Vipassanā

Translations of; Vipassanā
English	insight, clear-seeing, special-seeing
Sanskrit	विपश्यना; (vipaśyanā)
Pali	विपस्सना; Vipassanā
Burmese	ဝိပဿနာ (WiPakThaNar)
Chinese	觀; (Pinyin: guān)
Khmer	វិបស្សនា; (vipassana)
Sinhala	විපස්සනා
Tibetan	ལྷག་མཐོང་; (Wylie: lhag mthong; THL: lhak-thong)
Vietnamese	quán
	Glossary of Buddhism

Vipassanā (Pāli) or vipaśyanā (Sanskrit) literally, "special-seeing",^[1] "special (Vi), seeing (Passanā)",^[2] is a Buddhist term that is often translated as "insight". The Pali Canon describes it as one of two qualities of mind which is developed (bhāvanā) in Buddhist meditation, the other being samatha (mind calming). It is often defined as a form of meditation that seeks "insight into the true nature of reality", defined as anicca "impermanence", dukkha "suffering, unsatisfactoriness", anattā "non-self", the three marks of existence in the Theravada tradition,^[3]^[4] and as śūnyatā "emptiness" and Buddha-nature in the Mahayana traditions.

Vipassanā practice in the Theravada tradition ended in the 10th century, but was reintroduced in Toungoo and Konbaung Burma in the 18th century, based on contemporary readings of the Satipaṭṭhāna sutta, the Visuddhimagga, and other texts.^[5] A new tradition developed in the 19th and 20th centuries, centering on bare insight in conjunction with samatha.^[6] It became of central importance in the 20th century Vipassanā movement^[7] as developed by Ledi Sayadaw and U Vimala and popularised by Mahasi Sayadaw, V. R. Dhiravamsa, and S. N. Goenka.^[8]^[9]^[10]

In modern Theravada, the combination or disjunction of vipassanā and samatha is a matter of dispute. While the Pali sutras hardly mention vipassanā, describing it as a mental quality alongside samatha which develops in tandem and leads to liberation, the Abhidhamma Pitaka and the commentaries describe samatha and vipassanā as two separate meditation techniques. The Vipassanā movement favors vipassanā over samatha, but critics point out that both are necessary elements of the Buddhist training.

Etymology[edit]

Vipassanā is a Pali word derived from the older prefix "vi-" meaning "special", and the verbal root "-passanā" meaning "seeing".^[2] It is often translated as "insight" or "clear-seeing". The "vi" in vipassanā has many possible meanings, it could mean to '[see] into', '[see] through' or to '[see] in a special way.'^[4]

A synonym for vipassanā is paccakkha "perceptible to the senses" (Pāli; Sanskrit: pratyakṣa), literally "before the eyes," which refers to direct experiential perception. Thus, the type of seeing denoted by vipassanā is that of direct perception, as opposed to knowledge derived from reasoning or argument.^{[citation needed]}

In Tibetan, vipaśyanā is lhaktong (Wylie: lhag mthong). Lhak means "higher", "superior", "greater"; tong is "view, to see". So together, lhaktong may be rendered into English as "superior seeing", "great vision" or "supreme wisdom." This may be interpreted as a "superior manner of seeing", and also as "seeing that which is the essential nature." Its nature is a lucidity—a clarity of mind.^[11]

Henepola Gunaratana defined vipassanā as "Looking into something with clarity and precision, seeing each component as distinct and separate, and piercing all the way through so as to perceive the most fundamental reality of that thing."^[4]

Origins[edit]

According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, in the sutta pitaka the term "vipassanā" is hardly mentioned, while they frequently mention jhana as the meditative practice to be undertaken.^[12]^{[note 1]} When vipassanā is mentioned, it is always in tandem with samatha, as a pair of qualities of mind which are developed.^[12] According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "samatha, jhana, and vipassana were all part of a single path."^[12]^{[note 2]} Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices."^[14] According to Vetter and Bronkhorst, dhyāna constituted the original "liberating practice".^[15]^[16]^[17] Vetter further argues that the eightfold path constitutes a body of practices which prepare one, and lead up to, the practice of dhyana.^[18] Vetter and Bronkhorst further note that dhyana is not limited to single-pointed concentration, which seems to be described in the first jhana, but develops into equanimity and mindfulness,^[19]^[20]^{[note 3]} "born from samadhi"^[21] but no longer absorbed in concentration, being mindfully aware of objects while being indifferent to it,^[22] "directing states of meditative absorption towards the mindful awareness of objects."^[23]

Though both terms appear in the Sutta Pitaka^{[note 4]}, Gombrich and Brooks argue that the distinction as two separate paths originates in the earliest interpretations of the Sutta Pitaka,^[28] not in the suttas themselves.^[29]^{[note 5]} Henepola Gunaratana notes that "[t]he classical source for the distinction between the two vehicles of serenity and insight is the Visuddhimagga."^[30] According to Richard Gombrich, a development took place in early Buddhism resulting in a change in doctrine, which considered prajna to be an alternative means to awakening, alongside the practice of dhyana.^[31] The suttas contain traces of ancient debates between Mahayana and Theravada schools in the interpretation of the teachings and the development of insight. Out of these debates developed the idea that bare insight suffices to reach liberation, by discerning the Three marks (qualities) of (human) existence (tilakkhana), namely dukkha (suffering), anatta (non-self) and anicca (impermanence).^[28]

According to Buddhist and Asian studies scholar Robert Buswell Jr., by the 10th century vipassana was no longer practiced in the Theravada tradition, due to the belief that Buddhism had degenerated, and that liberation was no longer attainable until the coming of Maitreya.^[3] It was re-introduced in Myanmar (Burma) in the 18th century by Medawi (1728–1816), leading to the rise of the Vipassana movement in the 20th century, re-inventing vipassana meditation and developing simplified meditation techniques, based on the Satipatthana sutta, the Visuddhimagga, and other texts, emphasizing satipatthana and bare insight.^[6]^[32]^{[note 6]} Ultimately, these techniques aim at stream entry, with the idea that this first stage of the path to awakening safeguards future development of the person towards full awakening, despite the degenerated age we live in.^[35]^{[note 7]}

Theravāda[edit]

Relation with samatha[edit]

While the Abhidhamma and the commentaries present samatha and vipassana as separate paths,^{[note 8]} in the sutras vipassana and samatha, combined with sati (mindfulness), are used together to explore "the fundamental nature of mind and body.^[13] In the later Theravada tradition, samatha is regarded as a preparation for vipassanā, pacifying the mind and strengthening concentration in order for insight to arise, which leads to liberation.

The Buddha is said to have identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice:

Samatha, calm abiding, which steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind;
Vipassanā, insight, which enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).^[39]

The Buddha is said to have extolled serenity and insight as conduits for attaining the unconditioned state of nibbana (Pāli; Skt.: Nirvana). For example, in the Kimsuka Tree Sutta (SN 35.245), the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of nibbana via the noble eightfold path.^[40]

In the Four Ways to Arahantship Sutta (AN 4.170), Ven. Ānanda reports that people attain arahantship using calm abiding and insight in one of three ways:

They develop calm abiding and then insight (Pāli: samatha-pubbangamam vipassanam)
They develop insight and then calm abiding (Pāli: vipassana-pubbangamam samatham)^{[note 9]}
They develop calm abiding and insight in tandem (Pāli: samatha-vipassanam yuganaddham), for instance, obtaining the first jhāna and then seeing in the associated aggregates the three marks of existence before proceeding to the second jhāna.^[41]

In the Pāli canon, the Buddha never mentions independent samatha and vipassana meditation practices; instead, samatha and vipassana are two "qualities of mind" to be developed through meditation. As Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes,

When [the Pāli suttas] depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying 'go do vipassana,' but always 'go do jhana.' And they never equate the word "vipassana" with any mindfulness techniques. In the few instances where they do mention vipassana, they almost always pair it with samatha — not as two alternative methods, but as two qualities of mind that a person may 'gain' or 'be endowed with,' and that should be developed together.^[42]

Buswell states that the most common meditation method described in the Pāli canon is one where samatha is first done to induce jhana and then jhana is used to go on to vipassana. Buddhist texts describe that all Buddhas and their chief disciples used this method. Texts also describe a method where vipassana is done alone, but this is less common.^[5]

Vipassanā movement[edit]

The term vipassana is often conflated with the Vipassana movement, a movement which popularised the new vipassana teachings and practice. It started in the 1950s in Burma, but has gained wide renown mainly through American Buddhist teachers such as Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach, Gil Fronsdal, Sharon Salzberg, and Jack Kornfield. The movement has had a wide appeal due to being open and inclusive to different Buddhist and non-buddhist wisdom, poetry as well as science. It has together with the modern American Zen tradition served as one of the main inspirations for the 'mindfulness movement' as developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn and others. The Vipassanā Movement, also known as the Insight Meditation Movement, is rooted in Theravāda Buddhism and the revival of meditation techniques, especially the "New Burmese Method" and the Thai Forest Tradition, as well as the modern influences^[7] on the traditions of Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos and Thailand.

In the Vipassanā Movement, the emphasis is on the Satipatthana Sutta and the use of mindfulness to gain insight into the impermanence of the self. It argues that the development of strong samatha can be disadvantageous,^[43] a stance for which the Vipassana Movement has been criticised, especially in Sri Lanka.^[44]^[45] The "New Burmese Method" was developed by U Nārada (1868–1955), and popularised by Mahasi Sayadaw (1904-1982) and Nyanaponika Thera (1901–1994). Other influential Burmese proponents are Ledi Sayadaw and Mogok Sayadaw (who was less known to the West due to lack of International Mogok Centres); S. N. Goenka was a student of Sayagyi U Ba Khin. Influential Thai teachers are Ajahn Chah and Buddhadasa. A well-known Asian female teacher is Dipa Ma.

Vipassana meditation[edit]

Morality, mindfulness of breathing, and reflection[edit]

Vipassanā meditation uses sati (mindfulness) and samatha (calm), developed through practices such as anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing), combined with the contemplation of impermanence as observed in the bodily and mental changes, to gain insight into the true nature of this reality.^[46]^[47]

Practice begins with the preparatory stage, the practice of sila, morality, giving up worldly thoughts and desires.^[48]^[49] Jeff Wilson notes that morality is a quintessential element of Buddhist practice, and is also emphasized by the first generation of post-war western teachers. Yet, in the contemporary mindfulness movement, morality as an element of practice has been mostly discarded, 'mystifying' the origins of mindfulness.^[48]

The practitioner then engages in anapanasati, mindfulness of breathing, which is described in the Satipatthana Sutta as going into the forest and sitting beneath a tree and then to simply watch the breath. If the breath is long, to notice that the breath is long, if the breath is short, to notice that the breath is short.^[50]^[51] In the "New Burmese Method," the practitioner pays attention to any arising mental or physical phenomenon, engaging in vitarka, noting or naming physical and mental phenomena ("breathing, breathing"), without engaging the phenomenon with further conceptual thinking.^[52]^[53] By noticing the arising of physical and mental phenomena, the meditator becomes aware how sense impressions arise from the contact between the senses and physical and mental phenomena,^[52] as described in the five skandhas and paṭiccasamuppāda. According to Sayadaw U Pandita, awareness and observation of these sensations is de-coupled from any kind of physical response, which is intended to recondition one's impulsive responses to stimuli, becoming less likely to physically or emotionally overreact to the happenings of the world.^[54]

The practitioner also becomes aware of the perpetual changes involved in breathing, and the arising and passing away of mindfulness.^[55] This noticing is accompanied by reflections on causation and other Buddhist teachings, leading to insight into dukkha, anatta, and anicca.^[56]^[55] When the three characteristics have been comprehended, reflection subdues, and the process of noticing accelerates, noting phenomena in general, without necessarily naming them.^[57]^[46]^[47]

Stages of Jhana in the Vipassana movement[edit]

Vipassanā jhanas are stages that describe the development of samatha in vipassanā meditation practice as described in modern Burmese Vipassana meditation.^[58] Mahasi Sayadaw's student Sayadaw U Pandita described the four vipassanā jhanas as follows:^[59]

The meditator first explores the body/mind connection as one, nonduality; discovering three characteristics. The first jhana consists in seeing these points and in the presence of vitarka and vicara. Phenomena reveal themselves as appearing and ceasing.
In the second jhana, the practice seems effortless. Vitarka and vicara both disappear.
In the third jhana, piti, the joy, disappears too: there is only happiness (sukha) and concentration.
The fourth jhana arises, characterised by purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. The practice leads to direct knowledge. The comfort disappears because the dissolution of all phenomena is clearly visible. The practice will show every phenomenon as unstable, transient, disenchanting. The desire of freedom will take place.

Northern tradition and Mahāyāna[edit]

Texts[edit]

The north Indian Buddhist traditions like the Sarvastivada and the Sautrāntika practiced vipaśyanā meditation as outlined in texts like the Abhidharmakośakārikā of Vasubandhu and the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra. The Abhidharmakośakārikā states that vipaśyanā is practiced once one has reached samadhi "absorption" by cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthānas).^[60] This is achieved, according to Vasubandhu,

[b]y considering the unique characteristics (svālakṣaṇa) and the general characteristics (sāmānyalakṣaṇā) of the body, sensation, the mind, and the dharmas.
"The unique characteristics" means its self nature (svabhāva).
"The general characteristics" signifies the fact that "All conditioned things are impermanent; all impure dharmas are suffering; and that all the dharmas are empty (śūnya) and not-self (anātmaka).^[60]

Asanga's Abhidharma-samuccaya states that the practice of śamatha-vipaśyanā is a part of a Bodhisattva's path at the beginning, in the first "path of preparation" (sambhāramarga).^[61]

The later Indian Mahayana scholastic tradition, as exemplified by Shantideva's Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, saw śamatha as a necessary prerequisite to vipaśyanā and thus one needed to first begin with calm abiding meditation and then proceed to insight. In the Pañjikā commentary of Prajñākaramati (Wylie: shes rab 'byung gnas blo gros) on the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, vipaśyanā is defined simply as "wisdom (prajñā) that has the nature of thorough knowledge of reality as it is.^[62]

Sunyata[edit]

Mahāyāna vipaśyanā differs from the Theravada tradition in its strong emphasis on the meditation on emptiness (shunyata) of all phenomena. The Mahayana Akṣayamati-nirdeśa refers to vipaśyanā as seeing phenomena as they really are, that is, empty, without self, nonarisen, and without grasping. The Prajnaparamita sutra in 8,000 lines states that the practice of insight is the non-appropriation of any dharmas, including the five aggregates:

So too, a Bodhisattva coursing in perfect wisdom and developing as such, neither does nor even can stand in form, feeling, perception, impulse and consciousness...This concentrated insight of a Bodhisattva is called 'the non-appropriation of all dharmas'.^[63]

Likewise the Prajnaparamita in 25,000 lines states that a Bodhisattva should know the nature of the five aggregates as well as all dharmas thus:

That form, etc. [feeling, perception, impulse and consciousness], which is like a dream, like an echo, a mock show, a mirage, a reflection of the moon in water, an apparition, that is neither bound nor freed. Even so form, etc., which is past, future, or present, is neither bound nor freed. And why? Because of the nonbeing-ness of form, etc. Even so form, etc., whether it be wholesome or unwholesome, defiled or undefiled, tainted or untainted, with or without outflows, worldly or supramundane, defiled or purified, is neither bound nor freed, on account of its non-beingness, its isolatedness, its quiet calm, its emptiness, signless-ness, wishless-ness, because it has not been brought together or produced. And that is true of all dharmas.^[64]

Sudden insight[edit]

The Sthavira nikāya, one of the early Buddhist schools from which the Theravada-tradition originates, emphasized sudden insight: "In the Sthaviravada [...] progress in understanding comes all at once, 'insight' (abhisamaya) does not come 'gradually' (successively - anapurva).^[65]"

The Mahāsāṃghika, another one of the early Buddhist schools, had the doctrine of ekakṣaṇacitta, "according to which a Buddha knows everything in a single thought-instant".^[66]^{[citation not found]} This process however, meant to apply only to the Buddha and Peccaka buddhas. Lay people may have to experience various levels of insights to become fully enlightened.

The Mahayana tradition emphasizes prajñā, insight into śūnyatā, dharmatā, the two truths doctrine, clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness:^[67]

[T]he very title of a large corpus of early Mahayana literature, the Prajnaparamita, shows that to some extent the historian may extrapolate the trend to extol insight, prajna, at the expense of dispassion, viraga, the control of the emotions.^[47]

Although Theravada and Mahayana are commonly understood as different streams of Buddhism, their practice however, may reflect emphasis on insight as a common denominator: "In practice and understanding Zen is actually very close to the Theravada Forest Tradition even though its language and teachings are heavily influenced by Taoism and Confucianism."^[68]^{[note 10]}

The emphasis on insight is discernible in the emphasis in Chan Buddhism on sudden insight (subitism),^[65] though in the Chan tradition, this insight is to be followed by gradual cultivation.^{[note 11]}

East Asian Mahāyāna[edit]

In Chinese Buddhism, the works of Tiantai master Zhiyi (such as the Mohe Zhiguan, "Great śamatha-vipaśyanā") are some of the most influential texts which discuss vipaśyanā meditation from a Mahayana perspective. In this text, Zhiyi teaches the contemplation of the skandhas, ayatanas, dhātus, the Kleshas, false views and several other elements.^[70] Likewise the influential text called the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana has a section on calm and insight meditation.^[71] It states:

He who practices 'clear observation' should observe that all conditioned phenomena in the world are unstationary and are subject to instantaneous transformation and destruction; that all activities of the mind arise and are extinguished from moment or moment; and that, therefore, all of these induce suffering. He should observe that all that had been conceived in the past was as hazy as a dream, that all that is being conceived in the future will be like clouds that rise up suddenly. He should also observe that the physical existences of all living beings in the world are impure and that among these various filthy things there is not a single one that can be sought after with joy.^[72]

The Zen tradition advocates the simultaneous practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā, and this is called the practice of silent illumination.^[73] The classic Chan text known as the Platform Sutra states:

Calming is the essence of wisdom. And wisdom is the natural function of calming [i.e., prajñā and samādhi]. At the time of prajñā, samādhi exists in that. At the time of samādhi, prajñā exists in that. How is it that samādhi and prajñā are equivalent? It is like the light of the lamp. When the lamp exists, there is light. When there is no lamp, there is darkness. The lamp is the essence of light. The light is the natural function of the lamp. Although their names are different, in essence, they are fundamentally identical. The teaching of samādhi and prajñā is just like this.^[73]

Tibetan Buddhism[edit]

Samatha and vipassana are explicitly referred to in Tibetan Buddhism. According to Thrangu Rinpoche, when shamatha and vipashyana are combined, as in the mainstream tradition Madhyamaka approach of ancestors like Shantideva and Kamalashila, through samatha disturbing emotions are abandoned, which thus facilitates vipashyana, "clear seeing." Vipashyana is cultivated through reasoning, logic and analysis in conjunction with Shamatha. In contrast, in the siddha tradition of the direct approach of Mahamudra and Dzogchen, vipashyana is ascertained directly through looking into one's own mind. After this initial recognition of vipashyana, the steadiness of shamatha is developed within that recognition. According to Thrangu Rinpoche, it is however also common in the direct approach to first develop enough shamatha to serve as a basis for vipashyana.^[74]

In Tibetan Buddhism, the classical practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā is strongly influenced by the Mahāyāna text called the Bhavanakrama of Indian master Kamalaśīla. Kamalaśīla defines vipaśyanā as "the discernment of reality" (bhūta-pratyavekṣā) and "accurately realizing the true nature of dharmas".^[75]

Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism employed both deductive investigation (applying ideas to experience) and inductive investigation (drawing conclusions from direct experience) in the practice of vipaśyanā.^{[note 12]}^{[note 13]} According to Leah Zahler, only the tradition of deductive analysis in vipaśyanā was transmitted to Tibet in the sūtrayāna context.^{[note 14]}

In Tibet direct examination of moment-to-moment experience as a means of generating insight became exclusively associated with vajrayāna.^[78]^{[note 15]}^{[note 16]}

Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen use vipaśyanā extensively. This includes some methods of the other traditions, but also their own specific approaches. They place a greater emphasis on meditation on symbolic images. Additionally in the Vajrayāna (tantric) path, the true nature of mind is pointed out by the guru, and this serves as a direct form of insight.^{[note 17]}

Notes[edit]

^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu: "If you look directly at the Pali discourses — the earliest extant sources for our knowledge of the Buddha's teachings — you'll find that although they do use the word samatha to mean tranquillity, and vipassanā to mean clear-seeing, they otherwise confirm none of the received wisdom about these terms. Only rarely do they make use of the word vipassanā — a sharp contrast to their frequent use of the word jhana. When they depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying "go do vipassanā," but always "go do jhana." And they never equate the word vipassanā with any mindfulness techniques."^[12]
^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu: "This description of the unified role of samatha and vipassana is based upon the Buddha's meditation teachings as presented in the suttas (see "One Tool Among Many" by Thanissaro Bhikkhu). The Abhidhamma and the Commentaries, by contrast, state that samatha and vipassana are two distinct meditation paths (see, for example, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation by H. Gunaratana, ch. 5)."^[13]
^ Original publication: Gombrich, Richard (2007), Religious Experience in Early Buddhism, OCHS Library
^ See, for example:

AN 4.170 (Pali):
“Yo hi koci, āvuso, bhikkhu vā bhikkhunī vā mama santike arahattappattiṁ byākaroti, sabbo so catūhi maggehi, etesaṁ vā aññatarena.
Katamehi catūhi? Idha, āvuso, bhikkhu samathapubbaṅgamaṁ vipassanaṁ bhāveti[...]
Puna caparaṁ, āvuso, bhikkhu vipassanāpubbaṅgamaṁ samathaṁ bhāveti[...]
Puna caparaṁ, āvuso, bhikkhu samathavipassanaṁ yuganaddhaṁ bhāveti[...]
Puna caparaṁ, āvuso, bhikkhuno dhammuddhaccaviggahitaṁ mānasaṁ hoti[...]
English translation:
Friends, whoever — monk or nun — declares the attainment of arahantship in my presence, they all do it by means of one or another of four paths. Which four?
There is the case where a monk has developed insight preceded by tranquility. [...]
Then there is the case where a monk has developed tranquillity preceded by insight. [...]
Then there is the case where a monk has developed tranquillity in tandem with insight. [...]
"Then there is the case where a monk's mind has its restlessness concerning the Dhamma [Comm: the corruptions of insight] well under control.^[24]

AN 2.30 Vijja-bhagiya Sutta, A Share in Clear Knowing:
"These two qualities have a share in clear knowing. Which two? Tranquility (samatha) & insight (vipassana).
"When tranquility is developed, what purpose does it serve? The mind is developed. And when the mind is developed, what purpose does it serve? Passion is abandoned.
"When insight is developed, what purpose does it serve? Discernment is developed. And when discernment is developed, what purpose does it serve? Ignorance is abandoned.
"Defiled by passion, the mind is not released. Defiled by ignorance, discernment does not develop. Thus from the fading of passion is there awareness-release. From the fading of ignorance is there discernment-release."^[25]

SN 43.2 (Pali): "Katamo ca, bhikkhave, asaṅkhatagāmimaggo? Samatho ca vipassanā".^[26] English translation: "And what, bhikkhus, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight."^[27]
^ Brooks: "While many commentaries and translations of the Buddha's Discourses claim the Buddha taught two practice paths, one called "shamata" and the other called "vipassanā," there is in fact no place in the suttas where one can definitively claim that."^[29]
^
According to Buddhadasa, the aim of mindfulness is to stop the arising of disturbing thoughts and emotions, which arise from sense-contact.^[33]

According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā (foundations of mindfulness) have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations, but to the awareness of four different aspects of raising mindfulness:^[34]
- the six sense-bases which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);
- contemplation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);
- the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);
- the development from the five hindrances to the seven factors of enlightenment (dhammānupassanā).
^ * Fronsdal: "The primary purpose for which Mahasi offered his form of vipassana practice is the attainment of the first of the four traditional Theravada levels of sainthood (that is, stream entry; sotapatti) through the realization of nibbana, or enlightenment."^[35]
* Robert Sharf: "In fact, contrary to the image propagated by twentieth-century apologists, the actual practice of what we would call meditation rarely played a major role in Buddhist monastic life. The ubiquitous notion of mappo or the "final degenerate age of the dharma" served to reinforce the notion that "enlightenment" was not in fact a viable goal for monks living in inauspicious times."^[36]
* Robert Sharf: "The initial "taste" of nibbana signals the attainment of sotapatti-the first of four levels of enlightenment-which renders the meditator a "noble person" (ariya-puggala) destined for release from the wheel of existence (samsara)in relatively short order."^[37]
^ Various traditions disagree which techniques belong to which pole.^[38]
^ While the Nikayas identify that the pursuit of vipassana can precede the pursuit of samatha, a fruitful vipassana-oriented practice must still be based upon the achievement of stabilizing "access concentration" (Pāli: upacara samādhi).
^ Khantipalo recommends the use of the kōan-like question "Who?" to penetrate "this not-self-nature of the five aggregates": "In Zen Buddhism this technique has been formulated in several koans, such as 'Who drags this corpse around?'"^[69]
^ This "gradual training" is expressed in teachings as the Five Ranks of enlightenment, the Ten Bulls illustrations that detail the steps on the path, the "three mysterious gates" of Linji, and the "four ways of knowing" of Hakuin Ekaku.
^ Corresponding respectively to the "contemplative forms" and "experiential forms" in the Theravāda school described above
^ Leah Zahler: "The practice tradition suggested by the Treasury [Abhidharma-kośa] .. . — and also by Asaṅga's Grounds of Hearers — is one in which mindfulness of breathing becomes a basis for inductive reasoning on such topics as the five aggregates; as a result of such inductive reasoning, the meditator progresses through the Hearer paths of preparation, seeing, and meditation. It seems at least possible that both Vasubandhu and Asaṅga presented their respective versions of such a method, analogous to but different from modern Theravāda insight meditation, and that Gelukpa scholars were unable to reconstruct it in the absence of a practice tradition because of the great difference between this type of inductive meditative reasoning based on observation and the types of meditative reasoning using consequences (thal 'gyur, prasaanga) or syllogisms (sbyor ba, prayoga) with which Gelukpas were familiar. Thus, although Gelukpa scholars give detailed interpretations of the systems of breath meditation set forth in Vasubandu's and Asaṅga's texts, they may not fully account for the higher stages of breath meditation set forth in those texts [...] it appears that neither the Gelukpa textbook writers nor modern scholars such as Lati Rinpoche and Gendun Lodro were in a position to conclude that the first moment of the fifth stage of Vasubandhu's system of breath meditation coincides with the attainment of special insight and that, therefore, the first four stages must be a method for cultivating special insight [although this is clearly the case].^[76]
^ This tradition is outlined by Kamalaśīla in his three Bhāvanākrama texts (particularly the second one), following in turn an approach described in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.^[77] One scholar describes his approach thus: "the overall picture painted by Kamalaśīla is that of a kind of serial alternation between observation and analysis that takes place entirely within the sphere of meditative concentration" in which the analysis portion consists of Madhyamaka reasonings.^[77]
^ According to contemporary Tibetan scholar Thrangu Rinpoche the Vajrayana cultivates direct experience. Thrangu Rinpoche: "The approach in the sutras [...] is to develop a conceptual understanding of emptiness and gradually refine that understanding through meditation, which eventually produces a direct experience of emptiness [...] we are proceeding from a conceptual understanding produced by analysis and logical inference into a direct experience [...] this takes a great deal of time [...] we are essentially taking inferential reasoning as our method or as the path. There is an alternative [...] which the Buddha taught in the tantras [...] the primary difference between the sutra approach and the approach of Vajrayana (secret mantra or tantra) is that in the sutra approach, we take inferential reasoning as our path and in the Vajrayana approach, we take direct experience as our path. In the Vajrayana we are cultivating simple, direct experience or "looking." We do this primarily by simply looking directly at our own mind."^[78]
^ Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche also explains: "In general there are two kinds of meditation: the meditation of the paṇḍita who is a scholar and the nonanalytical meditation or direct meditation of the kusulu, or simple yogi. . . the analytical meditation of the paṇḍita occurs when somebody examines and analyzes something thoroughly until a very clear understanding of it is developed. . . The direct, nonanalytical meditation is called kusulu meditation in Sanskrit. This was translated as trömeh in Tibetan, which means "without complication" or being very simple without the analysis and learning of a great scholar. Instead, the mind is relaxed and without applying analysis so it just rests in its nature. In the sūtra tradition, there are some nonanalytic meditations, but mostly this tradition uses analytic meditation."^[79]
^ Thrangu Rinpoche describes the approach using a guru: "In the Sūtra path one proceeds by examining and analyzing phenomena, using reasoning. One recognizes that all phenomena lack any true existence and that all appearances are merely interdependently related and are without any inherent nature. They are empty yet apparent, apparent yet empty. The path of Mahāmudrā is different in that one proceeds using the instructions concerning the nature of mind that are given by one's guru. This is called taking direct perception or direct experiences as the path. The fruition of śamatha is purity of mind, a mind undisturbed by false conception or emotional afflictions. The fruition of vipaśyanā is knowledge (prajnā) and pure wisdom (jñāna). Jñāna is called the wisdom of nature of phenomena and it comes about through the realization of the true nature of phenomena.^[80]

References[edit]

^ Marques, Joan (2019-08-09). Lead with Heart in Mind: Treading the Noble Eightfold Path For Mindful and Sustainable Practice. Springer. p. 122. ISBN 978-3-030-17028-8.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Perdue, Daniel E. (2014-05-27). The Course in Buddhist Reasoning and Debate: An Asian Approach to Analytical Thinking Drawn from Indian and Tibetan Sources. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 9780834829558. Archived from the original on 2019-12-12. Retrieved 2019-10-19.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Buswell 2004, p. 889.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Gunaratana 2011, p. 21.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Buswell, Robert E. (2004). Encyclopedia of Buddhism (PDF). Macmillan Reference, USA. pp. 889–890. ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Buswell 2004, p. 890.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b McMahan 2008.
^ King 1992, p. 132–137.
^ Nyanaponika 1998, p. 107–109.
^ Koster 2009, p. 9–10.
^ Ray (2004) p.74
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d Thanissaro Bhikkhu n.d.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b "What is Theravada Buddhism?". Access to Insight. Access to Insight. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
^ Norman 1997, p. 29.
^ Vetter 1988, p. xxi-xxii.
^ Bronkhorst 1993.
^ Cousins 1996, p. 58.
^ Vetter 1988, p. xxx.
^ Vetter 1988, p. 13.
^ Wynne 2007, p. 140, note 58.
^ Vetter 1988, p. XXVI, note 9.
^ Wynne 2007, p. 106-107; 140, note 58.
^ Wynne 2007, p. 106-107.
^ "AN 4.170 Yuganaddha Sutta: In Tandem. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu". Accesstoinsight.org. 2010-07-03. Archived from the original on 2013-06-19. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
^ "AN 2.30 Vijja-bhagiya Sutta, A Share in Clear Knowing. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu". Accesstoinsight.org. 2010-08-08. Archived from the original on 2013-06-19. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
^ "SN 43.2". Agama.buddhason.org. Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
^ Bikkhu Bodhi, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, p. 1373
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Gombrich 1997, p. 96-144.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Brooks 2006.
^ "Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation". Accesstoinsight.org. 2011-06-16. Archived from the original on 2018-07-09. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
^ Gombrich 1997, p. 131.
^ McMahan 2008, p. 189.
^ Buddhadasa Bhikkhu 2014, p. 79, 101, 117 note 42.
^ Polak 2011.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Fronsdal 1998, p. 2.
^ Sharf 1995, p. 241.
^ Sharf 1995, p. 256.
^ Schumann 1974.
^ These definitions of samatha and vipassana are based on the Four Kinds of Persons Sutta (AN 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005), pp. 269-70, 440 n. 13. See also Thanissaro (1998d) Archived 2018-10-13 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Bodhi (2000), pp. 1251-53. See also Thanissaro (1998c) Archived 2019-09-01 at the Wayback Machine (where this suttais identified as SN 35.204). See also, for instance, a discourse (Pāli: sutta) entitled "Serenity and Insight" (SN 43.2), where the Buddha states: "And what, bhikkhus, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight...." (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1372-73).
^ Bodhi (2005), pp. 268, 439 nn. 7, 9, 10. See also Thanissaro (1998f) Archived 2013-04-04 at the Wayback Machine.
^ "Thanissaro 1997". Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Retrieved 2010-03-31.
^ Bond 1992, p. 167.
^ Bond 1992, p. 162-171.
^ "Robert H. Sharf, Division of Social and Transcultural Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University". Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Nyanaponika 1998.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Gombrich 1997, p. 133.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Wilson 2014, p. 54-55.
^ Mahāsi Sayādaw, Manual of Insight, Chapter 5
^ Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta No. 118, Section No. 2, translated from the Pali
^ Satipatthana Sutta
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassana Instructions
^ Bhante Bodhidhamma, Vipassana as taught by The Mahasi Sayadaw of Burma Archived 2019-03-24 at the Wayback Machine
^ Sayadaw U Pandita, How to Practice Vipassana Insight Meditation Archived 2014-08-27 at the Wayback Machine, Lion's Roar
^ Jump up to:^a ^b "The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation". Dhamma.org. Archived from the original on 2013-05-25. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
^ Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassana Instructions, p.22-27
^ PVI, p.28
^ Ingram, Daniel (2008), Mastering the core teachings of the Buddha, Karnac Books, p.246
^ Sayadaw U Pandita, In this very life
^ Jump up to:^a ^b De La Vallee Poussin (trans.); Pruden, Leo M. (trans.) Abhidharmakosabhasyam of Vasubandhu Vol. III page 925
^ Rahula; Boin-Webb. Abhidharmasamuccaya The Compendium of the Higher Teaching by Asanga, 1971 page xxiii
^ Shantideva (1997). A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. Shambhala. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-55939-802-2.
^ Babcock (Copper), Richard (trans.) The Prajna Paramita Sutra on the Buddha-Mother's Producing the Three Dharma Treasures, Spoken by the Buddha (Also known as:) The Perfection of Wisdom in 8000 Lines, The Smaller Prajna Paramita Sutra (Tripitaka: 0227)(Taisho Tripitaka: 0228) , Translated into Chinese during Song Dynasty by Tripitaka Master Danapala, chapter 1. http://www.fodian.net/world/0228_01.html Archived 2017-11-15 at the Wayback Machine
^ Conze, Edward. The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom: With the Divisions of the Abhisamayalankara (Center for South and Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley) page 141
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Warder 2000, p. 284.
^ Gomez 1991, p. 69.
^ Defined by Reginald A. Ray. ""Vipashyana," by Reginald A. Ray. Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly, Summer 2004". Archive.thebuddhadharma.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
^ "Through the Looking Glass, Essential Buddhism". Bhikkhucintita.wordpress.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-04. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
^ Khantipalo 1984, p. 71.
^ Fa Qing,The Śamatha and Vipaśyanā in Tian Tai, Poh Ming Tse Symposium 2013: One Master Three Meditative Traditions. Singapore, August 30, 2013; pp.30-47
^ Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, page 257.
^ Hakedas, Yoshito, S. The Awakening of Faith in Mahayana, Attributed to Asvaghosha, 1967, page 33, http://www.acharia.org/downloads/the_awakening_of_faith_in_mahayana_english.pdf Archived 2015-07-02 at the Wayback Machine
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Guo Gu, Silent Illumination Guo Gu Archived 2017-08-22 at the Wayback Machine, Insight Journal 2014.
^ Thrangu Rinpoche, Essentials of Mahamudra
^ Adam, Martin T. Two Concepts of Meditation and Three Kinds of Wisdom in Kamalaśīla’s Bhāvanākramas: A Problem of Translation. University of Victoria, page 78-79
^ Zahler 108, 113
^ Jump up to:^a ^b "Some Notes on Kamalasila's Understanding of Insight Considered as the Discernment of Reality (bhūta-pratyavekṣā)", by Martin Adam, Buddhist Studies Review, Vol. 25, No.2, 2008, p 3
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Pointing out the Dharmakaya by Thrangu Rinpoche. Snow Lion: 2003. ISBN 1-55939-203-7, pg 56
^ The Practice of Tranquillity & Insight: A Guide to Tibetan Buddhist Meditation by Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche. Shambhala Publications: 1994. ISBN 0-87773-943-9 pg 91-93
^ Thrangu Rinpoche, Looking Directly at Mind : The Moonlight of Mahāmudrā

Sources[edit]

Bond, George D. (1992), The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka: Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation and Response, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
Brooks, Jeffrey S. (2006), A Critique of the Abhidhamma and Visuddhimagga
Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (2014), Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree, Wisdom publications
Buswell, Robert E. JR; Gimello, Robert M., eds. (1994), Paths to Liberation. The Marga and its Transformations in Buddhist Thought, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
last Buswell, Robert, ed. (2004), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, MacMillan
Cousins, L. S. (1996), "The origins of insight meditation" (PDF), in Skorupski, T. (ed.), The Buddhist Forum IV, seminar papers 1994–1996 (pp. 35–58), London, UK: School of Oriental and African Studies
Fronsdal, Gil (1998), Insight Meditation in the United States: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness. In: Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka, The Faces of Buddhism in America, Chapter 9
Glickman, Marshall (1998), Beyond the Breath: Extraordinary Mindfulness Through Whole-Body Vipassana Meditation, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-1-58290-043-8
Gomez, Luis O. (1991), Purifying Gold: The Metaphor of Effort and Intuition in Buddhist Thought and Practice. In: Peter N. Gregory (editor)(1991), Sudden and Gradual. Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
Gombrich, Richard F. (1997), How Buddhism Began. The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
Gunaratana, Henepola (2011), Mindfulness in plain English, Wisdom Publications, p. 21, ISBN 978-0861719068
Khantipalo, Bikkhu (1984), Calm and Insight. A buddhist Manual for Meditators, London and Dublin: Curzon Press Ltd.
King, Winston L. (1992), Theravada Meditation. The Buddhist Transformation of Yoga, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Koster, Frits (2009), Basisprincipes Vipassana-meditatie. Mindfulness als weg naar bevrijdend inzicht, Asoka
Mathes, Klaus-Dieter (2003), Blending the Sūtras with the Tantras: The influence of Maitrīpa and his circle on the formation of Sūtra Mahāmudrā in the Kagyu Schools. In: Tibetan Buddhist Literature and Praxis: Studies in its Formative Period, 900–1400. Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford
McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276
Norman, K.R. (1997), A Philological Approach to Buddhism. The Bukkyo Dendo Kybkai Lectures 1994 (PDF), School ofOriental and African Studies (University of London)
Nyanaponika (1998), Het hart van boeddhistische meditatie (The heart of Buddhist Meditation), Asoka
Polak, Grzegorz (2011), Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS
Ray, Reginald A., ed. (2004), In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers, ISBN 978-1-57062-849-8
Schmithausen, Lambert (1986), Critical Response. In: Ronald W. Neufeldt (ed.), "Karma and rebirth: Post-classical developments", SUNY
Schumann, Hans Wolfgang (1974), Buddhism: an outline of its teachings and schools, Theosophical Pub. House
Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997), One Tool Among Many. The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice
Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL
Warder, A.K. (2000), Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, Routledge

External links[edit]

History[edit]

Theravāda Spirituality in the West

Background[edit]

Practice[edit]

Meditation From Yellowrobe.com
Vipassana Meditation as taught by S.N. Goenka and his assistant teachers in the tradition of Sayagyi U Ba Khin at free centers worldwide
Saddhamma Foundation Information about practicing Vipassana meditation.
Practical Guidelines for Vipassanâ by Ayya Khema
Vipassana Meditation Retreats in Spain
A Meditator's Handbook by Bill Crecelius
Turning to the Source by V.R. Dhiravamsa
The Middle Path of Live by V.R. Dhiravamsa
Healing through Pure Mindfulness by V.R. Dhiravamsa

[13] Thanissaro Bhikkhu: "If you look directly at the Pali discourses — the earliest extant sources for our knowledge of the Buddha's teachings — you'll find that although they do use the word samatha to mean tranquillity, and vipassanā to mean clear-seeing, they otherwise confirm none of the received wisdom about these terms. Only rarely do they make use of the word vipassanā — a sharp contrast to their frequent use of the word jhana. When they depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying "go do vipassanā," but always "go do jhana." And they never equate the word vipassanā with any mindfulness techniques."^[12]

[15] Thanissaro Bhikkhu: "This description of the unified role of samatha and vipassana is based upon the Buddha's meditation teachings as presented in the suttas (see "One Tool Among Many" by Thanissaro Bhikkhu). The Abhidhamma and the Commentaries, by contrast, state that samatha and vipassana are two distinct meditation paths (see, for example, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation by H. Gunaratana, ch. 5)."^[13]

[23] Original publication: Gombrich, Richard (2007), Religious Experience in Early Buddhism, OCHS Library

[31] See, for example:

AN 4.170 (Pali):
“Yo hi koci, āvuso, bhikkhu vā bhikkhunī vā mama santike arahattappattiṁ byākaroti, sabbo so catūhi maggehi, etesaṁ vā aññatarena.
Katamehi catūhi? Idha, āvuso, bhikkhu samathapubbaṅgamaṁ vipassanaṁ bhāveti[...]
Puna caparaṁ, āvuso, bhikkhu vipassanāpubbaṅgamaṁ samathaṁ bhāveti[...]
Puna caparaṁ, āvuso, bhikkhu samathavipassanaṁ yuganaddhaṁ bhāveti[...]
Puna caparaṁ, āvuso, bhikkhuno dhammuddhaccaviggahitaṁ mānasaṁ hoti[...]
English translation:
Friends, whoever — monk or nun — declares the attainment of arahantship in my presence, they all do it by means of one or another of four paths. Which four?
There is the case where a monk has developed insight preceded by tranquility. [...]
Then there is the case where a monk has developed tranquillity preceded by insight. [...]
Then there is the case where a monk has developed tranquillity in tandem with insight. [...]
"Then there is the case where a monk's mind has its restlessness concerning the Dhamma [Comm: the corruptions of insight] well under control.^[24]

AN 2.30 Vijja-bhagiya Sutta, A Share in Clear Knowing:
"These two qualities have a share in clear knowing. Which two? Tranquility (samatha) & insight (vipassana).
"When tranquility is developed, what purpose does it serve? The mind is developed. And when the mind is developed, what purpose does it serve? Passion is abandoned.
"When insight is developed, what purpose does it serve? Discernment is developed. And when discernment is developed, what purpose does it serve? Ignorance is abandoned.
"Defiled by passion, the mind is not released. Defiled by ignorance, discernment does not develop. Thus from the fading of passion is there awareness-release. From the fading of ignorance is there discernment-release."^[25]

SN 43.2 (Pali): "Katamo ca, bhikkhave, asaṅkhatagāmimaggo? Samatho ca vipassanā".^[26] English translation: "And what, bhikkhus, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight."^[27]

[34] Brooks: "While many commentaries and translations of the Buddha's Discourses claim the Buddha taught two practice paths, one called "shamata" and the other called "vipassanā," there is in fact no place in the suttas where one can definitively claim that."^[29]

[40] According to Buddhadasa, the aim of mindfulness is to stop the arising of disturbing thoughts and emotions, which arise from sense-contact.^[33]

According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā (foundations of mindfulness) have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations, but to the awareness of four different aspects of raising mindfulness:^[34]
the six sense-bases which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);
contemplation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);
the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);
the development from the five hindrances to the seven factors of enlightenment (dhammānupassanā).

[7] the six sense-bases which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);

[8] templation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);

[9] the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);

[10] the development from the five hindrances to the seven factors of enlightenment (dhammānupassanā).

[44] * Fronsdal: "The primary purpose for which Mahasi offered his form of vipassana practice is the attainment of the first of the four traditional Theravada levels of sainthood (that is, stream entry; sotapatti) through the realization of nibbana, or enlightenment."^[35]
* Robert Sharf: "In fact, contrary to the image propagated by twentieth-century apologists, the actual practice of what we would call meditation rarely played a major role in Buddhist monastic life. The ubiquitous notion of mappo or the "final degenerate age of the dharma" served to reinforce the notion that "enlightenment" was not in fact a viable goal for monks living in inauspicious times."^[36]
* Robert Sharf: "The initial "taste" of nibbana signals the attainment of sotapatti-the first of four levels of enlightenment-which renders the meditator a "noble person" (ariya-puggala) destined for release from the wheel of existence (samsara)in relatively short order."^[37]

[46] Various traditions disagree which techniques belong to which pole.^[38]

[49] While the Nikayas identify that the pursuit of vipassana can precede the pursuit of samatha, a fruitful vipassana-oriented practice must still be based upon the achievement of stabilizing "access concentration" (Pāli: upacara samādhi).

[79] Khantipalo recommends the use of the kōan-like question "Who?" to penetrate "this not-self-nature of the five aggregates": "In Zen Buddhism this technique has been formulated in several koans, such as 'Who drags this corpse around?'"^[69]

[80] This "gradual training" is expressed in teachings as the Five Ranks of enlightenment, the Ten Bulls illustrations that detail the steps on the path, the "three mysterious gates" of Linji, and the "four ways of knowing" of Hakuin Ekaku.

[87] Corresponding respectively to the "contemplative forms" and "experiential forms" in the Theravāda school described above

[89] Leah Zahler: "The practice tradition suggested by the Treasury [Abhidharma-kośa] .. . — and also by Asaṅga's Grounds of Hearers — is one in which mindfulness of breathing becomes a basis for inductive reasoning on such topics as the five aggregates; as a result of such inductive reasoning, the meditator progresses through the Hearer paths of preparation, seeing, and meditation. It seems at least possible that both Vasubandhu and Asaṅga presented their respective versions of such a method, analogous to but different from modern Theravāda insight meditation, and that Gelukpa scholars were unable to reconstruct it in the absence of a practice tradition because of the great difference between this type of inductive meditative reasoning based on observation and the types of meditative reasoning using consequences (thal 'gyur, prasaanga) or syllogisms (sbyor ba, prayoga) with which Gelukpas were familiar. Thus, although Gelukpa scholars give detailed interpretations of the systems of breath meditation set forth in Vasubandu's and Asaṅga's texts, they may not fully account for the higher stages of breath meditation set forth in those texts [...] it appears that neither the Gelukpa textbook writers nor modern scholars such as Lati Rinpoche and Gendun Lodro were in a position to conclude that the first moment of the fifth stage of Vasubandhu's system of breath meditation coincides with the attainment of special insight and that, therefore, the first four stages must be a method for cultivating special insight [although this is clearly the case].^[76]

[91] This tradition is outlined by Kamalaśīla in his three Bhāvanākrama texts (particularly the second one), following in turn an approach described in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.^[77] One scholar describes his approach thus: "the overall picture painted by Kamalaśīla is that of a kind of serial alternation between observation and analysis that takes place entirely within the sphere of meditative concentration" in which the analysis portion consists of Madhyamaka reasonings.^[77]

[93] According to contemporary Tibetan scholar Thrangu Rinpoche the Vajrayana cultivates direct experience. Thrangu Rinpoche: "The approach in the sutras [...] is to develop a conceptual understanding of emptiness and gradually refine that understanding through meditation, which eventually produces a direct experience of emptiness [...] we are proceeding from a conceptual understanding produced by analysis and logical inference into a direct experience [...] this takes a great deal of time [...] we are essentially taking inferential reasoning as our method or as the path. There is an alternative [...] which the Buddha taught in the tantras [...] the primary difference between the sutra approach and the approach of Vajrayana (secret mantra or tantra) is that in the sutra approach, we take inferential reasoning as our path and in the Vajrayana approach, we take direct experience as our path. In the Vajrayana we are cultivating simple, direct experience or "looking." We do this primarily by simply looking directly at our own mind."^[78]

[95] Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche also explains: "In general there are two kinds of meditation: the meditation of the paṇḍita who is a scholar and the nonanalytical meditation or direct meditation of the kusulu, or simple yogi. . . the analytical meditation of the paṇḍita occurs when somebody examines and analyzes something thoroughly until a very clear understanding of it is developed. . . The direct, nonanalytical meditation is called kusulu meditation in Sanskrit. This was translated as trömeh in Tibetan, which means "without complication" or being very simple without the analysis and learning of a great scholar. Instead, the mind is relaxed and without applying analysis so it just rests in its nature. In the sūtra tradition, there are some nonanalytic meditations, but mostly this tradition uses analytic meditation."^[79]

[97] Thrangu Rinpoche describes the approach using a guru: "In the Sūtra path one proceeds by examining and analyzing phenomena, using reasoning. One recognizes that all phenomena lack any true existence and that all appearances are merely interdependently related and are without any inherent nature. They are empty yet apparent, apparent yet empty. The path of Mahāmudrā is different in that one proceeds using the instructions concerning the nature of mind that are given by one's guru. This is called taking direct perception or direct experiences as the path. The fruition of śamatha is purity of mind, a mind undisturbed by false conception or emotional afflictions. The fruition of vipaśyanā is knowledge (prajnā) and pure wisdom (jñāna). Jñāna is called the wisdom of nature of phenomena and it comes about through the realization of the true nature of phenomena.^[80]

[1] Marques, Joan (2019-08-09). Lead with Heart in Mind: Treading the Noble Eightfold Path For Mindful and Sustainable Practice. Springer. p. 122. ISBN 978-3-030-17028-8.

[:0-2] Jump up to:^a ^b Perdue, Daniel E. (2014-05-27). The Course in Buddhist Reasoning and Debate: An Asian Approach to Analytical Thinking Drawn from Indian and Tibetan Sources. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 9780834829558. Archived from the original on 2019-12-12. Retrieved 2019-10-19.

[FOOTNOTEBuswell2004889-3] Jump up to:^a ^b Buswell 2004, p. 889.

[FOOTNOTEGunaratana201121-4] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Gunaratana 2011, p. 21.

[:1-5] Jump up to:^a ^b Buswell, Robert E. (2004). Encyclopedia of Buddhism (PDF). Macmillan Reference, USA. pp. 889–890. ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9.

[FOOTNOTEBuswell2004890-6] Jump up to:^a ^b Buswell 2004, p. 890.

[FOOTNOTEMcMahan2008-7] Jump up to:^a ^b McMahan 2008.

[FOOTNOTEKing1992132–137-8] King 1992, p. 132–137.

[FOOTNOTENyanaponika1998107–109-9] Nyanaponika 1998, p. 107–109.

[FOOTNOTEKoster20099–10-10] Koster 2009, p. 9–10.

[ray74-11] Ray (2004) p.74

[FOOTNOTEThanissaro_Bhikkhun.d.-12] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c ^d Thanissaro Bhikkhu n.d.

[What_is-14] Jump up to:^a ^b "What is Theravada Buddhism?". Access to Insight. Access to Insight. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 17 August 2013.

[FOOTNOTENorman199729-16] Norman 1997, p. 29.

[FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxi-xxii-17] Vetter 1988, p. xxi-xxii.

[FOOTNOTEBronkhorst1993-18] Bronkhorst 1993.

[FOOTNOTECousins199658-19] Cousins 1996, p. 58.

[FOOTNOTEVetter1988xxx-20] Vetter 1988, p. xxx.

[FOOTNOTEVetter198813-21] Vetter 1988, p. 13.

[FOOTNOTEWynne2007140,_note_58-22] Wynne 2007, p. 140, note 58.

[FOOTNOTEVetter1988XXVI,_note_9-24] Vetter 1988, p. XXVI, note 9.

[FOOTNOTEWynne2007106-107;_140,_note_58-25] Wynne 2007, p. 106-107; 140, note 58.

[FOOTNOTEWynne2007106-107-26] Wynne 2007, p. 106-107.

[27] "AN 4.170 Yuganaddha Sutta: In Tandem. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu". Accesstoinsight.org. 2010-07-03. Archived from the original on 2013-06-19. Retrieved 2013-05-30.

[28] "AN 2.30 Vijja-bhagiya Sutta, A Share in Clear Knowing. Translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu". Accesstoinsight.org. 2010-08-08. Archived from the original on 2013-06-19. Retrieved 2013-05-30.

[29] "SN 43.2". Agama.buddhason.org. Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2013-05-30.

[30] Bikkhu Bodhi, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, p. 1373

[FOOTNOTEGombrich199796-144-32] Jump up to:^a ^b Gombrich 1997, p. 96-144.

[FOOTNOTEBrooks2006-33] Jump up to:^a ^b Brooks 2006.

[supramundane-35] "Henepola Gunaratana, The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation". Accesstoinsight.org. 2011-06-16. Archived from the original on 2018-07-09. Retrieved 2013-05-30.

[FOOTNOTEGombrich1997131-36] Gombrich 1997, p. 131.

[FOOTNOTEMcMahan2008189-37] McMahan 2008, p. 189.

[FOOTNOTEBuddhadasa_Bhikkhu201479,_101,_117_note_42-38] Buddhadasa Bhikkhu 2014, p. 79, 101, 117 note 42.

[FOOTNOTEPolak2011-39] Polak 2011.

[FOOTNOTEFronsdal19982-41] Jump up to:^a ^b Fronsdal 1998, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTESharf1995241-42] Sharf 1995, p. 241.

[FOOTNOTESharf1995256-43] Sharf 1995, p. 256.

[FOOTNOTESchumann1974-45] Schumann 1974.

[47] These definitions of samatha and vipassana are based on the Four Kinds of Persons Sutta (AN 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on Bodhi (2005), pp. 269-70, 440 n. 13. See also Thanissaro (1998d) Archived 2018-10-13 at the Wayback Machine.

[48] Bodhi (2000), pp. 1251-53. See also Thanissaro (1998c) Archived 2019-09-01 at the Wayback Machine (where this suttais identified as SN 35.204). See also, for instance, a discourse (Pāli: sutta) entitled "Serenity and Insight" (SN 43.2), where the Buddha states: "And what, bhikkhus, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight...." (Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1372-73).

[50] Bodhi (2005), pp. 268, 439 nn. 7, 9, 10. See also Thanissaro (1998f) Archived 2013-04-04 at the Wayback Machine.

[51] "Thanissaro 1997". Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Retrieved 2010-03-31.

[FOOTNOTEBond1992167-52] Bond 1992, p. 167.

[FOOTNOTEBond1992162-171-53] Bond 1992, p. 162-171.

[54] "Robert H. Sharf, Division of Social and Transcultural Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University". Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-05-25.

[FOOTNOTENyanaponika1998-55] Jump up to:^a ^b Nyanaponika 1998.

[FOOTNOTEGombrich1997133-56] Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Gombrich 1997, p. 133.

[FOOTNOTEWilson201454-55-57] Jump up to:^a ^b Wilson 2014, p. 54-55.

[58] Mahāsi Sayādaw, Manual of Insight, Chapter 5

[59] Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta No. 118, Section No. 2, translated from the Pali

[60] Satipatthana Sutta

[Practical-61] Jump up to:^a ^b Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassana Instructions

[62] Bhante Bodhidhamma, Vipassana as taught by The Mahasi Sayadaw of Burma Archived 2019-03-24 at the Wayback Machine

[63] Sayadaw U Pandita, How to Practice Vipassana Insight Meditation Archived 2014-08-27 at the Wayback Machine, Lion's Roar

[Art-64] Jump up to:^a ^b "The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation". Dhamma.org. Archived from the original on 2013-05-25. Retrieved 2013-05-30.

[65] Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassana Instructions, p.22-27

[66] PVI, p.28

[67] Ingram, Daniel (2008), Mastering the core teachings of the Buddha, Karnac Books, p.246

[68] Sayadaw U Pandita, In this very life

[Vallee_Poussin_page_925-69] Jump up to:^a ^b De La Vallee Poussin (trans.); Pruden, Leo M. (trans.) Abhidharmakosabhasyam of Vasubandhu Vol. III page 925

[70] Rahula; Boin-Webb. Abhidharmasamuccaya The Compendium of the Higher Teaching by Asanga, 1971 page xxiii

[71] Shantideva (1997). A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. Shambhala. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-55939-802-2.

[72] Babcock (Copper), Richard (trans.) The Prajna Paramita Sutra on the Buddha-Mother's Producing the Three Dharma Treasures, Spoken by the Buddha (Also known as:) The Perfection of Wisdom in 8000 Lines, The Smaller Prajna Paramita Sutra (Tripitaka: 0227)(Taisho Tripitaka: 0228) , Translated into Chinese during Song Dynasty by Tripitaka Master Danapala, chapter 1. http://www.fodian.net/world/0228_01.html Archived 2017-11-15 at the Wayback Machine

[73] Conze, Edward. The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom: With the Divisions of the Abhisamayalankara (Center for South and Southeast Asia Studies, UC Berkeley) page 141

[FOOTNOTEWarder2000284-74] Jump up to:^a ^b Warder 2000, p. 284.

[FOOTNOTEGomez199169-75] Gomez 1991, p. 69.

[76] Defined by Reginald A. Ray. ""Vipashyana," by Reginald A. Ray. Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly, Summer 2004". Archive.thebuddhadharma.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2013-05-30.

[77] "Through the Looking Glass, Essential Buddhism". Bhikkhucintita.wordpress.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-04. Retrieved 2013-05-30.

[FOOTNOTEKhantipalo198471-78] Khantipalo 1984, p. 71.

[81] Fa Qing,The Śamatha and Vipaśyanā in Tian Tai, Poh Ming Tse Symposium 2013: One Master Three Meditative Traditions. Singapore, August 30, 2013; pp.30-47

[82] Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, page 257.

[83] Hakedas, Yoshito, S. The Awakening of Faith in Mahayana, Attributed to Asvaghosha, 1967, page 33, http://www.acharia.org/downloads/the_awakening_of_faith_in_mahayana_english.pdf Archived 2015-07-02 at the Wayback Machine

[Guo_Gu-84] Jump up to:^a ^b Guo Gu, Silent Illumination Guo Gu Archived 2017-08-22 at the Wayback Machine, Insight Journal 2014.

[85] Thrangu Rinpoche, Essentials of Mahamudra

[86] Adam, Martin T. Two Concepts of Meditation and Three Kinds of Wisdom in Kamalaśīla’s Bhāvanākramas: A Problem of Translation. University of Victoria, page 78-79

[88] Zahler 108, 113

[Kamalasila_2008,_p_3-90] Jump up to:^a ^b "Some Notes on Kamalasila's Understanding of Insight Considered as the Discernment of Reality (bhūta-pratyavekṣā)", by Martin Adam, Buddhist Studies Review, Vol. 25, No.2, 2008, p 3

[TR-92] Jump up to:^a ^b Pointing out the Dharmakaya by Thrangu Rinpoche. Snow Lion: 2003. ISBN 1-55939-203-7, pg 56

[94] The Practice of Tranquillity & Insight: A Guide to Tibetan Buddhist Meditation by Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche. Shambhala Publications: 1994. ISBN 0-87773-943-9 pg 91-93

[96] Thrangu Rinpoche, Looking Directly at Mind : The Moonlight of Mahāmudrā

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