2023/06/08

Buddhist Religions : A Historical Introduction : Robinson,Richard, Johnson,Willard, Bhikkhu,Thanissaro: Amazon.com.au: Books

Buddhist Religions : A Historical Introduction : Robinson,Richard, Johnson,Willard, Bhikkhu,Thanissaro: Amazon.com.au: Books







































Buddhist Religions : A Historical Introduction Paperback – 30 June 2004
by Richard Robinson (Author), Willard Johnson (Author), Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Author)
4.5 out of 5 stars 28 ratings

Edition: 5th

Paperback
$336.99
4 Used from $33.325 New from $336.98


BUDDHIST RELIGIONS: A HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION walks you through the rich history of Buddhism and reveals how it has grown and changed over time while remaining true to the central teachings of the Buddha. And with this edition, you'll get more focused attention on the five main aspects of Buddhism: ritual, devotionalism, doctrine, meditation, and practice.


Review

Foreword. 
Preface. 
Map: The World of Buddhism. 
Abbreviations. 
Introduction. 
Buddhism in India. 
1. The Buddha's Awakening. 
2. The Buddha as Teacher and Power Figure. 
3. The Development of Early Indian Buddhism. 
4. The Period of the Three Vehicles. 
5. Early Medieval Indian Buddhism. 
6. Late Medieval Indian Buddhism. 
7. Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. 
8. Buddhism in Central Asia and China. 
9. Buddhism in Korea and Vietnam. 
10. Buddhism in Japan. 
11. Buddhism in the Tibetan Cultural Area. 
12. Buddhism Comes West. 
An Overview of the Buddhist Scriptures. 
Pronunciation Guide. 
Glossary. 
Select Bibliography. 
Index.

==

About the Author

Willard L. Johnson received his Ph.D. in Religious Studies from the University of Wisconsin in 1973. He is now a professor emeritus of San Diego State University, where he teaches world religions, primal religions, shamanism, Asian religions, and religious experience.

Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff) grew up in rural New York and Virginia, and was later ordained as a monk in Thailand in 1976. He trained for ten years under Ajaan Fuang Jotiko, a member of the Forest Tradition, until the latter's death in 1986. After returning to the States to help set up Metta Forest Monastery in 1991, he was made abbot of the monastery in 1993 and was formally made a preceptor in 1995. In addition to teaching at the monastery, he teaches regularly with the John Wayne Dhamma Center in Orange County, and the Barre Center of Buddhist Studies in Massachusetts. He is the author of The Mind Like Fire Unbound, The Buddhist Monastic Code, and The Wings to Awakening. He is also translator of a number of Thai meditation guides, including the complete writings of Ajahn Fuang's teacher, Ajahn Lee Dhammadharo.



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4.0 out of 5 stars Per specialistiReviewed in Italy 🇮🇹 on 7 January 2016
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Un buon libro, non facile, ma indispensabile a chiunque sia interessato ad approfondire l'evoluzione della teoria e della prassi buddhiste.
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Squirrel
4.0 out of 5 stars
Great; insight-providing
Reviewed in the United States 🇺🇸 on 5 September 2022
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This book provides a lot of insight (in a worldly sense) into the history of the world's now-many approaches to the teachings of the Buddha.

My only personal foible is that Thanissaro Bhikkhu is one of the contributors and I've never agreed 100% with his interpretations of things. 
Bhikkhu Bodhi has found some of his assertions questionable, as have I. 
I don't remember now which ones made me cock my head to one side and say, "Huh?", but it's happened in the past. So I accept some of what he says but cautiously, and it's difficult, unpleasant, and counterproductive to feel one has to be on one's guard to any degree when studying the Dhamma, so I tend to avoid Thanissaro Bhikkhu.

That may be less of an issue with this book though, that venerable one being but one third of the authorship.

What I have read I have found enlightening (again, in a worldly sense) and will keep going back to it over time, I'm sure.

2 people found this helpfulReport

Steve Goodwin
5.0 out of 5 stars 
Standard work in Buddhist Studies
Reviewed in the United States 🇺🇸 on 8 January 2010
Verified Purchase

This is one of the important surveys of Buddhism: origins, doctrine, history. Lots of information, and all conveyed clearly, reliably, readably. There are newer studies, of which I really can't speak, but this one is a classic I use continually for reference.

13 people found this helpfulReport

JASON
5.0 out of 5 stars Five StarsReviewed in the United States 🇺🇸 on 7 February 2017
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If you are looking for in depth textbook, minus all the new age BS, this is your guide!

2 people found this helpfulReport
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===
Andy McLellan
33 reviews
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July 11, 2020
I really like this book! It seems to be an undergraduate level text looking at the development of Buddhism from its origins with the historical Buddha through early developments of different schools, the formation of the Mahayana tradition and sutras, and the spread of the dharma into new countries where it took root and developed new traditions.

Given the size of the book there is only so much depth that can be gone into on each different school and geographical area but I finished it feeling that there were few areas that were ignored and it filled in a lot of gaps for me, being particularly complementary reading with Paul Williams' Mahayana Buddhism book which goes into more detail about different Mahayana schools, sutras and philosophy without telling the story of the pattern of development.

I am a Buddhist practitioner rather than scholar but either way if you want a one-stop read on the history of Buddhism and its development right into the present day across Asia and into the west, this is a very reliable and informative book. For those who know a fair bit about Buddhism already, it will fill in the gaps in your knowledge. As a complete introduction, it will require a little more work.

===
Contents 


PREFACE xiv 

MAP: THE WORLD OF BUDDHISM xvi 
ABBREVIATIONS xviii 
INTRODUCTION xix 

1 THE BUDDHA'S AWAKENING 1 

1.1 The Social and Religious Context of Early Buddhism 

1.2 Issues in Early North Indian Thought 3 

1.3 The Quest for Awakening 4 

1.3.1 The Birth and Youth of the Bodhisattva 5 

1.3.2 The Great Renunciation 6 

1.3.3 'The liodhisattva’s Studies and Austerities 8 

1.3.4 Temptation by Mara 8 

1.3.5 The Awakening 9 

1.4 The Lessons of Awakening 11 

1.4.1 Ike Regularity of Phenomena 11 

1.4.2 Nirvana 19 

1.4.3 The Awakening as Paradigm 20 



CONTENTS 


2 THE BUDDHA AS TEACHER 
AND POWER FIGURE 22 

2.1 The Response to the Awakened One 22 

2.2 The Buddha Begins Teaching 24 

2.2.1 The First Encounter 24 

2.2.2 Setting the Wheel of Dharma in Motion 25 

2.3 An Analysis of the First Discourse 27 

2.3.1 The Four Noble Truths 27 

2.3.2 77/e Stages of Awakening 31 

2.4 The Spread of the Religion 32 

2.4.1 Taking Refuge 32 

2.4.2 The Development of the Sangha 33 

2.5 The Middle Years 35 

2.6 The Last Days and Beyond 37 

2.6.1 Buddhist Devotionalism 39 

2.6.2 The Etiquette of Devotion 40 


3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY INDIAN 
BUDDHISM 43 

3.1 Sources 43 

3.2 The Formation of the Canons 45 

3.2.1 Ihe Early Monastic Lineages 46 

3.2.2 The Early Councils and the Attitude toward Sectarianism 48 

3.3 Norms for Religious Life 49 

3.3.1 'Ihe Code of Discipline for Monks 49 

3.3.2 Communal Governance 51 

3.3.3 The Life of the Monks 52 

3.3.4 Ihe Life of the Nuns 54 

3.3.5 The Laity 56 

3.4 As oka 58 

3.5 Abhidharma 62 

3.5.1 The Lists (Matrkd) 63 

3.5.2 Points of Controversy: The Nature of the Individual 65 

3.5.3 Points of Controversy: The Nature of Existence 66 



CONTENTS 


3.6 Past-Life Narratives 67 

3.6.1 Jatakas and the Perfections 68 

3.6.2 Avadanas and the Buddha-Field 70 

3.7 The Stupa Cult 72 


4 THE PERIOD OF THE THREE VEHICLES 75 

4.1 Social Background 75 

4.2 The Cult of Maitreya 78 

4.3 Monuments to the Triple Gem 80 

4.3.1 Buddha and Bodhisattva Images 80 

4.3.2 The Cult of the Book 82 

4.3.3 The Topography of Sacred Narrative 83 

4.4 The Search for the Mahayana 84 

4.4.1 The Ugrapariprccha 86 

4.4.2 The Aksobhya- Vyuha 87 

4.4.3 The Perfection of Discernment in 8,000 Lines 88 

4.4.4 The Bodhisattva Elites 90 

4.5 Two Levels ofTruth 91 

4.5.1 Vaibhasikas and Sautrantikas 92 

4.5.2 Nagaijuna 94 


5 EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIAN BUDDHISM 99 

5.1 Portraits of a Buddhist Empire 99 

5.2 Mahayana Sutras 103 

5.2.1 The Dasabhumika Sutra 104 

5.2.2 The SukhavatT-Vyuha Sutras 105 

5.2.3 Issues in the Perfection of Discernment 106 

5.3 Scholastic Philosophy 116 

5.3.1 Vasubandhu and the Abhidharmakosa 118 

5.3.2 Asahga and tlieYogacara 119 

5.3.3 Bhavaviveka and the Madhyamaka 121 





CONTENTS 


6 BUDDHISM IN LATE MEDIEVAL 
AND MODERN INDIA 124 

6.1 The Culture of Belligerence 124 

6.2 Vajrayana 128 

6.2.1 Tantras 129 

6.2.2 Siddhas 132 

6.2.3 Sahaja 135 

6.2.4 The Vajra Cosmos 135 

6.3 The Decimation of Indian Buddhism 138 

6.4 Buddhism in Nepal 139 

6.5 The Buddhist Revival 141 


7 BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA 
AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 143 

7.1 The Economy of Merit 143 

7.2 Buddhism in “Further India” 146 

7.3 The Theravada Connection 150 

7.4 The Colonial Period 153 

7.4.1 Sri Lanka 154 

7.4.2 Burma 155 

7.4.3 Thailand 156 

7.5 The Post-colonial Period 157 

7.5 .1 Buddhism in the Village 159 

7.5.2 Buddhism in the Wilderness 166 

7.5.3 Buddhism in the City 169 


8 BUDDHISM IN CENTRAL ASIA AND CHINA 172 

Central Asia 

8.1 The Dharma Travels the Silk Road 172 

China 

8.2 A Grand Assimilation 175 

8.3 Buddhism on the Fringes of Society 176 

8.4 Buddhism Enters the Mainstream of Chinese Culture 178 

8.4.1 Buddlto-Taoism 180 

8.4.2 'Hie Rise of Buddhist Scholasticism 183 



CONTENTS 


8.5 The Sui and T’ang Dynasties (581—907) 185 

8.5.1 T’ien-t’ai 188 

8.5.2 Hua-yen 192 

8.5.3 Pure Land (Ching-te) 197 

8.5.4 The Three-Level Sect (San-chieh-chiao) 199 

8.5.5 Ch ’an 200 

8.6 The Sung Dynasty (970-1279) 204 

8.6.1 Ch’an Politics 205 

8.6.2 Ch’an Meditation 207 

8.6.3 The Rise of Neo-Confucianism 209 

8.7 The Religion of the Masses (1279-1949) 210 

8. 7. 1 Religious Life: Devotional 211 

8.7.2 Religious Life: Monastic 213 

8.7.3 Religious Life: Lay 213 

8.8 Modern Chinese Buddhism 215 

8.9 A Buddhist Charitable Organization 216 


9. BUDDHISM IN KOREA AND VIETNAM 219 

9.1 A Focal Point for Unity and Differences 219 


Korea 

9.2 The Three Kingdoms Period (18 n.c.E.—688 c.e.) 220 

9.3 The Unified Silla Dynasty (668-918) 222 

9.3.1 Hwaom (Hua-yen) 223 

9.3.2 Son (Ch’an) 223 

9.4 The Koryo Dynasty (918—1392) 224 

9.4.1 Uich’on 225 

9.4.2 Chinul 225 

9.4.3 T’aego 226 

9.5 TheYi/Choson Dynasty (1392—1910) 227 

9.6 Japanese Rule (1910—1945) and Its Aftermath 228 

9.7 Buddhism in Modern Korea 229 

9.8 Life in a Son Monastery 230 


Vietnam 

9.9 Two Streams of Buddhism Converge 234 

9.10 The Modern Period 238 



CONTENTS 


10 BUDDHISM IN JAPAN 240 

10.1 The Cult of Charisma 240 

10.2 The Importation of Korean Buddhism 242 

10.3 The Importation of Chinese Buddhism 243 

10.4 The Heian Period (804—1185) 245 

10.5 The Kamakura Period (1185—1333) 249 

10.5.1 Zen 249 

10.5.2 Pure Land 252 

10.5.3 Nidi i ren 254 

10.6 The Muromachi Period (1336—1603) 255 

10.7 TheTokugawa Period (1603—1868) 258 

10.8 State Shinto in Control (1868—1945) 260 

10.9 Modern Urban Buddhism 262 

10.10 A Religion of Self-Empowerment 264 


11 BUDDHISM IN THE TIBETAN CULTURAL AREA 268 

11.1 A Vajrayana Orthodoxy 268 

11.2 The Dharma Comes to Tibet 269 

11.2.1 The First Propagation 270 

11.2.2 The Second Propagation 273 

11.3 The Period of Consolidation 277 

11.3.1 Historical Issues 277 

11.3.2 Texts 278 

11.3.3 Doctrinal Systems 210 

11.3.4 Politics 281 

11.4 The Age of the Dalai Lamas 283 

11.5 The Dynamics ofTibetan Ritual 286 

11.6 A Tradition at the Crossroads 291 



12 BUDDHISM COMES WEST 292 

12.1 Europe’s Early Contact with Buddhism 292 

12.2 The Awakening Meets the Enlightenment 293 

12.2.1 Buddhism and the Science of Humanity 294 

12.2.2 The Appropriation of Buddhist Ideas 297 



CONTENTS 


xiii 

12.2.3 The Crisis of Cultural Relativism 299 

12.2.4 Calls for Reform 303 

12.3 The Varieties of Buddhism in North America 306 

12.3.1 Parent Traditions 307 

12.3.2 Modes of Transmission 307 

12.3.3 Grafting onto American Roots 309 


AN OVERVIEW OF THE THREE MAJOR CANONS 312 

PRONUNCIATION GUIDE 316 

GLOSSARY 321 

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 330 

INDEX 341 

=====

Preface 


This edition of Buddhist Religions represents a thorough rethinking of the 
book with the aim of bringing it more up-to-date with current scholar¬ 
ship and making it more useful to the student. One change will be readily 
apparent:The title The Buddhist Religion, used for the first four editions, has now been changed, for reasons explained in the Introduction. For anyone familiar 
with those earlier editions, other changes will become apparent as you go 
through the book. In particular, the chapters on Indian Buddhism have been 
radically revised and reorganized, with two chapters—four and five—entirely 
new. All of the remaining chapters contain major revisions as well, which we 
hope will make this edition a major advance over what has gone before. 

The revision process was set in motion by two thorough and helpful critiques of the previous edition—one, of the entire book, by Jan Nattier of 
Indiana University; and another, of the last five chapters, by Peter Gregory of 
Smith College. As the manuscript for the new edition was in progress, Jan 
Nattier also provided valuable feedback on many of the chapters; John McRae 
of Indiana University, Richard Seager of Hamilton College, Karma Lekshe 
Tsomo of San Diego University, Gil Fronsdal of the Sati Center for Buddhist 
Studies, and Clark Strand, formerly of Tricycle: The Buddhist Journal, offered 
advice in their respective fields of expertise. Sarah Dubin-Vaughn and Thomas 
Patton read through many of the chapters and offered helpful comments. Helen 
Newmark also offered assistance. At Wadsworth, our editor Anna Lustig pro¬ 
vided constant encouragement; and Terri Winsor, our copy editor, helped bring 
clarity and consistency to the book. 

We are also grateful to the Wadsworth reviewers: Jonathon R. Herman, 
Georgia State University; Harry Krebs, Dickinson College; Janies P. McDermott, 
Canisius College; and Janies Santucci, Fullerton State College. 

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all of these people for their 
assistance; the book is much, much clearer and more accurate because of their 
help. Any errors that remain in the book, of course, are our own. 

Willard L. Johnson 
San Diego State University 

Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff) 
Metta Vorest Monastery 



KUCHA • 


TUNHUANG • 


KHOTAN • 




MONGOLIA 


VUNKANC CAVES 


SEA OF 
JAPAN 




SEA 


SOUTH CHINA SEA 


THE WORLD OF 
BUDDHISM 


INDONESIA 








Abbreviations 

Texts from the Pali Canon: 

AN 

Anguttara Nikaya 

Cv 

Cullavagga 

DN 

DTgha Nikaya 

MN 

Majjhima Nikaya 

Mv 

Mahcwagga 

SN 

Samyutta Nikaya 

Sn 

Sutta-Nipdta 

References to DN and MN are to Sutta. References to Mv and Cv are to section 
and subsection. References to the remaining texts are to section ( samyutta, nipdta, 

or vaggd) and Sutta. 


Other texts: 

A st a 

Astasdhasrika-prajndpdramitd Sutra 

Kosa 

A bhidhartnakosa 

Lanka 

Lankdvatara 

MMK 

MiUa-madhyamaka-karika 

Pahca 

Pancavimsatisdhasrikd-prajndpdramitd Sutra 

Pratyutpanna 

Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhdmstlnta-samddhi Sutra 

Tattvasamgraha 

Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha 

xviii 




Introduction 


Buddhism —as a term to denote the vast array of social and cultural phenom¬ 
ena that have clustered around the teachings of a figure called the Buddha, 
the Awakened One—is a recent invention. It comes from the thinkers of 
the eighteenth century European Enlightenment and their quest to subsume 
religion under comparative sociology and secular history. Only recently have 
Asian Buddhists come to adopt the term and the concept behind it. 

Previously, the terms they used to refer to their religion were much more limited in scope: the Dharma, the Buddha’s message, or the Buddha’s way. 
In other words, they conceived of their religion simply as the teaching of the Buddha—what the earliest Buddhist sources call Dharma-Vinaya, Doctrine and Discipline.

Whereas Dharma- Vinaya is meant to be prescriptive—advocating a way of life and practice— Buddhism is descriptive, in that it simply denotes the actions of people who follow a vision of Dharma-Vinaya, without passing judgment on the validity of that vision or suggesting that the reader accept that vision or follow it. 

This is a book about Buddhism. Although it will describe the various ways 
that Buddhists over the centuries have defined Dharma-Vinaya in their words 
and actions, it will not attempt a definition of its own. Its purpose is to portray 
the thoughts and actions of the large segment of the human race who have 
called themselves followers of the Buddha. The authors have felt that this would 
be a worthwhile enterprise in exploring part of the range of the human condi¬ 
tion. As Socrates once said, an unexamined life is not worth living. One of the 
best ways to begin the examination of one’s own life is to examine the lives and 
beliefs of others, so that one’s unconscious assumptions can be thrown into 

sharp relief by the perspective offered by the assumptions, unconscious and 
conscious, of the rest of humanity. This book is meant to help provide a part of 
that perspective. 

The serious study of Buddhism in the West began in 1844, when the French 
philologist Eugene Burnouf came to the conclusion that certain religions encoun¬ 
tered by European explorers and traders in East Asia, Tibet, India, Sri Lanka, and 
Southeast Asia were in fact branches of a single tradition whose home was in India. 
Burnouf s discovery of the connecting thread among these Buddhist traditions was 
such a major intellectual feat that it has continued to shape perceptions about those 
traditions: that despite their superficial differences, they share a common core. Thus 
the West has perceived Buddhism as a single religion, much like Christianity or 
Islam, with the differences among its various permutations analogous to the differ¬ 
ences among Protestant, Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox Christians. For more 
than a century after Burnouf’s discovery, Buddhologists—scholars of the Buddhist 
tradition—tried to delineate the essential characteristics of that common core, but 
the data refused to fit into any clearly discernible mold. As the Thais would say, it 
was like trying to gather live crabs into an open basket: The old crabs kept crawling 
out faster than any new ones could be caught and thrown in. 

To deal with this great variety, scholars tried to define an “ideal Buddhism,” 
against which actual forms of Buddhism could be measured to see how well they 
managed to embody the ideal. The arbitrary nature of this process was best 
revealed by the lack of agreement on how the ideal could be found. Some schol¬ 
ars defined the ideal in terms of the earliest teachings: What the historical 
Buddha taught must be the most authentic Buddhism; any tradition deviating 
from that must be degenerate or corrupt. Phis approach ran into the problem 
that there is no unassailable account of what the Buddha taught; thus the ideal 
turned out to be little more than a product of each scholar’s attempt at recon¬ 
struction. Other scholars defined the ideal form of Buddhism in terms of a doc¬ 
trine they found particularly advanced or insightful, such as the doctrines of 
emptiness or original Awakening, but this too was an arbitrary choice, based on 
the individual scholars personal preferences or nationalistic sentiments. In either 
case, it ultimately became obvious that the definition of an ideal Buddhism was 
less a useful rubric for organizing knowledge than a means for passing judgment 
on what one did or didn’t like about Buddhist traditions. 

More recently, the reaction against this search for an ideal Buddhism—called 
“essentialism”—has led scholars to define Buddhism simply as that which any¬ 
one who calls him- or herself a Buddhist does and believes. This approach— 
which might be termed “inclusionism”—has the advantage of allowing a wider 
range of Buddhist activities to be studied without prejudice. But when com¬ 
bined with the perception that Buddhism is a single religion, it has the conse¬ 
quence of privileging those Buddhist traditions that are also inclusionistic— 
enclosing the largest range of Buddhist beliefs and practices in their 
framework—as the most complete expressions of the religion. This is unfortu¬ 
nate, in that it implicitly denigrates less inclusionistic forms of Buddhism as par¬ 
tial or incomplete, suggesting that they would best achieve completeness by 
submitting to the rubric provided by another, very different Buddliist tradition. 
For a scholar to tell practicing Buddhists that the particular tradition to which 

they have devoted their lives is incomplete is as great an error as telling them 
that their tradition is degenerate or corrupt. 

To avoid this error, it seems better to regard the term Buddhism as describing 
a family of religions, each with its own integrity, much as monotheism covers 
a family of religions that are related but so inherently different that they cannot 
be reduced to a common core. How can we prove that the different forms of 
Buddhism are actually different religions? Unfortunately, there is no universal 
set of criteria to decide whether the differences between two particular tradi¬ 
tions are great enough to class them as different religions rather than different 
sects within the same religion. Historically, these decisions in the West have 
been shaped more by political forces than by clearly articulated standards. Still, 
a few general criteria for designating two traditions as separate religions would 
include the following: 

1. They are institutionally separate. 

2. They cite different sources of inspiration as providing the final word on their 
doctrines and practices. If they have some sources in common, at least one of 
the traditions must state that the common sources provide only a partial 
expression of the truth, whose complete expression is to be found in sources 
exclusive to it. 

3. They have different views of the ultimate nature of the primary focus of their 
veneration. In monotheistic religions, this would involve radically different 
notions of the Godhead. In Buddhist religions, this would involve radically 
different notions of who or what, in an ultimate sense, the Buddha is. 

4. They have different views on the goal of their practice and the legitimate 
means used to attain that goal. Again, if they have some views in common on 
these matters, at least one of the traditions must maintain that the common 
elements are only a partial or inferior vision of the religious life, whose 
complete expression is found in the exclusive elements of its vision. 

When these criteria are applied to the living Buddliist traditions of the mod¬ 
ern world, it becomes clear that at least three separate Buddhist religions can be 
delineated: the Theravada tradition centered on the Pali Canon; the East Asian tra¬ 
dition, centered on the Chinese Canon; and the Tibetan tradition, centered on the 
Tibetan Canon. Arguments have been advanced that these religions contain sub¬ 
traditions that should also be classified as separate religions, but for the purposes of 
this book we will limit our classification to these three. Each of the three religions 
is derived from one of the three “courses” or “vehicles”—visions of the path of 
Buddhist practice—that developed in India. Theravada is dominated by the 
Sravaka-yana, or Disciple Course; East Asian Buddhism by the Mahayana or Great 
Course; andTibetan Buddhism by theVajrayana or Adamantine Course. However, 
it would be a mistake simply to equate each of these religions with its dominant 
course, for each contains elements of all three courses. Still, the dominant course 
in each case provides the framework that assigns meaning to the elements of the 
other courses, meanings that vary drastically from one of these religions to the 
next. Thus, even though they derive from common sources, the structural differ¬ 
ences in the way they interpret those sources makes them separate. 

When the three courses had become delineated in the Indian Buddhist tradi¬ 
tion by the seventh or eighth centuries C.E., the last three of the previously noted 
criteria for classifying separate religions were already in place. The first, however, 
was not, in that the institutions of monastic Buddhism encompassed all three 
courses. However, when the Buddhist homeland in the Ganges Valley was deci¬ 
mated in the thirteenth century, Buddhists in other parts of Asia began to 
develop their own independent interpretations of what they had inherited from 
India, at the same time developing their own separate monastic institutions. At 
that point, the break into separate religions was complete. The discussion in this 
book will treat in detail how this happened. 

The advantages of viewing these three traditions as separate religions are 
many, but here we will focus on two. (1) Each tradition is granted its own 
integrity, without invidious comparisons as to whether it is a corrupt, partial, or 
primitive expression of what it “should” be. (2) Students of comparative religion 
are alerted to the fact that no one tradition speaks for all of Buddhism. Just as it 
is obvious that there is no point in asking about “the monotheistic position” on a 
particular moral, political, or spiritual issue, there is no point in asking about “the 
Buddhist position.” When the religions of the world are compared, for whatever 
purpose, then at the very least representatives of all three Buddhist religions 
should have a place at the table. 

Some people, especially in the West, may feel uncomfortable at the idea of 
dividing Buddhism into different religions, for division among the monotheistic 
religions has often been underscored by pogroms, genocide, and war. To divide 
Buddhism into separate religions would thus seem like an invitation for more 
violence and disharmony in the world. However, many Asian Buddhists have long 
conunented that, on encountering other forms of Buddhism, they are struck by 
how radically different they are, as if they did not belong to the same tradition. Yet 
they have never felt motivated by this observation to wage war on the other 
forms. T hus in viewing the different traditions as separate religions and yet noting 
how those religions have never turned violent on one another, we gain examples 
of how different religions can maintain their differences and yet live together 
in peace. 

Despite their differences, however, it is instructive to view the Buddhist 
religions as a family, to see how those differences developed and where the fam¬ 
ily resemblances lie: thus this book. There is a tendency in books on Buddhism 
to engage in what might be called the amoeba fallacy: to view the tradition as 
an entity with a will to live that moves into a society and adapts itself to its sur¬ 
roundings in order to survive. Here we have tried to avoid that fallacy, and 
instead have depicted Buddhism as a body of traditions handed down from 
generation to generation. Although the existence of a tradition may influence 
the way a particular group of people define their perceived religious needs, they 
are the active agents in bringing about change in the tradition, just as their 
embrace or rejection of parts of the tradition brings about changes in them. In 
using the tradition to meet their own needs, they have applied it to questions 
and purposes that in some cases it may have never been applied to before. As 
these new applications are tested in experience and found useful, they become 
part of the tradition handed down to the next generation. Thus Buddhism has 

developed, not as a willful entity, but as a result of the contributions of many 
human beings with varying needs and agendas. In our discussion, we have tried 
to keep this human element always in mind. 

Our presentation here tries to cover five main aspects of the Buddhist reli¬ 
gions in a relatively balanced way: ritual, devodonalism, doctrine, meditation 
practice, and institutional history. The five aspects fit rather neatly with the Triple 
Gem—the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha—which, in varying definitions, serves 
as the basis of all the Buddhist religions. Ritual and devotionalism relate to the 
respect accorded the Buddha and bodhisattvas (Buddhas-to-be); doctrine and 
meditation practice correspond to the Dharma; and institutional history corre¬ 
sponds to the Sangha. 

The balance among these elements varies from chapter to chapter partly 
because of the authors’ interests, and partly because the available sources con¬ 
cerning that particular period or country may tend to be weighted in one direc¬ 
tion more than others. We have chosen what might be termed a “block and 
bridge” approach to the material, delving into a particular block of material in 
detail, and then skimming over large areas before delving into another block. In 
trying to cover a topic as large as Buddhism in the small space of a book, this 
approach has the advantage of bringing some occasional depth to the discussion. 
However, the fact that a particular topic has been skinuned over does not mean 
that it is unimportant, simply that it did not meet our—admittedly subjective— 
notions of what is interesting and useful to know. In many cases we have given 
more emphasis to the Dharma than to other aspects of Buddhism, both because 
of its intrinsic interest and because of its pervasive influence on those other 
aspects. Rituals and institutions have meaning only when interpreted in light of 
the doctrine through which that meaning is articulated. In choosing this empha¬ 
sis, wc are honoring an assumption common to all Buddhist religions: that the 
mind is the primary shaper of the world, rather than vice versa. Readers who 
prefer to approach the tradition from its more material aspects, such as its eco¬ 
nomic history, are directed to the bibliography. 

The book falls into two parts: the first six chapters covering the history of 
Buddhism in India; the latter six, Buddhism outside of India. The emphasis on 
India is due to the fact that Indian Buddhism forms the common stock from 
which all other Buddhist traditions stem. To understand the relationship between, 
say, Japanese and Burmese Buddhism, it is necessary to trace back through events 
in India. In both parts we have tried to cover what the most reliable recent 
historical scholarship has been able to unearth of what actually happened in the 
past, as well as how Buddliists in those times and places viewed their own history. 
We have also touched on some of the grand doctrinal syntheses—the work of 
Asanga, Buddhaghosa, Chih-i, Fa-tsang, Kukai, and Tsongkhapa, among others— 
to show how Asian Buddhists themselves tried to deal with the bewildering 
wealth of their tradition. In addition, we have covered in detail the history of 
the meditation and devotional traditions now coming to the West, so that this 
book will be useful to students not only of Buddhism past, but also of Buddhism 
present and yet to come. 

Taechang Kim 何のために生きるのか - '神さま', '神'

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Taechang Kim
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All reactions:19You, 崔明淑, 이찬수 and 16 others

Taechang Kim

何のために生きるのかという問い掛けに直答するのは
稲盛和夫氏.

"旅立っていく私のたましいをより美しいものにしたいという気持ちがあるのです.
それがどうも神さま、あるいは自然が、われわれに与えてくれた '人生の意味' なのかもしれないとおもいます." ( p. 127 )

"どうも考えてみれば、生まれたときに頂戴してきた私のたましいというものは、まだまだ未熟だったかもしれない. しかし、この厳しい現世の荒波にもまれながらたましいを磨いて、死ぬときには、生まれたときのたましいよりも、もっと美しいものにしておきたい. 死というのは肉体の死ではあっても、たましいにとっては永遠の旅立ちだと私は思いますので、その旅立っていく私のたましいをより美しいものにしたいという気持ちがあるのです. それがどうも神さま、あるいは自然が、われわれに与えてくれた '人生の意味' なのかもしれないと思います. 私の会ではそういうことを話して、だから経営者として自分が存在するのであれば、、少なくともみんなを幸せにしてあげられるような経営をしていこうな、というようなことを言っているんです."
( pp. 128-129 )

"私の人生の目的は、死を迎えるときに、私の 'たましい'
がさらに磨かれて美しくなっているのかどうか. それだけが人生の目的だと思うものですから、あらためてこの人生のなかで自分のたましいを磨いていくことをしようと思っているんです."
( p.170 )

わたくし自身の生死観とかなり近似しているのでよく
共感共鳴出来る. わたくし自身の哲友飛岡健博士のユーモア溢れる言い方をすれば、ピンピンキラキラコロリの真髄かな?

Kyoshi Yamamoto

生涯、智慧と徳と正義を求め、魂の浄化に励んできたソクラテスが、死の直前に語った言葉(プラトン著「パイドン」参照)、その晴れ晴れとしたた境涯と、稲盛氏の「魂をより美しく」という求道心とが共振しているように感じました。


Taechang Kim
rntsdopoSeu662ug6ia8tu0f09fh0487aml8i91ul8l63mci131hml30i026 ·






Taechang Kim信仰における '神さま' と哲学における '神' とは結局同じなのか、あるいは全く違うのか、違うのであればどう違うのか、よく考えて見ようと提案したい.


Yasuhiro Takeda

比ゆ的い言えば、神とは、わたし自身の存在のこと。
私が生きている実感・不思議・面白さ・驚異・驚嘆・驚愕。外には何もない。
神への畏れ?神への感謝?神への愛?そういう類の言葉は、人間最大の虚妄で哀しい。
ありのままの私の存在の言葉にならぬ不可思議と悦び。なんという幸せ。

Free Online Library of articles on spirituality-Sufism at worldwisdom.com

Free Online Library of articles on spirituality at worldwisdom.com

Holdings: 542 articles    

 TitleSourceAuthor 1Author 2SubjectWW HTMLWW PDFExternal Link
The Last BreathEmir Abd el-Kader: Hero and Saint of Islam (chapter 1)Bouyerdene, Ahmed Multiple
The GnosisThe Mystics of IslamNicholson, Reynold Multiple
"The Tree Symbol in Islam" by Noble Ross ReatStudies in Comparative Religion - Vol. 9, No. 3. ( Summer, 1975)  Multiple
Rumi and the Sufi TraditionStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 8, No. 2. (Spring, 1974)Nasr, Seyyed Hossein Multiple
"A Letter to Disciples in Prison" by Shaikh Ahmad al-DarqawiStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 8, No. 1. (Winter, 1974)  Multiple
The Influence of Sufism on Traditional Persian MusicStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 6, No. 4. (Autumn, 1972)Nasr, Seyyed Hossein Multiple
The Spread of the Illuminationist School of SuhrawardiStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 6, No. 3. (Summer, 1972)Nasr, Seyyed Hossein Multiple
The Two ParadisesStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 6, No. 3. (Summer, 1972)Schuon, Frithjof Multiple
"The Necessity for the Rise of the Term Sufi" by Victor DannerStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 6, No. 2. (Spring, 1972)  Multiple
Oriental Dialectic and its Roots in FaithStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 5, No. 1. ( Winter, 1971)Schuon, Frithjof Multiple
"Counsels of a Sufi Master" by Ralph (W. J.) AustinStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 5, No. 4. ( Autumn, 1971)  Multiple
Notes on the Shaikh al-‘Alawi by Michel VâlsanStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 5, No. 3. ( Summer, 1971)  Multiple
The Religion of the HeartEsoterism as Principle and as WaySchuon, Frithjof Multiple
The Sufi Master as Exemplified in Persian Sufi LiteratureStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 4, No. 3. ( Summer, 1970)Nasr, Seyyed Hossein Sufism
Sufism and the Perennity of the Mystical QuestStudies in Comparative Religion, Vol. 4, No. 4. ( Autumn, 1970)Nasr, Seyyed Hossein Sufism
The MethodPray Without Ceasing: The Way of the Invocation in World ReligionLings, Martin Sufism
The Nature of Man — Universal ManThe Sufi Doctrine of Rumi: Illustrated EditionChittick, William Sufism
Jesus In The Qur'an: Selfhood And Compassion—An Akbari PerspectiveSufism: Love and WisdomShah-Kazemi, Reza Sufism
'Walking Upon The Path Of God Like Men'?: Women and the Feminine in the Islamic Mystical TraditionSufism: Love and WisdomDakake, Maria Massi Sufism
Panel Discussions from Paths to the Heart ConferencePaths to the Heart: Sufism and the Christian EastCutsinger, James Sufism
Sufism and PantheismIntroduction to Sufi DoctrineBurckhardt, Titus Sufism
Sufi Interpretation of the Qur'anIntroduction to Sufi DoctrineBurckhardt, Titus Multiple
The Branches of the DoctrineIntroduction to Sufi DoctrineBurckhardt, Titus Sufism
Knowledge and LoveIntroduction to Sufi DoctrineBurckhardt, Titus Sufism
Haqiqa and Shari'a in IslamSufism: Love and WisdomGuénon, René Sufism
Sufi Doctrine and MethodSufism: Love and WisdomBurckhardt, Titus Multiple


Audioclip: A conference to build bridges between Christianity and Islam

Audioclip: A conference to build bridges between Christianity and Islam
What bridges exist between Christianity and Islam?
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A conference to build bridges between Christianity and Islam
    

slide 1 of 14

The "Paths to the Heart" Conference on Sufism and the Christian East took place in Columbia, South Carolina on October 18-20, 2001. Internationally recognized spiritual leaders and scholars gathered for three days of presentation and dialogue concerning the mystical and contemplative dimensions of Eastern Christianity and Islam. Speakers included Bishop Kallistos Ware, Lecturer in Eastern Orthodox Studies at Oxford University; and Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr, University Professor of Islamic Studies at George Washington University.

In reflecting on the significance of the Conference, it occurs to us that rather than building bridges between the two communities of believers, participants instead were helping each other discover the bridges that have already been in existence for many centuries but that have become obscured to many for two reasons: (1) The ability to see the Beauty and Truth that lives at the center of a traditionally based faith that is not our own is weakened when political and other similar worldly differences take hold of our minds and hearts. And (2) we have become more and more distant from the Beauty and Truth within our own traditions, making many doubt the very existence or life-determining influence of those gifts of God to our own communities of faith.

Thus, as we help others to see the living core of our own traditions, we are also helping ourselves refocus on the invaluable gift that this core represents in guiding us beyond our own human limitations to spiritual vistas beyond our imagining. This makes a conference like Paths to the Heart both learning experience and celebration.

This slideshow will present audio clips from some of the presentations given at the Conference.


Please note that the audio presentations will work best if you have a high-speed data connection and may not work satisfactorily at speeds of 56 kbps or 128 kbps.

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Listen to Audio     

slide 2 of 14

The well-known Traditionalist writer on Islamic mysticism (Sufism) and University Professor of Islamic Studies at George Washington University, Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, began the Conference with a presentation titled The Heart of the Faithful Is the Throne of the All-Merciful. This excerpt investigates the remarkable unanimity of the world's great religious traditions on the doctrine of the Heart.

The audio clip of Dr. Nasr's talk is 6 min. 35 sec. long.


To listen to this audio segment,
click on the button to the right of the title of this slideshow at the top of this window (the one that represents a person with headphones on, between the question mark and the left-pointing arrow).

If you have a slow internet connection, you may need to "pause" the audio to give it time to download, before letting it play.
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What bridges exist between Christianity and Islam?Back to the List of Slideshows    
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slide 3 of 14

Perhaps the most venerable speaker at the Conference to represent the Eastern Orthodox Church was Bishop Kallistos Ware, Bishop of Diokleia in the Orthodox Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain and, as will be evident from his talk, a speaker of great power and charm.

Bishop Ware's talk includes a portion in which he focuses on defining the term "the heart" as indicated in Christian scriptures, and it is this portion that we have excerpted here. He points out that from the traditional point of view, "the heart" does not indicate the seat of emotions (as is the case for most modern usages) in the human being, but is the "spiritual center of the whole person," "the inwardness of our human personhood in its full spiritual depth," or "that which gives us spiritual vision." These very important precisions, necessary to understanding what traditional sources mean when referencing "the heart," emphasize the "wholeness" or the "totality" of the concept and not the limited, shallow concept most often understood in modern parlance.

The audio clip of Bishop Ware's talk is 8 min. 42 sec. long.


To listen to this audio segment,
click on the button to the right of the title of this slideshow at the top of this window (the one that represents a person with headphones on, between the question mark and the left-pointing arrow).

If you have a slow internet connection, you may need to "pause" the audio to give it time to download, before letting it play.
==
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slide 4 of 14

Author, speaker, and publisher Gray Henry delivered a talk titled St. Seraphim in Sufic Perspective. Although her topic allowed her to range between various points of unanimity between Eastern Orthodox and Sufic thought, the clip we have chosen strongly suggests that it is when the Hesychast or Sufi are in the vast, formless and liberating space of "the heart" that they are most similar—that is, when each is before, but most importantly in  God, regardless of how those two paths may have led to that space. Henry also highlights in the clip the central importance of quietude and God's Presence in both spiritual paths.

The audio clip of Gray Henry's talk is 9 min. 50 sec. long.
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slide 5 of 14

Vincent Rossi is Director of Education for the American Exarchate of the Jerusalem Patriarchate of the Orthodox Church. Rossi's talk, Presence, Participation, Performance, is a brief but far-ranging summary of Hesychast thought and practice. The clip that we are offering of this talk/essay (which must be read to be fully appreciated) gives some key definitions of terms and demonstrates the great profundity of the way of the Hesychasts. Although Rossi does not often draw explicit parallels between Hesychasm and Sufism, many will occur to the careful listener or reader.

Perhaps the most obvious parallel is the insistence upon the practice of invocation as the way to the heart. For Hesychasts, says Rossi, the Prayer of Jesus is the necessary means to achieving hesychia, the "abyss of divine intellections" that permits the practitioner to bridge the "infinite gulf between the Uncreated and the Created." Students and practitioners of Sufism should find some deep resonances with the way to God described by Rossi.

The audio clip of Mr. Rossi's talk is 5 min. 46 sec. long.
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slide 6 of 14

One of the world's foremost experts on traditional Sufi sources in both Arabic and Persian, is William C. Chittick. Prof. Chittick gave a very illuminating talk, titled On the Cosmology of Dhikr, at the Paths to the Heart conference.

His talk and essay trace the origin of the Sufi practice of dhikr (literally "remembrance" but often used for the practice of invocation of God's Name, or other formulae) to the Islamic emphasis on knowledge. Chittick shows us the 'natural' extension of the knowledge of God's Indivisibility or Unity (in Arabic, Tawhîd) to the human response to this cosmic reality, namely the practice of dhikr and all else that this imposes on humankind. Although much rooted in Islamic and thus Sufi thought, readers/listeners will again be able to find a great deal here that is also clearly applicable to Eastern Orthodox thought and practice.

The audio clip of Dr. Chittick's talk is 8 min. 33 sec. long.
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slide 7 of 14

One of the presentations at the Paths conference showed quite ably that ancient traditions of thought and prayer can very effectively feed modern minds and hearts in their journey toward God. To give a taste of this, our clip of the talk by the Rev. Dr. John Chryssavgis, titled Paths of Continuity: Contemporary Witnesses of the Hesychast Experience, cites quotations from a contemporary Hesychast, Fr. Sohprony of Essex (1896-1993).

Through Fr. Sophrony's insights and the insights of other contemporary Hesychasts, Fr. Chryssavgis helps us understand that the Hesychast tradition still lives and is still very applicable to people of our time. This is because its ancient roots are plunged into the ground of eternal Truth and because it offers an effective path of prayer. His comments, heard in the clip, also include an important message about maintaining the "integrity of every religious culture," which is a very appropriate and much needed reminder in an age given to facile syncretism. These thoughts are very helpful in the context of a conference to examine bridges between two ancient traditions.

The audio clip of Fr. Chryssavgis' talk is 6 min. 28 sec. long.
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slide 8 of 14

Reza Shah-Kazemi contributes a wonderful talk and essay to the reflections that made up the Paths Conference and the book. His talk, The Metaphysics of Interfaith Dialogue, cited Quranic verses and Sufi commentaries in developing the point that the very foundation of Islam, the Quran itself, encourages tolerance toward and meaningful dialogue with pious believers of other faiths. The final sentences of his essay summarize very well the ground covered by his talk, of which our short clip is a representative section on dialogue:

"As we have seen, there is ample evidence in the Quranic text itself, and in the compelling commentaries on these verses by those most steeped in the spiritual tradition of Islam, to demonstrate that the Quran not only provides us with a universal view of religion, and thus with the means to contemplate all revealed religions as 'signs' (ayat) of God, but also opens up paths of creative, constructive dialogue between the faithful of all the different religious communities, despite their divergent belief-systems. It provides us with the basis for dialogue and mutual enrichment on aspects of religious life and thought that go beyond the outward forms of belief, yielding fruit in the fertile fields of metaphysical insight, immutable values, contemplative inspiration, and spiritual realization."

The audio clip of Dr. Shah-Kazemi's talk is 10 min. 59 sec. long.
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slide 9 of 14

From the Christian side, James S. Cutsinger's talk, Hesychia, An Orthodox Opening to Esoteric Ecumenism, deals with the same challenge taken up by Reza Shah-Kazemi:  How can a believer discern real Truth within another faith while staying true to his or her own system of belief? Shah-Kazemi indicates that the Quran itself may offer some answers. Cutsinger suggests that there may be another way, one of "esoteric ecumenism," a term taken from the writing of Frithjof Schuon.

The selected clip of Cutsinger's talk defines the term "esoteric ecumenism" and reveals much of the Perennialist perspective in dealing with difficult problems of this type. Cutsinger also highlights the critical importance of answering this question well in order to avoid the denaturing tendencies of modernism when trying to reconcile two different faiths, as well as to avoid the exclusivist reactions of fundamentalism that fuel misunderstanding and even hatred.

The audio clip of Prof. Cutsinger's talk is 11 min. 28 sec. long.
==
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slide 10 of 14

The Paths to the Heart conference finished with a panel of most of the presenters discussing a number of intriguing questions put to them by the organizer of the conference, James S. Cutsinger. We have included the panel discussion in its entirety, broken into four sections presented in this and the subsequent three slides.

The questions asked of the panel in this clip and the presenters who offered responses to them are listed below, sometimes in shortened form:

  1. Do Islam and Sufism believe in the sanctification of the human body as do Christianity and Hesychasm?
    Response from:  Seyyed Hossein Nasr


  2. How are hesychia, and Hesychasm in general, to be distinguished from quietism?
    Response from:  Bishop Kallistos Ware


  3. Does Sufism have an idea comparable to that of the Bodhisattva in Buddhism?
    Response from:  Nasr


  4. Is it "diabolical" for the invoker to seek an identity outside of the invocation?
    Response from:  Ware


  5. Is there anything similar in Sufism to the Christian Eucharist?
    Response from:  Nasr


  6. Is the Christian view of salvation for Muslims as charitable as how the Muslim view seems to be towards Christians?
    Responses from:  Reza Shah-Kazemi and Ware

The audio clip of this part of the panel discussion is 16 min. 30 sec. long.
==
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slide 11 of 14

The questions asked of the panel in this clip and the presenters who offered responses to them are listed below, sometimes in shortened form:

  1. Must Muslims adopt a somewhat Trinitarian view in order to account for how God can be seen "talking with Adam"?
    Response from:  Seyyed Hossein Nasr


  2. Is the uniqueness of Christ, as given in the Quran, sufficient for Christians who wish also to emphasize Christ's uniqueness?
    Response from:  Bishop Kallistos Ware


  3. Must not an apophatic approach be applied to 'understanding' Christian formulations of the Trinity?
    Response from:  Ware


  4. When the Hesychasts are taught to lay aside all "thoughts," are they not being taught that in some sense they must lay aside "definitions" as well?
    Responses from:  Ware and Vincent Rossi

The audio clip of this part of the panel discussion is 14 min. 08 sec. long.
==
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slide 12 of 14

The question asked of the panel in this clip and the presenters who offered responses to it are listed below, sometimes in shortened form:

  1. Could the panelists elaborate further on the "hardening of hearts" which has led to the polarity of modernism and fundamentalism, specifically in light of the recent attacks on modernism by fundamentalism on September 11?
    Responses from:  Reza Shah-KazemiSeyyed Hossein Nasr, and Huston Smith

The audio clip of this part of the panel discussion is 14 min. 32 sec. long.
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Listen to Audio     

slide 13 of 14

This clip is the last of the four parts of the panel discussion. It is a continuation of the panel responses to the question from the previous slide:

  1. Could the panelists elaborate further on the "hardening of hearts" which has led to the polarity of modernism and fundamentalism, specifically in light of the recent attacks on modernism by fundamentalism on September 11?
    Responses from:  Bishop Kallistos Ware,  Gray Henry,   Vincent Rossi,  Seyyed Hossein NasrReza Shah-Kazemi, and  Father John Chryssavgis

The audio clip of this part of the panel discussion is 14 min. 28 sec. long.
==
    

slide 14 of 14

History records the clashes between faiths,
where believers build barriers between
themselves and other believers.

May our hearts record the understanding
that can grow between all believers,
where the expanse of Mercy touches all.
==