뒤죽박죽 뉴에이지 사상(Adeney, 1988)[138]”에 불과하 다며 비판받았다. Davis[11]에 따르면 자아초월 심리학은 다양성을 대가로 하나임과 전일주의를 강조한다 며 비판받아왔다.

더 보기

자아초월Transpersonal 자아초월 인류학Transpersonal anthropology 인본주의 심리학Humanistic psychology 임사체험Near-death studies

자아초월 심리학 저널Journal of Transpersonal Psychology

각주

a.^ Walsh와 Vaughan (1993: 202)은 다른 정의들을 개선하려 노력하였으며, 그들의 견해에 따르면, 전제를 최소화하고, 이론으로 덜 치장했으며, 경험과 보다 접한 정의를 제안하였다.

b.^ 뉴욕주립대학교 출판부The State University of New York Press (Albany, NY)는 그들의 출판물들 을 범주, 혹은 시리즈로 나누고 있으며 각각은 서로 다른 학문 분야를 나타낸다. 그 중 자아초월과 인본주 의 심리학을 담은 것이 바로 이 the SUNY Series다. 심리 철학에 대한 the SUNY series 역시 자아초월 저술가들의 작품을 담고 있다.

c.^ 자아초월 이론을 자신들의 연구 혹은 커리큘럼으로 담은 종합대학 및 단과대학은 다음과 같다 : Sofia

University (California) (US), California Institute of Integral Studies (US), Notre Dame de Namur University (US), Saybrook University (US), Liverpool John Moores University (UK), Naropa

University (US),John F. Kennedy University (California) (US), University of West Georgia (US), Atlantic University (US), Burlington College (US), the University of Northampton (UK), Leeds Metropolitan University (UK) and Pacifica Graduate Institute (US).

d.^ 자아초월 심리학은 종종 종교와 영성 개념을 구별한다.[1][6][68] 논평가들[18]은 자아초월 맥락에서의 종교 는 사회적 기관 및 교리에 대한 개인의 참여와 관련이 있고, 반면 영성은 초월적 차원의 개인적 경험과 관 계가 있다. DSM에 종교적, 영적 문제를 포함시킬 것을 주장한 제안자들[6][7] 또한 비슷한 구별을 하였다: 종 교적 문제는 교파 소속의 변화에 의해 야기될 수 있다; 새로운 종교로의 개종; 종교적 신념 혹은 수행의 강 화; 신앙의 상실 혹은 회의; 죄책감; 새로운 종교 운동 혹은 컬트에의 참여 혹은 이탈. 반면 영적 문제는 다 음에 언급된 다양한 요인들로 인해 나타날 수 있다: 신비체험; 임사체험; 쿤달리니 각성; 샤먼적 위기; 심 령적 열림; 집중적 명상; 영적 스승과의 결별; 의학적 혹은 치명적 질환; 중독.

e.^ 이러한 관점에서 그로프보다 앞선 이들로는 융Jung, 페리Perry, Dabrowski, Bateson, Laing, Cooper 그리고 넓은 의미에서의 반-정신의학 진영이 있다.

f.^ 여기에 더해, Whitney(1998)는 또한 조증을 일종의 영적 응급상황의 한 형태로 이해하자는 주장을

하였다[152]

g.^ DSM-IV를 보라: "임상적 주의의 초점이 될 수 있는 기타 조건들”, 종교적 혹은 영적 문제, 코드

V62.89 Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention", Religious or Spiritual Problem, Code V62.89.[99]

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^ Boucovolas, M. (1999). "Following the movement: from transpersonal psychology to a multidisciplinary transpersonal orientation". Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 31 (1) 27-39 ^ Jump up to:

a b c d Rowan, John. "The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology" (Book Review). ACPNL Magazine, Issue 75 March 2014. The Association of Counsellors and Psychotherapists in North London ^ Jump up to: a b c Travis, Terry A. Book Forum: Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology: A Historical and Biographical Sourcebook. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:667-a-668.

^ Jump up to: a b c DeCarvalho, Roy J. "Book Reviews: Donald Moss (Ed.). Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology: A Historical and Biographical Sourcebook". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 39(1), 93­94 Winter 2003 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Friedman, Harris (2000) Toward Developing Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. Paper presented at Old Saybrook 2 conference, May 11­14, 2000, State University of West Georgia

^ Jump up to:

a b c Friedman, Harris. Transpersonal Psychology as a Scientific Field. The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2002, Vol. 21, 175-187.

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^ Caplan, Hartelius & Rardin. Contemporary viewpoints on Transpersonal Psychology. The

Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2003, Vol. 35, No. 2.

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^ Sutcliffe, Steven (2003). Category Formation and the History of 'New Age'. Culture and Religion: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4:1, 5-29 ^ Jump up to: a b Casey retiring from Burlington College. Vermont Business Magazine 29.14 (Dec 01, 2001): 27.

^ Jump up to:

a b Rowan, John (1993) The transpersonal: psychotherapy and counselling. London: Routledge (Second edition) Jump up

^ Evans, Joan. "The Transpersonal - Psychotherapy and Counselling" (Book review). International Journal of Psychotherapy2.2 (Nov 1997): 237-240. Jump up

^ Miller, L. J., ed. (2012) [2012]. "Models of Spiritual Development". The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality (1 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-19-972992-0.

^ Jump up to:

a b c d e f Adams, George. "Book Reviews: Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality."Journal of Contemporary Religion, Vol. 18, No. 3, 2003 pp. 403­435 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Walsh, R. & Vaughan, F. The worldview of Ken Wilber. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books ^ Jump up to:

a b c Paul A. Jerry. "Challenges in Transpersonal Diagnosis". The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2003, Vol. 35, No. 1 ^ Jump up to:

a b c Walsh, Roger. "Developmental and evolutionary synthesis in the recent writings of Ken Wilber." Revision 18 (4): 7-1 8, 1996 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Cowley, Au-Deane S. & Derezotes, David. "Transpersonal Psychology and Social Work Education". Journal of Social Work Education, 10437797, Winter, Vol. 30, Issue 1, 1994 ^ Jump up to:

a b Wilber, Ken (1995/2000). Sex, Ecology, Spirituality - The Spirit of Evolution. Boston,

Massachusetts: Shambhala Publications

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^ Wilber, Ken (1996). Brief History of Everything. Boston, Massachusetts & London:

Shambhala

^ Jump up to:

a b Kelly, Sean M. Revisioning the mandala of consciousness. ReVision, 02756935, Spring96, Vol. 18, Issue 4 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bidwell, Duane R. "Ken Wilber's Transpersonal Psychology: An Introduction and Preliminary Critique". Pastoral Psychology, November 1999, Volume 48, Issue 2, pp 81-90

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^ Brys, Zoltan & Bokor, Petra (2013) Evaluation of Ken Wilber's Integral Psychology From a Scientific Perspective, Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 15:1, 19-33 ^ Jump up to:

a b Wilber, Ken. "An Integral Theory of Consciousness." Journal of Consciousness Studies, 4 (1),

February 1997, pp. 71­92. Imprint Academic

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^ Publishers Weekly. "The Integral Vision: A Very Short Introduction to the Revolutionary Integral Approach to Life, God, the Universe and Everything. Reviewed on: 05/28/2007

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^ Publishers Weekly. "Integral Psychology. Reviewed on: 05/15/2000

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^ Battista, John. A Transpersonal View of Human Development, Psychopathology and Psychotherapy. Journal of Transpersonal Research, 2011, Vol. 3 (2), 85­96 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Anderson, Rosemarie. "Book Review: Washburn, Michael. (2003). Embodied spirituality in a sacred world." The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2005, Vol. 37, No. 2 ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Lev, Shoshana (2005) "Regression in the Service of Transcendence: Reading Michael Washburn," Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge: Vol. 4: Iss. 1,

Article 23.

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^ Washburn, Michael (2003). Embodied spirituality in a sacred world. Albany,NY: SUNY Press ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Harold Coward. The Ego and the Dynamic Ground by Michael Washburn (book review). Philosophy East and West, Vol. 39, No. 4 (Oct., 1989), pp. 505-507 ^ Jump up to:

a b c Walsh, R. and Vaughan F. The Worldview of Ken Wilber. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,

34(2):6-21, 1994

^ Jump up to: a b Washburn, Michael. Transpersonal Dialogue : A New Direction. The Journal of Transpersonal

Psychology, 2003, Vol. 35, No. 1

Jump up

^ McConnell, James V. "Special Section: The Rediscovery of Human Nature". TIME magazine, Monday, Apr. 02, 1973 ^ Jump up to: a b c d Paulson, Daryl S. "Book Review: Grof, Stan. The cosmic game: Explorations of the frontiers of human consciousness". The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 2006, Vol. 38, No. 1 Jump up

^ Taylor, Eugene. "Desperately seeking spirituality". Psychology Today, Nov/Dec 94 (Document ID: 1413)

^ Jump up to:

a b Grof, Stanislav. "Theoretical and empirical basis of transpersonal psychology and psychotherapy: Observations from LSD research". Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Vol. 5, 1973

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^ Rothberg, D. & Kelly, S. (Eds.) (1998) Ken Wilber in Dialogue. Wheaton, Illinois: Quest Books.

^ Jump up to: a b Gaur, Sunil D. Review of Words from the soul: Time, east/west spirituality, and psychotherapeutic narrative.Psychological Studies, Vol 50(1), Jan 2005, 101. Jump up

^ Sovatsky, Stuart. Kundalini and the complete maturation of the ensouled body. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Vol 41(1), 2009, 1-21.

^ Jump up to: a b Kripal, Jeffrey J. "In the Spirit of Hermes; Reflections on the Work of Jorge N. Ferrer; Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality." Tikkun, March

1, 2003

^ Jump up to:

a b c d Jaenke, Karen. The Participatory Turn. Review of Jorge N. Ferrer, Revisioning Transpersonal Theory: A Participatory Vision of Human Spirituality. ReVision, Vol. 26, No. 4, Spring 2004

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^ Keutzer, Carolin S. "Transpersonal Psychotherapy: Reflections on the Genre". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 1984, Vol. 15, No. 6,868-883, The American Psychological Association

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^ Brown, R.S. (2014). An Opening: Trauma and Transcendence. Psychosis: Psychological, Social and Integrative Approaches, DOI:10.1080/17522439.2014.900105.

^ Jump up to: a b c Lukoff, David. "Visionary Spiritual Experiences". Southern Medical Journal, Volume 100, Number 6, June 2007 (Special Section: Spirituality/Medicine Interface Project) ^ Jump up to:

a b c Yang, C. Paul; Lukoff, David; Lu, Francis. "Working with Spiritual Issues". Psychiatric Annals,

36:3, March 2006 ^ Jump up to:

a b Steinfels, P. "Psychiatrists' Manual Shifts Stance On Religious and Spiritual Problems". New York Times, February 10, 1994.

^ Jump up to: a b Lu FG, Lukoff D, Turner R (1997) Religious or Spiritual Problems. In: DSM-IV Sourcebook,

Vol. 3. Widiger TA, Frances AJ, Pincus HA et al., eds. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, pp1001­1016.

^ Jump up to:

a b American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.

Jump up

^ Dein, S. Working with patients with religious beliefs. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment (2004) 10: 287-294.

^ Jump up to:

a b c Foulks, E.F. Cultural Variables in Psychiatry. Psychiatric Times, April 2004, Vol. XXI, 5 .

^ Jump up to: a b c Bender, E. Clinical & Research News: Psychiatrists Urge More Direct Focus On Patients' Spirituality. Psychiatric NewsJune 18, 2004, Volume 39 Number 12, p. 30. American Psychiatric

Association.

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^ Lukoff D, Lu FG, Turner R. Cultural considerations in the assessment and treatment of religious and spiritual problems.Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 1995 Sep;18(3):467-85.

^ Jump up to: a b Milstein, G; Midlarsky, E; Link, B.G.; Raue, P.J. & Bruce, M. "Assessing Problems with Religious Content: A Comparison of Rabbis and Psychologists". Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease. 188(9):608-615, September, 2000 ^ Jump up to:

a b Milstein, G. "Clergy and Psychiatrists: Opportunities for Expert Dialogue". Psychiatric Times,

March 2003, Vol. XX, Issue 3, pp 36-39.

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^ Curlin et.al - Religion, Spirituality, and Medicine: Psychiatrists and Other Physicians Differing Observations, Interpretations, and Clinical Approaches. The American Journal of Psychiatry, Volume 164 Issue 12, December, 2007, pp. 1825-1831

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^ Smart, D.W & Smart, J.F. DSM-IV and culturally sensitive diagnosis: Some observations for counselors. The Journal of Counseling and Development, May/06/1997, Vol. 75 No. 5; p. 392.

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^ Greyson, Bruce. The Near-Death Experience as a Focus of Clinical Attention. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Volume 185(5) May 1997 pp 327-334.

^ Jump up to:

a b Friedman, Harris L. (Editor); Hartelius, Glenn (Editor) (2013) The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology, 738 pages, Wiley-Blackwell

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^ Association for Transpersonal Psychology - Board of Directors/Past Presidents http:// www.atpweb.org

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^ Smith, Lynn. "Newport Beach Conference: Mystics, Scientists Will Gather to Promote Peace". L.A Times, September 05, 1989

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^ Life Science Weekly Staff (2008-01-29) Studies from Institute of Transpersonal Psychology reveal new findings on life sciences (Sacred moments: implications on well-being and stress), Life Science Weekly, 4572, ISSN 1552-2474, Pubz ID: 000878904 ^ Jump up to: a b Otterman, Sharon. "Merging Spirituality and Clinical Psychology at Columbia". New York Times, published online August 9, 2012

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^ Moss, Donald, ed. Humanistic and transpersonal psychology: A historical and biographical sourcebook. Greenwood press, 1999. Jump up

^ Clay, Rebecca A. "A renaissance for humanistic psychology. The field explores new niches while building on its past". APA Monitor on Psychology, Volume 33, No. 8 September 2002.

^ Jump up to: a b Team JIAAP. Review of The Wiley Blackwell handbook of transpersonal psychology. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Vol 40(1), Jan 2014, 160-162.

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a b Leitner, Larry M.; Guthrie, Leland. "Transpersonal psychology: The big picture." (Book Review). PsycCRITIQUES, Vol 59(25), 2014, American Psychological Association ^ Jump up to: a b Hilgard, Ernest R. Consciousness in Contemporary Psychology. Annual Review of Psychology 1980, 31:1-26 ^ Jump up to: a b Adams, William. Transpersonal Heterophenomenology? Journal of Consciousness Studies, Volume 13, Number 4, 2006, pp. 89-93(5) Jump up

^ Walach, Harald; Runehov, A.L.C. "The Epistemological Status of Transpersonal Psychology. The Data-Base Argument Revisited". Journal of Consciousness Studies, 1 January 2010, vol. 17, no. 1-1, pp. 145-165(21) ^ Jump up to: a b Alexander, Gary T. (1980) "William James, the Sick Soul, and the Negative Dimensions of Consciousness: A Partial Critique of Transpersonal Psychology". Journal of the American

Academy of Religion, XLVIII(2):191-206

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^ Boone, Lucille M. "Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology: A Historical and Biographical

Sourcebook". Library Journal; Dec 1998; 123, 20; pg. 136

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^ Elkins, David. "A Humanistic Approach to Spiritually oriented Psychotherapy", in Spiritually Oriented Psychotherapy, edited by L. Sperry and E. P. Shafranske, 2005, American

Psychological Association

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^ Ruzek, Nicole Amity. Transpersonal Psychology's Historical Relationship to Mainstream

American Psychology. Cited in Diss. Abstr. Int. B 65/04 (2004): 2081. UMI pub. no. 3129589.2 Jump up

^ Sperry, Len (Ed); Shafranske, Edward P. (Ed), (2005). Spiritually oriented psychotherapy. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, ix, 368 pp.

Jump up

^ Grabovac, Andrea; Ganesan, Soma. "Spirituality and Religion in Canadian Psychiatric

Residency Training". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, Vol 48, No 3, April 2003

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^ Bender, Eve. "Cultural Diversity Curriculum Covers All Residency Years." Psychiatric News,

42(9), p. 7, 2007 ^ Jump up to: a b Engler, Barbara (2009) Personality Theories: An Introduction, 8th ed., Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-547-14834-8| ISBN 978-0-547-14834-2

Jump up

^ Daily Record Staff. "Drew psych professor explores spirit, religion". The (Morristown) Daily Record, published online Dec. 12, 2008

Jump up

^ Frager, Robert, & Fadiman, James (2005) Personality and Personal Growth, 6th ed., Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-144451-4ISBN 978-0-13-144451-5

Jump up

^ Arons, M. (1996). Directory of graduate programs in humanistic and transpersonal

Psychology in North America. Catalogue sponsored by Division 32 of the American Psychological Association, published and distributed by the Psychology Department at State University of West Georgia.

^ Jump up to: a b McManis, Sam. University with a Vision. JFK's holistic studies program attracts devoted students - and strong critics.San Francisco Chronicle , Friday, October 9, 1998

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^ Bravo, Gary and Grob, Charles. Psychedelics and Transpersonal psychiatry. In Scotton, Bruce W., Chinen, Allan B. and Battista, John R., Eds. (1996) Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and Psychology. New York: Basic Books Jump up

^ Walach, Harald. Criticisms of Transpersonal Psychology and Beyond — The Future of Transpersonal Psychology: A Science and Culture of Consciousness, in The Wiley-Blackwell

Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (2013), 738 pages, Wiley-Blackwell

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^ "On Critics, Integral Institute, My Recent Writing, and Other Matters of Little Consequence: A Shambhala Interview with Ken Wilber". Part I: The Demise of Transpersonal Psychology.

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^ Wilber, Ken. A sociable God: toward a new understanding of religion. Shambala Publications. p. 51. ISBN 978-1590302248.

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^ Schroll, Mark A; Rowan, John; Robinson, Oliver. "Clearing up Rollo May’s views of transpersonal psychology and acknowledging May as an early supporter of

ecopsychology." International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 30(1), 2011, pp. 120-136 ^ Jump up to: a b Cunningham, Paul F. (2011). A Primer on Transpersonal Psychology. Nashua NH 03060-5086: Rivier College. p. 53.

Jump up

^ Ferrer, Jorge. Transpersonal psychology, science, and the supernatural. The Journal of

Transpersonal Psychology, 2014, Vol.46, No.2

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^ Ellis, Albert; Yeager, Raymond J. (1989) Why some therapies don't work: The dangers of transpersonal psychology. Amherst, NY, US: Prometheus Books.

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^ Ellis, Albert. "Fanaticism that may lead to a nuclear holocaust: The contributions of scientific counseling and psychotherapy". Journal of Counseling & Development, Nov 1986, Vol. 65, pp.

146-151

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^ Ellis, Albert. "Dangers of Transpersonal Psychology: A Reply To Ken Wilber". Journal of

Counseling & Development, Feb89, Vol. 67 Issue 6, p336, 2p;

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^ Wilber, Ken. Let's Nuke the Transpersonalists: A response to Albert Ellis. Journal of Counseling and Development; Feb 1989, Vol. 67, p332-335

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^ Walsh, Roger. Psychological Chauvinism and Nuclear Holocaust: A response to Albert Ellis and Defense of Non-Rational Emotive Therapies. Journal of Counseling and Development; Feb

1989, Vol. 67, p338-340

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^ Johnson, Chad V., and Friedman, Harris L. "Enlightened or delusional? Differentiating religious, spiritual, and transpersonal experiences from psychopathology." Journal of Humanistic Psychology 48.4 (2008): 505-527 Jump up

^ Capriles, E. (2000). Beyond Mind: Steps to a Metatranspersonal Psychology. Honolulu, HI: The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 19:163-184.

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^ Capriles, E. (2006). Beyond Mind II: Further Steps to a Metatranspersonal Philosophy and Psychology. San Francisco, California: The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies[2], 24:5-44.

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^ Capriles, E. (in press). Beyond Mind III: Further Steps to a Metatranspersonal Philosophy and Psychology. Miami, Florida:The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, special issue following vol. 25.

Jump up

^ Friedman, Harris and MacDonald, Douglas A. "Editors’ Introduction". The International

Journal of Transpersonal Studies, Volume 25, 2006, page ii

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^ Daniels, M. (2005). Shadow, Self, Spirit: Essays in Transpersonal Psychology. Exeter: Imprint Academic. ISBN 1-84540-022-4.

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^ Gray, Alison J. "Reviews: In Case of Spiritual Emergency: Moving Successfully Through Your

Awakening". Psychiatric Bulletin (2012) 36: 360

Jump up

^ Whitney, Edward (1998) "Personal Accounts : Mania as Spiritual Emergency". Psychiatric Services 49:1547-1548, December. American Psychiatric Association.

Further reading[edit]

Davis, John V. (2003). Transpersonal psychology in Taylor, B. and Kaplan, J., Eds. The

Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Continuum.

Rowan, John. (1993) The Transpersonal: Psychotherapy and Counselling. London: Routledge Schneider, Kirk (1987). "The Deified Self: A Centaur Response to Wilber and the Transpersonal

Movement".Journal of Humanistic Psychology 27: 196­216.

External links[edit]

The Association for Transpersonal Psychology (ATP)

European Transpersonal Association

International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Organ of the International Transpersonal

Association

British Psychological Society - Transpersonal Psychology Section

Sofia University (formerly the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology)

Journal of Transpersonal Research Organ of the European Transpersonal Association

Transpersonal Psychology: A bibliography The most complete bibliography regarding transpersonal psychology, compiled by Andre Lefebvre

International Journal for Transformative Research


Oprah Winfrey - Wikipedia

Oprah Winfrey - Wikipedia

Oprah Winfrey

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Oprah Winfrey
Oprah in 2014.jpg
Winfrey in October 2014
Born
Orpah Gail Winfrey[1]

January 29, 1954 (age 67)
Alma materTennessee State University
Occupation
  • TV host
  • actress
  • producer
  • media executive
  • author
Years active1973–present
Title
Political partyIndependent
Partner(s)Stedman Graham (1986–present)
ChildrenCanaan (b. 1968; d. 1968)[2]
Websiteoprah.com
Signature
Oprah Winfrey Signature.svg

Oprah Gail Winfrey (born Orpah Gail Winfrey;[1] January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and philanthropist. She is best known for her talk show, The Oprah Winfrey Show, broadcast from Chicago, which was the highest-rated television program of its kind in history and ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011.[3][better source needed] Dubbed the "Queen of All Media,"[4] she was the richest African American of the 20th century[5][6] was once the world's only Black billionaire[7] and the greatest Black philanthropist in U.S. history.[8][9] By 2007, she was sometimes ranked as the most influential woman in the world.[10][11]

Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi to a single teenage mother and later raised in inner-city Milwaukee. She has stated that she was molested during her childhood and early teens and became pregnant at 14; her son was born prematurely and died in infancy.[12] Winfrey was then sent to live with the man she calls her father, Vernon Winfrey, a barber in Nashville, Tennessee, and landed a job in radio while still in high school. By 19, she was a co-anchor for the local evening news. Winfrey's often emotional, extemporaneous delivery eventually led to her transfer to the daytime talk show arena, and after boosting a third-rated local Chicago talk show to first place,[13] she launched her own production company.

By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. Though she has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas,[14] and having an emotion-centered approach,[15] she has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others.[16] Winfrey had also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries.[17] In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Obama[18] and received honorary doctorate degrees from Duke and Harvard.[19][20] In 2008, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN).

Credited with creating a more intimate, confessional form of media communication,[21] Winfrey popularized and revolutionized[21][22] the tabloid talk show genre pioneered by Phil Donahue.[21] In 1994, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.[23] Winfrey has won many accolades throughout her career which includes 18 Daytime Emmy Awards, including the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Chairman's Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards, including the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award, a Tony Award, a Peabody Award and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, awarded by the Academy Awards and two additional Academy Award nominations. Winfey was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2021.[24]

Early life

Orpah Gail Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954; her first name was spelled Orpah on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and "Oprah" stuck.[1][25] She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to an unmarried teenage mother.[26] Her mother, Vernita Lee (1935–2018), was a housemaid.[27][28] Winfrey's biological father is usually noted as Vernon Winfrey (born c. 1933), a coal miner turned barber turned city councilman who had been in the Armed Forces when she was born.[27] However, Mississippi farmer and World War II Veteran Noah Robinson Sr. (born c. 1925) has claimed to be her biological father.[29][30] A genetic test in 2006 determined that her matrilineal line originated among the Kpelle ethnic group, in the area that today is Liberia. Her genetic makeup was determined to be 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American, and 3% East Asian. However, given the imprecision of genetic testing, the East Asian markers may actually be Native American.[31]

After Winfrey's birth, her mother traveled north, and Winfrey spent her first six years living in rural poverty with her maternal grandmother, Hattie Mae (Presley) Lee (April 15, 1900 – February 27, 1963). Her grandmother was so poor that Winfrey often wore dresses made of potato sacks, for which other children made fun of her.[26][32] Her grandmother taught her to read before the age of three and took her to the local church, where she was nicknamed "The Preacher" for her ability to recite Bible verses. When Winfrey was a child, her grandmother was reportedly abusive.[33]

At age six, Winfrey moved to an inner-city neighborhood in MilwaukeeWisconsin, with her mother, who was less supportive and encouraging than her grandmother had been, largely as a result of the long hours she worked as a maid.[27] Around this time, Lee had given birth to another daughter, Winfrey's younger half-sister, Patricia[34] who died of causes related to cocaine addiction in February 2003 at age 43.[35] By 1962, Lee was having difficulty raising both daughters, so Winfrey was temporarily sent to live with Vernon in Nashville, Tennessee.[36] While Winfrey was in Nashville, Lee gave birth to a third daughter,[37] who was put up for adoption in the hopes of easing the financial straits that had led to Lee's being on welfare, and was later also named Patricia.[38] Winfrey did not know that she had a second half-sister until 2010.[38] By the time Winfrey moved back with her mother, Lee had also given birth to Winfrey's half-brother Jeffrey, who died of AIDS-related causes in 1989.[35] At the age of 8, she was baptized in a Baptist church.[39]

Winfrey has stated she was molested by her cousin, uncle, and a family friend, starting when she was nine years old, something she first announced on a 1986 episode of her TV show regarding sexual abuse.[40][41] When Winfrey discussed the alleged abuse with family members at age 24, they reportedly refused to believe her account.[42] Winfrey once commented that she had chosen not to be a mother because she had not been mothered well.[43] At 13, after suffering what she described as years of abuse, Winfrey ran away from home.[25] When she was 14, she became pregnant, but her son was born prematurely and died shortly after birth.[44] Winfrey later stated she felt betrayed by the family member who had sold the story of her son to the National Enquirer in 1990.[45]

Winfrey attended Lincoln High School in Milwaukee, but after early success in the Upward Bound program, was transferred to the affluent suburban Nicolet High School. Upon transferring, she said she was continually reminded of her poverty as she rode the bus to school with fellow African-Americans, some of whom were servants of her classmates' families. She began to rebel and steal money from her mother in an effort to keep up with her free-spending peers.[46][47] As a result, her mother once again sent her to live with Vernon in Nashville, although this time she did not take her back. Vernon was strict but encouraging, and made her education a priority. Winfrey became an honors student, was voted Most Popular Girl, and joined her high school speech team at East Nashville High School, placing second in the nation in dramatic interpretation.[48][49]

Winfrey's first job as a teenager was working at a local grocery store.[50][51] At the age of 17, Winfrey won the Miss Black Tennessee beauty pageant.[52] She also attracted the attention of the local black radio station, WVOL, which hired her to do the news part-time.[40] She worked there during her senior year of high school and in her first two years of college.[53] She had won an oratory contest, which secured her a full scholarship to Tennessee State University, a historically black institution, where she studied communication. However, she did not deliver her final paper and receive her degree until 1987, by which time she was a successful television personality.[54]

Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and "gave me a positive sense of myself".[55]

Television

Working in local media, Winfrey was both the youngest news anchor and the first black female news anchor at Nashville's WLAC-TV (now WTVF-TV), where she often covered the same stories as John Tesh, who worked at a competing Nashville station. In 1976, she moved to Baltimore's WJZ-TV to co-anchor the six o'clock news. In 1977, she was removed as co-anchor and worked in lower profile positions at the station. She was then recruited to join Richard Sher as co-host of WJZ's local talk show People Are Talking, which premiered on August 14, 1978. She also hosted the local version of Dialing for Dollars.[56][57][58]

In 1984, Winfrey relocated to Chicago to host WLS-TV's low-rated half-hour morning talk show, AM Chicago. The first episode aired on January 2, 1985. Within months after Winfrey took over, the show went from last place in the ratings to overtaking Donahue as the highest-rated talk show in Chicago. The movie critic Roger Ebert persuaded her to sign a syndication deal with King World. Ebert predicted that she would generate 40 times as much revenue as his television show, At the Movies.[59] It was then renamed The Oprah Winfrey Show and expanded to a full hour. The first episode was broadcast nationwide on September 8, 1986.[60][61] Winfrey's syndicated show brought in double Donahue's national audience, displacing Donahue as the number-one daytime talk show in America. Their much-publicized contest was the subject of enormous scrutiny. According to Time magazine in August 1988:

Few people would have bet on Oprah Winfrey's swift rise to host of the most popular talk show on TV. In a field dominated by white males, she is a black female of ample bulk. As interviewers go, she is no match for, say, Phil Donahue ... What she lacks in journalistic toughness, she makes up for in plainspoken curiosity, robust humor and, above all empathy. Guests with sad stories to tell are apt to rouse a tear in Oprah's eye ... They, in turn, often find themselves revealing things they would not imagine telling anyone, much less a national TV audience. It is the talk show as a group therapy session.[62]

TV columnist Howard Rosenberg said: "She's a roundhouse, a full course meal, big, brassy, loud, aggressive, hyper, laughable, lovable, soulful, tender, low-down, earthy, and hungry. And she may know the way to Phil Donahue's jugular."[63] Newsday'Les Payne observed, "Oprah Winfrey is sharper than Donahue, wittier, more genuine, and far better attuned to her audience, if not the world"[63] and Martha Bayles of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "It's a relief to see a gab-monger with a fond but realistic assessment of her own cultural and religious roots."[63]

Winfrey in 1997

In the early years of The Oprah Winfrey Show, the program was classified as a tabloid talk show. In the mid-1990s, Winfrey began to host shows on broader topics such as heart disease, geopolitics, spirituality, and meditation. She interviewed celebrities on social issues they were directly involved with, such as cancer, charity work, or substance abuse, and hosted televised giveaways.[64][65] The later years of the show faced accusations that Winfrey was promoting junk science.[66] This has manifested as criticisms of Winfrey for promoting particular guests whose medical commentaries (both on her show and in the wider media) frequently lack supporting science. Common targets of this criticism include Dr. Oz's promotion of various "miracle pills" (especially those aimed at weight loss), Dr. PhilJenny McCarthy's unfounded assertions about vaccines, and Suzanne Somers's promotion of bioidenticals.[67][68] Multiple publications have called on Oprah to denounce medical statements made by her former proteges long after her show ended. For example, there were calls for her to denounce Dr. Oz in 2020 reaction to his comments about coronavirus and his promotion of a poorly vetted drug as a cure.[69]

In addition to her talk show, Winfrey also produced and co-starred in the drama miniseries The Women of Brewster Place (1989) and its short-lived spin-off, Brewster Place. As well as hosting and appearing on television shows, Winfrey co-founded the women's cable television network Oxygen which was the initial network for her Oprah After the Show program from 2002 to 2006 before moving to Oprah.com when Winfrey sold her stake in the network. She is also the president of Harpo Productions (Oprah spelled backwards), a film and TV production company behind The Oprah Winfrey ShowDr. PhilRachael RayThe Dr. Oz Show and many others. She also moderated three ABC Afterschool Specials from 1992 to 1994.

On January 15, 2008, Winfrey and Discovery Communications announced plans to change Discovery Health Channel into a new channel called OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network. It was scheduled to launch in 2009 but was delayed, and actually launched on January 1, 2011.[70]

The series finale of The Oprah Winfrey Show aired on May 25, 2011.[71]

In January 2017, CBS announced that Winfrey would join 60 Minutes as a special contributor on the Sunday evening news magazine program starting in September 2017.[72] The National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2018 opened a special exhibit on Winfrey's cultural influence through television.[73] Winfrey left 60 Minutes by the end of 2018.[74]

In June 2018, Apple announced a multi-year content partnership with Winfrey, in which it was agreed that Winfrey would create new original programs exclusively for Apple's streaming service, Apple TV+.[75] The first show under the deal, Oprah's Book Club, premiered on November 1, 2019. Oprah's Book Club is based on the segment of the same name from The Oprah Winfrey Show. The second show under the deal, Oprah Talks COVID-19, debuted on March 21, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic. A third show, The Oprah Conversation debuted on July 30, 2020, with Winfrey "[continuing] to explore impactful and relevant topics with fascinating thought leaders from all over the world".[76]

Celebrity interviews

In 1993, Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of 36.5 million.[77] On December 1, 2005, Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman for the first time in 16 years, to promote the new Broadway musical, The Color Purple,[78] which she produced. The episode was hailed by some as the "television event of the decade" and helped Letterman attract his largest audience in more than 11 years: 13.45 million viewers.[79] Although a much-rumored feud was said to have been the cause of the rift,[78] both Winfrey and Letterman balked at such talk. "I want you to know, it's really over, whatever you thought was happening,” said Winfrey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City.[80]

In 2006, rappers Ludacris50 Cent, and Ice Cube criticized Winfrey for what they perceived as an anti-hip hop bias. In an interview with GQ magazine, Ludacris said that Winfrey gave him a "hard time" about his lyrics, and edited comments he made during an appearance on her show with the cast of the film Crash. He also said that he wasn't initially invited on the show with the rest of the cast.[81] Winfrey responded by saying that she is opposed to rap lyrics that "marginalize women,” but enjoys some artists, including Kanye West, who appeared on her show. She said she spoke with Ludacris backstage after his appearance to explain her position and said she understood that his music was for entertainment purposes, but that some of his listeners might take it literally. In September 2008, Winfrey received criticism after Matt Drudge of the Drudge Report[82] reported that Winfrey refused to have Sarah Palin on her show, allegedly because of Winfrey's support for Barack Obama.[83] Winfrey denied the report, maintaining that there never was a discussion regarding Palin's appearing on her show. She said that after she made public her support for Obama, she decided that she would not let her show be used as a platform for any of the candidates.[83] Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaration as a presidential candidate. Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009.[83]

In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine.[84] Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like.[85] Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for The Washington Post, stated: "Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club."[86]

In 2021, she conducted an interview with Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, and her husband Prince Harry, which was broadcast globally and received international media attention.[87]

Other media

Film

Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize–winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, Beloved opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30 million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandie Newton described Winfrey as "a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade."[88] Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role.

In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies exclusively for HBO.[89]

Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Renée Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's The Princess and the Frog and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program Life for Discovery.

In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time.[90] She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled Crow: The Legend, telling a native American origin tale.[91]

Publishing and writing

Winfrey has co-authored five books. At the announcement of a weight-loss book in 2005, co-authored with her personal trainer Bob Greene, it was said that her undisclosed advance fee had broken the record for the world's highest book advance fee, previously held by the autobiography of former U.S. President Bill Clinton.[92]

In 2015, her memoir, The Life You Want, was announced following on her tour of the same name,[93][94] and scheduled for publication in 2017,[95] but was "indefinitely postponed" in 2016.[96]

Winfrey publishes the magazine: O, The Oprah Magazine and from 2004 to 2008 also published a magazine called O At Home.[97] In 2002, Fortune called O, the Oprah Magazine the most successful start-up ever in the industry.[98] Although its circulation had declined by more than 10 percent (to 2.4 million) from 2005 to 2008.[99] The January 2009 issue was the best selling issue since 2006.[100] The audience for her magazine is considerably more upscale than for her TV show; the average reader earns well above the median for U.S. women.[98] In July 2020, it was announced that O Magazine would end its regular print publications after the December 2020 issue.[101][102] In the December 2020 issue, Winfrey thanked readers and acknowledged it was the magazine's "final monthly print edition".[103]

Online

Winfrey's company created the Oprah.com website to provide resources and interactive content related to her shows, magazines, book club, and public charity. Oprah.com averages more than 70 million page views and more than six million users per month, and receives approximately 20,000 e-mails each week.[104] Winfrey initiated "Oprah's Child Predator Watch List,” through her show and website, to help track down accused child molesters. Within the first 48 hours, two of the featured men were captured.[105]

Radio

On February 9, 2006, it was announced that Winfrey had signed a three-year, $55-million contract with XM Satellite Radio to establish a new radio channel. The channel, Oprah Radio, features popular contributors to The Oprah Winfrey Show and O, The Oprah Magazine including Nate BerkusDr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Dr. Robin Smith, and Marianne Williamson. Oprah & Friends began broadcasting at 11:00 am ET, September 25, 2006, from a new studio at Winfrey's Chicago headquarters. The channel broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week on XM Radio Channel 156. Winfrey's contract requires her to be on the air 30 minutes a week, 39 weeks a year.[106]

Personal life

Homes

Aerial view of Oprah's Montecito estate

Winfrey currently lives on "The Promised Land,” her 42-acre (17-ha) estate with ocean and mountain views in Montecito, California. Winfrey also owns a house in Lavallette, New Jersey; an apartment in Chicago; an estate on Fisher Island, Florida; a ski house in Telluride, Colorado; and properties on MauiHawaiiAntigua; and Orcas Island, Washington State.

Romantic history

Winfrey's high school sweetheart Anthony Otey recalled an innocent courtship that began in Winfrey's senior year of high school, from which he saved hundreds of love notes; Winfrey conducted herself with dignity and was a model student.[107] The two spoke of getting married, but Otey claimed to have always secretly known that Winfrey was destined for a far greater life than he could ever provide.[108] She broke up with him on Valentine's Day of her senior year.[108][109]

In 1971, several months after breaking up with Otey, Winfrey met William "Bubba" Taylor at Tennessee State University. According to CBS journalist George Mair, Taylor was Winfrey's "first intense, to die for love affair". Winfrey helped get Taylor a job at WVOL, and according to Mair, "did everything to keep him, including literally begging him on her knees to stay with her".[110] Taylor, however, was unwilling to leave Nashville with Winfrey when she moved to Baltimore to work at WJZ-TV in June 1976. "We really did care for each other,” Winfrey would later recall. "We shared a deep love. A love I will never forget."[111]

In the 1970s, Winfrey had a romantic relationship with John Tesh. Biographer Kitty Kelley claims that Tesh split with Winfrey over the pressures of an interracial relationship.[112]

When WJZ-TV management criticized Winfrey for crying on air while reporting tragedies and were unhappy with her physical appearance (especially when her hair fell out as a result of a bad perm), Winfrey turned to reporter Lloyd Kramer for comfort. "Lloyd was just the best,” Winfrey would later recall. "That man loved me even when I was bald! He was wonderful. He stuck with me through the whole demoralizing experience. That man was the most fun romance I ever had."[113]

According to Mair, when Kramer moved to NBC in New York, Winfrey had a love affair with a married man who had no intention of leaving his wife.[114] Winfrey would later recall: "I'd had a relationship with a man for four years. I wasn't living with him. I'd never lived with anyone—and I thought I was worthless without him. The more he rejected me, the more I wanted him. I felt depleted, powerless. At the end, I was down on the floor on my knees groveling and pleading with him".[115] Winfrey became so depressed that on September 8, 1981, she wrote a suicide note to best friend Gayle King instructing King to water her plants.[115] "That suicide note had been much overplayed" Winfrey told Ms. magazine. "I couldn't kill myself. I would be afraid the minute I did it, something really good would happen and I'd miss it."[116]

According to Winfrey, her emotional turmoil gradually led to a weight problem: "The reason I gained so much weight in the first place and the reason I had such a sorry history of abusive relationships with men was I just needed approval so much. I needed everyone to like me, because I didn't like myself much. So I'd end up with these cruel self-absorbed guys who'd tell me how selfish I was, and I'd say 'Oh thank you, you're so right' and be grateful to them. Because I had no sense that I deserved anything else. Which is also why I gained so much weight later on. It was the perfect way of cushioning myself against the world's disapproval."[116]

Winfrey later confessed to smoking crack cocaine with a man she was romantically involved with during the same era. She explained on her show: "I always felt that the drug itself is not the problem but that I was addicted to the man." She added: "I can't think of anything I wouldn't have done for that man."[117]

Winfrey was allegedly involved in a second drug-related love affair. Self-proclaimed former boyfriend Randolph Cook said they lived together for several months in 1985 and did drugs. In 1997, Cook tried to sue Winfrey for $20 million for allegedly blocking a tell-all book about their alleged relationship.[118][119]

In the mid-1980s, Winfrey briefly dated movie critic Roger Ebert, whom she credits with advising her to take her show into syndication.[59]

In 1985, before Winfrey's Chicago talk show had gone national, Haitian filmmaker Reginald Chevalier claims he appeared as a guest on a look-alike segment and began a relationship with Winfrey involving romantic evenings at home, candlelit baths, and dinners with Michael Jordan and Danny Glover. Chevalier says Winfrey ended the relationship when she met Stedman Graham.[120]

Winfrey and her boyfriend Stedman Graham have been together since 1986. They were engaged to be married in November 1992, but the ceremony never took place.[121]

Close friends

Winfrey celebrating her 50th birthday among friends at her Santa Barbara estate, 2004

Winfrey's best friend since their early twenties is Gayle King. King was formerly the host of The Gayle King Show and is currently an editor of O, the Oprah Magazine. Since 1997, when Winfrey played the therapist on an episode of the sitcom Ellen in which Ellen DeGeneres came out of the closet, Winfrey and King have been the target of persistent rumors that they were gay. "I understand why people think we're gay,” Winfrey says in the August 2006 issue of O magazine. "There isn't a definition in our culture for this kind of bond between women. So I get why people have to label it—how can you be this close without it being sexual?"[122] "I've told nearly everything there is to tell. All my stuff is out there. People think I'd be so ashamed of being gay that I wouldn't admit it? Oh, please."[122]

Winfrey has also had a long friendship with Maria Shriver, after they met in Baltimore.[123][124] Winfrey considered Maya Angelou, author of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her mentor and close friend; she called Angelou her "mother-sister-friend".[125] Winfrey hosted a week-long Caribbean cruise for Angelou and 150 guests for Angelou's 70th birthday in 1998, and in 2008, threw her "an extravagant 80th birthday celebration" at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago club in Palm Beach, Florida.[126]

Personal wealth

Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340 million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the Forbes 400.[127] By 2000, with a net worth of $800 million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen, namely: "History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon".[128] Winfrey was the highest paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260 million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell.[129] By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275 million.[130]

Forbes' list of The World's Billionaires has listed Winfrey as the world's only black billionaire from 2004 to 2006 and as the first black woman billionaire in the world that was achieved in 2003.[127] As of 2014, Winfrey had a net worth in excess of 2.9 billion dollars[131] and had overtaken former eBay CEO Meg Whitman as the richest self-made woman in America.[132]

Religious views

Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again.[133][134][135]

She was quoted as saying: "I have church with myself: I have church walking down the street. I believe in the God force that lives inside all of us, and once you tap into that, you can do anything."[136] She also stated, "Doubt means don't. When you don't know what to do, do nothing until you do know what to do. Because the doubt is your inner voice or the voice of God or whatever you choose to call it. It is your instinct trying to tell you something is off. That's how I have found myself to be led spiritually, because that's your spiritual voice saying to you, 'let's think about it.' So when you don't know what to do, do nothing."[137]

Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is Acts 17:28.[138]

Oprah attends The Potter's House Church, Dallas service, an Evangelical church.[39]

Influence

Rankings

Winfrey at the White House for the 2010 Kennedy Center Honors

Winfrey was called "arguably the world's most powerful woman" by CNN and Time.com,[139] "arguably the most influential woman in the world" by The American Spectator,[140] "one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th Century" and "one of the most influential people" from 2004 to 2011 by TIME. Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions.[141]

At the end of the 20th century, Life listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her "America's most powerful woman".[142] In 2007, USA Today ranked Winfrey as the most influential woman and most influential black person of the previous quarter-century.[143] Ladies' Home Journal also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then Senator Barack Obama in 2007 said she "may be the most influential woman in the country".[144] In 1998, Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top Entertainment Weekly's list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry.[145] Forbes named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005,[146] 2007,[147] 2008,[130] 2010,[148] and 2013.[149]

As chairman of Harpo Inc., she was named the most powerful woman in entertainment by The Hollywood Reporter in 2008.[150] She has been listed as one of the most powerful 100 women in the world by Forbes, ranking 14th in 2014.[151] In 2010, Life magazine named Winfrey one of the 100 people who changed the world, alongside Jesus ChristElvis Presley, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Winfrey was the only living woman to make the list.[152]

Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments. Interviewed by The Guardian in 2006, Dowd said: "She is the top alpha female in this country. She has more credibility than the president. Other successful women, such as Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart, had to be publicly slapped down before they could move forward. Even Condi has had to play the protégé with Bush. None of this happened to Oprah – she is a straight ahead success story."[153] Vanity Fair wrote: "Oprah Winfrey arguably has more influence on the culture than any university president, politician, or religious leader, except perhaps the Pope.[154] Bill O'Reilly said: "this is a woman that came from nothing to rise up to be the most powerful woman, I think, in the world. I think Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in the world, not just in America. That's – anybody who goes on her program immediately benefits through the roof. I mean, she has a loyal following; she has credibility; she has talent; and she's done it on her own to become fabulously wealthy and fabulously powerful."[155]

In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of The Greatest American. She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 Fox News poll put the figure at 55%.[156] According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007[157] when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place.[158] In a list compiled by the British magazine New Statesman in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010".[159]

In 1989, she was accepted into the NAACP Image Award Hall of Fame.[160]

"Oprahfication"

The Wall Street Journal coined the term "Oprahfication,” meaning public confession as a form of therapy.[161] By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by Time magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as "rapport talk" as distinguished from the "report talk" of Phil Donahue: "Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ... She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives."[162]

Observers have also noted the "Oprahfication" of politics such as "Oprah-style debates" and Bill Clinton being described as "the man who brought Oprah-style psychobabble and misty confessions to politics".[163] Newsweek stated: "Every time a politician lets his lip quiver or a cable anchor 'emotes' on TV, they nod to the cult of confession that Oprah helped create.[164]

The November 1988 Ms. observed that "in a society where fat is taboo, she made it in a medium that worships thin and celebrates a bland, white-bread prettiness of body and personality [...] But Winfrey made fat sexy, elegant – damned near gorgeous – with her drop-dead wardrobe, easy body language, and cheerful sensuality."[165]

Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people

While Phil Donahue has been credited with pioneering the tabloid talk show genre, Winfrey's warmth, intimacy, and personal confession popularized and changed it.[21][22] Her success at popularizing the tabloid talk show genre opened up a thriving industry that has included Ricki LakeThe Jenny Jones Show, and The Jerry Springer Show. In the book Freaks Talk Back,[166] Yale sociology professor Joshua Gamson credits the tabloid talk show genre with providing much needed high impact media visibility for gay, bisexualtranssexual, and transgender (LGBT) people and doing more to make them mainstream and socially acceptable than any other development of the 20th century. In the book's editorial review, Michael Bronski wrote, "In the recent past, lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered people had almost no presence on television. With the invention and propagation of tabloid talk shows such as Jerry SpringerJenny JonesOprah, and Geraldo, people outside the sexual mainstream now appear in living rooms across America almost every day of the week."[167] Gamson credits the tabloid talk show with making alternative sexual orientations and identities more acceptable in mainstream society. Examples include a Time magazine article[page needed] on early 21st-century gays coming out of the closet at an increasingly younger age and on plummeting gay suicide rates. Gamson also believes that tabloid talk shows caused gays to be accepted on more traditional forms of media.

In April 1997, Winfrey played the therapist in "The Puppy Episode" on the sitcom Ellen to whom the character (and the real-life Ellen DeGeneres) said she was a lesbian.

"The Oprah Effect"

The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed "the Oprah Effect".[168] The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996,[169] Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel East of Eden, it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author.[170] In Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as "a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading – a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act – and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books."

When author Jonathan Franzen's book was selected for the Book Club, he reportedly "cringed" and said selected books tend to be "schmaltzy".[171] After James Frey's A Million Little Pieces was found to contain fabrications in 2006, Winfrey confronted him on her show over the breach of trust. In 2009, Winfrey apologized to Frey for the public confrontation.[172] During a show about mad cow disease with Howard Lyman (aired on April 16, 1996), Winfrey said she was stopped cold from eating another burger. Texas cattlemen sued her and Lyman in early 1998 for "false defamation of perishable food" and "business disparagement,” claiming that Winfrey's remarks sent cattle prices tumbling, costing beef producers $11 million. Winfrey was represented by attorney Chip Babcock and, on February 26, after a two-month trial in an Amarillo, Texas, court, a jury found Winfrey and Lyman were not liable for damages.[173][174] During the lawsuit, Winfrey hired Phil McGraw's company Courtroom Sciences, Inc. to help her analyze and read the jury.[175] Winfrey's ability to launch other successful talk shows such as Dr. PhilThe Dr. Oz Show, and Rachael Ray has also been cited as examples of "The Oprah Effect".[176]

Politics

Matthew Baum and Angela Jamison performed an experiment testing their hypothesis, "Politically unaware individuals who consume soft news will be more likely to vote consistently than their counterparts who do not consume soft news".[177] In their studies, they found that low-awareness individuals who watch soft news shows, such as The Oprah Winfrey Show are 14% more likely to vote consistently than low-awareness individuals who only watch hard news.[177]

Winfrey joins Barack and Michelle Obama on the campaign trail (December 10, 2007)

Winfrey states she is a political independent who has "earned the right to think for myself and to vote for myself".[178] She endorsed presidential candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election.[179][180][181] On September 25, 2006, Winfrey made her first endorsement of Obama for president on Larry King Live, the first time she endorsed a political candidate running for office.[182] Two economists estimate that Winfrey's endorsement was worth over a million votes in the Democratic primary race[183] and that without it, Obama would have lost the nomination.[184] Winfrey held a fundraiser for Obama on September 8, 2007, at her Santa Barbara estate. In December 2007, Winfrey joined Obama for a series of rallies in the early primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina. The Columbia, South Carolina, event on December 9, 2007, drew a crowd of nearly 30,000, the largest for any political event of 2007.[185] An analysis by two economists at the University of Maryland, College Park estimated that Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for between 420,000 and 1,600,000 votes for Obama in the Democratic primary alone, based on a sample of states that did not include Texas, Michigan, North Dakota, Kansas, or Alaska. The results suggest that in the sampled states, Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for the difference in the popular vote between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton.[186] The governor of Illinois, Rod Blagojevich, reported being so impressed by Winfrey's endorsement that he considered offering Winfrey Obama's vacant senate seat, describing Winfrey as "the most instrumental person in electing Barack Obama president,” with "a voice larger than all 100 senators combined".[187] Winfrey responded by stating that although she was absolutely not interested, she did feel she could be a senator.[188] The Topps trading card company memorialized Oprah's involvement in the campaign by featuring her on a card in a set commemorating Obama's road to the White House.[189]

In April 2014, Winfrey spoke for more than 20 minutes at a fundraiser in Arlington, Virginia, for Lavern Chatman, a candidate in a primary to nominate a Democratic Party candidate for election to the U.S. House of Representatives. Winfrey participated in the event even after reports had revealed that Chatman had been found liable in 2001 for her role in a scheme to defraud hundreds of District of Columbia nursing-home employees of at least $1.4 million in owed wages.[190]

In 2018, Winfrey began canvassing door-to-door for Georgia gubernatorial Democratic nominee Stacey Abrams.[191][192]

In 2018, Winfrey donated $500,000 to the March for Our Lives student demonstration in favor of gun control in the United States.[193]

In early 2018, Winfrey met with Mohammad bin Salman, the crown prince and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, when he visited the United States.[194]

Spiritual leadership

In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP.[195] In 2002, Christianity Today published an article called "The Church of O" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. "Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess—an icon of church-free spirituality."[161] The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book The Gospel According to Oprah.[196] Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage.[197] A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary.[198][199]

In 1998, Winfrey began an ongoing conversation with Gary Zukav, an American spiritual teacher, who appeared on her television show 35 times.[200] Winfrey has said she keeps a copy of Zukav's The Seat of the Soul at her bedside, a book that she says is one of her all-time favorites.[201]

On the season premiere of Winfrey's 13th season, Roseanne Barr told Winfrey "you're the African Mother Goddess of us all" inspiring much enthusiasm from the studio audience. The animated series Futurama alluded to her spiritual influence by suggesting that "Oprahism" is a mainstream religion in 3000 AD.[202] Twelve days after the September 11 attacks, New York mayor Rudy Giuliani asked Winfrey to serve as host of a Prayer for America service at New York City's Yankee Stadium, which was attended by former president Bill Clinton and New York senator Hillary Clinton.[203] Leading up to the U.S.-led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, Winfrey aired a controversial show called "Islam 101" in which she portrayed Islam as a religion of peace, calling it "the most misunderstood of the three major religions".[204] In 2002, George W. Bush invited Winfrey to join a US delegation that included adviser Karen Hughes and Condoleezza Rice, planning to go to Afghanistan to celebrate the return of Afghan girls to school. The "Oprah strategy" was designed to portray the War on Terror in a positive light; however, when Winfrey refused to participate, the trip was postponed.[205]

Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: "Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes The New York Times Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day."[206] In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: "I once did a show titled Is War the Only Answer? In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail – like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question."[207] Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show[208] and begging her to run for president.[209]

A February 2003 series, in which Winfrey showed clips from people all over the world asking America not to go to war, was interrupted in several East Coast markets by network broadcasts of a press conference in which President George W. Bush and Colin Powell summarized the case for war.[210][211]

In 2007, Winfrey began to endorse the self-help program The SecretThe Secret claims that people can change their lives through positive thoughts or 'vibrations', which will then cause them to attract more positive vibrations that result in good things happening to them. Peter Birkenhead of Salon magazine argued that this idea is pseudoscience and psychologically damaging, as it trivializes important decisions and promotes a quick-fix material culture, and suggests Winfrey's promotion of it is irresponsible given her influence.[212] In 2007, skeptic and magician James Randi accused Winfrey of being deliberately deceptive and uncritical in how she handles paranormal claims on her show.[213] In 2008, Winfrey endorsed author and spiritual teacher Eckhart Tolle and his book, A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life's Purpose, which sold several million extra copies after being selected for her book club. During a Webinar class, in which she promoted the book, Winfrey stated "God is a feeling experience and not a believing experience. If your religion is a believing experience [...] then that's not truly God."[214] Frank Pastore, a Christian radio talk show host on KKLA, was among the many Christian leaders who criticized Winfrey's views, saying "if she's a Christian, she's an ignorant one because Christianity is incompatible with New Age thought".[214]

Winfrey was named as the 2008 Person of the Year by animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for using her fame and listening audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. PETA praised Winfrey for using her talk show to uncover horrific cases of cruelty to animals in puppy mills and on factory farms, and Winfrey even used the show to highlight the cruelty-free vegan diet that she tried.[215]

Winfrey filming in Denmark in 2009

In 2009, Winfrey filmed a series of interviews in Denmark highlighting its citizens as the happiest people in the world. In 2010, Bill O'Reilly of Fox News criticized these shows for promoting a left-wing society.[216] Following the launch of the Super Soul Sunday and SuperSoul Sessions programs on Harpo Productions' SuperSoul TV, in 2016 Winfrey selected 100 people for the SuperSoul 100 list of "innovators and visionaries who are aligned on a mission to move humanity forward".[217][218]

On using the N-word, Winfrey said, "You cannot be my friend and use that word around me. ... I always think of the...people who heard that as their last word as they were hanging from a tree."[219]

Fan base

The viewership for The Oprah Winfrey Show was highest during the 1991–92 season, when about 13.1 million U.S. viewers were watching each day. By 2003, ratings declined to 7.4 million daily viewers.[220] Ratings briefly rebounded to approximately 9 million in 2005 and then declined again to around 7.3 million viewers in 2008, though it remained the highest rated talk show.[221]

In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46 million people in the US weekly.[222][223] According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002–06, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby BoomersGeneration X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans.[224]

Outside the U.S., Winfrey has become increasingly popular in the Arab worldThe Wall Street Journal reported in 2007 that MBC 4, an Arab satellite channel, centered its entire programming around reruns of her show because it was drawing record numbers of female viewers in Saudi Arabia.[225] In 2008, The New York Times reported that The Oprah Winfrey Show, with Arabic subtitles, was broadcast twice each weekday on MBC 4. Winfrey's modest dress, combined with her attitude of triumph over adversity and abuse has caused some women in Saudi Arabia to idealize her.[226]

Philanthropy

Winfrey visits evacuees from New Orleans temporarily sheltered at the Reliant center in Houston following Hurricane Katrina

In 2004, Winfrey became the first black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans[227] and she remained among the top 50 until 2010.[228] By 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes.[229]

As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia.[131] Winfrey was the recipient of the first Bob Hope Humanitarian Award at the 2002 Emmy Awards for services to television and film. To celebrate two decades on national TV, and to thank her employees for their hard work, Winfrey took her staff and their families (1,065 people in total) on vacation to Hawaii in the summer of 2006.[230]

In 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture.[231] President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that same year.[232]

Oprah's Angel Network

In 1998, Winfrey created the Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1 million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down.[233][234]

In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, Oprah created the Oprah Angel Network Katrina registry which raised more than $11 million for relief efforts. Winfrey personally gave $10 million to the cause.[235] Homes were built in Texas, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama before the one-year anniversary of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.[236]

South Africa

In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, Oprah's Christmas Kindness, in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children,[237] with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40 million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, theatre, and beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious.[238] Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: "If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you."[238] Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls.[239][240] Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite.[239]

Filmography

As actress

YearTitleRoleNotes
1985The Color PurpleSofiaFilm debut
Nominated – Academy Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role
Nominated – Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture
Nominated – Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
1986Native SonMrs. Thomas
1989The Women of Brewster PlaceMattie MichaelTelevision miniseries
1990Brewster PlaceMattie MichaelTelevision series
1992LincolnElizabeth KeckleyVoice role; television movie (ABC)
There Are No Children HereLaJoe RiversTelevision movie (ABC)
1997EllenTherapist"The Puppy Episode: Part 1" (#4.22)
"The Puppy Episode: Part 2" (#4.23)
Before Women Had WingsZora WilliamsAlso producer
Television movie (ABC)
1998BelovedSetheAlso producer
Nominated – NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture
1999Our Friend, MartinCoretta Scott KingVoice role; direct-to-video film
2006Charlotte's WebGussy the GooseVoice role
2007Bee MovieJudge Bumbleton
2009The Princess and the FrogEudora
2010Sesame StreetO (voice)"The Camouflage Challenge"
2013The ButlerGloria GainesAfrican-American Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
Santa Barbara International Film Festival — Montecito Award
Nominated – BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role
Nominated – Black Reel Award for Best Supporting Actress
Nominated – Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress
Nominated – Denver Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actress
Nominated – NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture
Nominated – Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actress
Nominated – Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture
Nominated – Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role
Nominated – Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture
2014SelmaAnnie Lee CooperAlso producer
Women Film Critics Circle Award for Best Female Action Star
Nominated – Academy Award for Best Picture
Nominated – Independent Spirit Award for Best Film
Nominated – NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture
2016–17GreenleafMavis McCreadyTelevision series; also executive producer
2017The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks[241]Deborah LacksTelevision movie; also executive producer
Nominated – NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special
Nominated – Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie
The StarDeborah the CamelVoice role[242]
2018A Wrinkle in TimeMrs. Which
Crow: The LegendThe One Who Creates Everything by ThinkingVoice role[243][244]
2018–19The Handmaid's TaleRadio Free America Announcer

As herself

YearTitleRoleNotes
1986Saturday Night LiveHerself (host)Episode: "Oprah Winfrey/Joe Jackson"
1986–2011The Oprah Winfrey ShowHerselfTelevision talk show
1987Throw Momma from the TrainFilm
1990Gabriel's FireEpisode: "Tis the Season"
1992The Fresh Prince of Bel-AirEpisode: "A Night at the Oprah"
1995All-American GirlEpisode: "A Night at the Oprah"
1999Home ImprovementEpisode: "Home Alone"
The HughleysEpisode: "Milsap Moves Up"
2005Desperate Housewives: Oprah Winfrey Is the New NeighborHerself, Karen StoufferSegment for The Oprah Winfrey Show, aired February 3, 2005
2007Ocean's ThirteenHerselfFilm
200830 RockHerself/PamEpisode: "Believe in the Stars"
2011–18Oprah's Master ClassHerselfOWN reality show
2011–14Oprah's LifeclassOWN self-help show
2011–presentSuper Soul SundayOWN spirituality show
2012–15Oprah PrimeOWN interview show
2012–17Oprah: Where Are They Now?OWN reality show
2019A Beautiful Day in the NeighborhoodArchive footage
2019–presentOprah's Book ClubApple TV+ book club show
2020–presentOprah Talks COVID-19Apple TV+ interview show
2020–presentThe Oprah ConversationApple TV+ talk show
2020Between the World and MeHBO Special - adaptation of the book
2021TinaDocumentary
Oprah with Meghan and HarryCBS Primetime Special
The Me You Can't SeeApple TV+ docuseries
TBDOprah Winfrey DocumentaryApple TV+[245]

As producer only

  • 1989 – The Oprah Winfrey Show (supervising producer – 8 episodes, 1989–2011)
  • 1989 – The Women of Brewster Place (TV miniseries) (executive producer)
  • 1992 – Nine (TV documentary) (executive producer)
  • 1992 – Overexposed (TV movie) (executive producer)
  • 1993 – ABC Afterschool Special (TV series) (producer – 1 episode "Shades of a Single Protein") (producer)
  • 1993 – Michael Jackson Talks to... Oprah Live (TV special) (executive producer)
  • 1997 – Before Women Had Wings (TV movie) (producer)
  • 1998 – The Wedding (TV miniseries) (executive producer)
  • 1998 – Beloved (producer)
  • 1998 – David and Lisa (TV movie) (executive producer)
  • 1999 – Tuesdays with Morrie (TV movie) (executive producer)
  • 2001 – Amy & Isabelle (TV movie) (executive producer, producer)
  • 2002 – Oprah After the Show (TV series) (executive producer)
  • 2005 – Their Eyes Were Watching God (TV movie) (executive producer)
  • 2006 – Legends Ball (TV documentary) (executive producer)
  • 2007 – Oprah's Big Give (TV series) (executive producer)
  • 2007 – The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special (TV movie) (executive producer)
  • 2007 – Building a Dream: The Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy (TV documentary) (executive producer)
  • 2007 – Oprah Winfrey Presents: Mitch Albom's For One More Day (TV movie) (executive producer)
  • 2007 – The Great Debaters (producer)
  • 2009 – The Dr. Oz Show (TV series) (executive producer)
  • 2009 – Precious (executive producer)
  • 2009 – Christmas at the White House: An Oprah Primetime Special (TV special) (executive producer)
  • 2010 – The Oprah Winfrey Oscar Special (TV movie) (executive producer)
  • 2011 – Your OWN Show (TV series) (executive producer)
  • 2011 – Extraordinary Mom (TV documentary) (executive producer)
  • 2011 – Serving Life (TV documentary) (executive producer)
  • 2014 – The Hundred-Foot Journey (producer)
  • 2014 – Selma (producer)
  • 2016–present – Queen Sugar[246] (co-creator and executive producer)
  • 2016–2020 – Greenleaf (executive producer)
  • 2017 – The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (TV movie) (executive producer)
  • 2018 – Love Is (executive producer)[247][248]
  • 2019 – When They See Us (executive producer)
  • 2019 – Oprah Winfrey Presents: After Neverland (executive producer)
  • 2019 – David Makes Man (executive producer)
  • 2020 – The Water Man (executive producer)[249]

Bibliography

By Oprah Winfrey

  • Winfrey, Oprah (1996). The Uncommon Wisdom of Oprah Winfrey: A Portrait in Her Own Words
  • Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Journey to Beloved (Photography by Ken Regan)
  • Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Make the Connection: Ten Steps to a Better Body and a Better Life (co-authored with Bob Greene)
  • Winfrey, Oprah (2000). Oprah Winfrey: The Soul and Spirit of a Superstar
  • Winfrey, Oprah (2014). What I Know for Sure
  • Winfrey, Oprah (2016). Mr. or Ms. Just Right (co-authored with B. Grace)
  • Winfrey, Oprah (2017). Food, Health and Happiness
  • Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom of Sundays: Life-Changing Insights from Super Soul Conversations
    • Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom Journal: The Companion to The Wisdom of Sundays
  • Winfrey, Oprah (2019). The Path Made Clear: Discovering Your Life's Direction and Purpose

About Oprah Winfrey

See also

References

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