기공 (대체 의학)
위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
둘러보기로 가기검색하러 가기
기공(氣功)은 선가(禪家)에 전해 내려온 공력의 한 종류로 호흡법이 큰 비중을 차지한다.호흡법을 이용하여 심신을 다스리는 체조이다.[1]
의학적으로 기운을 다루는 운기법에 기준을 두고 분류를 해보면, 크게 내과 영역이라고 할수 있는 '내가 기공'과 외과의 영역이라고 할수 있는 '외가 기공' 2가지로 분류가 된다. 대한민국에서는 1980년대 소설 단(丹)이 큰 인기몰이를 하며 단전호흡 열풍이 불어서 넓리 알려졌다. 1994년 당시 KBS방송을 통해 소개된 적이 있다.
주의 사항[편집]
무협지에 나오는 수준의 실력자가 아니더라도 초심자의 급수를 넘어서는 수준에 이르렀으나 기운을 체내에서 크게 잘못 다루면 주화입마(走火入魔)에 빠져서 내상(內傷)을 입을 수도 있다. 기혈(氣穴)과 관련된 문제이므로 동양 의학적인 해결책으로 대응할 수 있다. 수련 시에 문제가 생긴 경우에는 즉시 수련을 중단해야 하고 상급자의 도움을 받는 것이 좋다.
외부 링크[편집]
한국단학회 연정원
이 글은 무술에 관한 토막글입니다. 여러분의 지식으로 알차게 문서를 완성해 갑시다.전거 통제
GND: 4123006-1
LCCN: sh85023204
NDL: 00576818
↑ “기공 수련단체”. 2020년 3월 23일에 확인함.
분류:
중국의 무술
중국어 낱말
명상
기공
도교 사상
----
Qigong
| Qigong | |||
|---|---|---|---|
.jpg) Qigong practitioners at World Tai Chi and Qigong Day event in Manhattan. | |||
| Chinese name | |||
| Traditional Chinese | 氣功 | ||
| Simplified Chinese | 气功 | ||
| |||
| Vietnamese name | |||
| Vietnamese | khí công | ||
| Hán-Nôm | 氣功 | ||
| Korean name | |||
| Hangul | 기공 | ||
| Hanja | 氣功 | ||
| |||
| Japanese name | |||
| Hiragana | きこう | ||
| Kyūjitai | 氣功 | ||
| Shinjitai | 気功 | ||
| |||
| Part of a series on |
| Chinese martial arts (Wushu) |
|---|
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Qigong (/ˈtʃiːˈɡɒŋ/),[1] qi gong, chi kung, or chi gung (simplified Chinese: 气功; traditional Chinese: 氣功; pinyin: qìgōng; Wade–Giles: ch‘i kung; lit.: 'life-energy cultivation') is a millenia-old system of coordinated body-posture and movement, breathing, and meditation[2] used for the purposes of health, spirituality, and martial-arts training.[3] With roots in Chinese medicine, philosophy, and martial arts, qigong is traditionally viewed by the Chinese and throughout Asia as a practice to cultivate and balance qi (pronounced approximately as "chi"), translated as "life energy".[4]
Qigong practice typically involves moving meditation, coordinating slow-flowing movement, deep rhythmic breathing, and a calm meditative state of mind. People practice qigong throughout China and worldwide for recreation, exercise, relaxation, preventive medicine, self-healing, alternative medicine, meditation, self-cultivation, and training for martial arts.[2]
Clinical research on qigong for its potential benefit in treating disease has been inconclusive. There is no evidence that qigong has any therapeutic effect.[2][5]
Etymology[edit]
Qigong (Pinyin), ch'i kung (Wade-Giles), and chi gung (Yale) are Romanized words for two Chinese characters: qì (气／氣) and gōng (功).
Qi (or chi) is often translated as life energy,[4] referring to energy circulating through the body; though a more general definition is universal energy, including heat, light, and electromagnetic energy;[6] and definitions often involve breath, air, gas, or the relationship between matter, energy, and spirit.[7] Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Gong (or kung) is often translated as cultivation or work, and definitions include practice, skill, mastery, merit, achievement, service, result, or accomplishment, and is often used to mean gongfu (kung fu) in the traditional sense of achievement through great effort.[8] The two words are combined to describe systems to cultivate and balance life energy, especially for health and wellbeing.[4]
The term qigong as currently used was promoted in the late 1940s through the 1950s to refer to a broad range of Chinese self-cultivation exercises, and to emphasize health and scientific approaches, while de-emphasizing spiritual practices, mysticism, and elite lineages.[9][10][11]
History and origins[edit]
With roots in ancient Chinese culture dating back more than 4,000 years,[citation needed] a wide variety of qigong forms have developed within different segments of Chinese society:[12] in traditional Chinese medicine for preventive and curative functions;[13] in Confucianism to promote longevity and improve moral character;[4] in Daoism and Buddhism as part of meditative practice;[14] and in Chinese martial arts to enhance fighting abilities.[10][15] Contemporary qigong blends diverse and sometimes disparate traditions, in particular the Daoist meditative practice of "internal alchemy" (Neidan 內丹術), the ancient meditative practices of "circulating qi" (Xing qi 行氣) and "standing meditation" (Zhan zhuang 站桩), and the slow gymnastic breathing exercise of "guiding and pulling" (Dao yin 導引). Traditionally, qigong was taught by master to students through training and oral transmission, with an emphasis on meditative practice by scholars and gymnastic or dynamic practice by the working masses.[16]
Starting in the late 1940s and the 1950s, the mainland Chinese government tried to integrate disparate qigong approaches into one coherent system, with the intention of establishing a firm scientific basis for qigong practice. In 1949, Liu Guizhen established the name "Qigong" to refer to the system of life preserving practices that he and his associates developed based on Dao yin and other philosophical traditions.[17] This attempt is considered by some sinologists as the start of the modern or scientific interpretation of qigong.[18][19][20] During the Great Leap Forward (1958–1963) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), qigong, along with other traditional Chinese medicine, was under tight control with limited access among the general public, but was encouraged in state-run rehabilitation centers and spread to universities and hospitals. After the Cultural Revolution, qigong, along with t'ai chi, was popularized as daily morning exercise practiced en masse throughout China.
Popularity of qigong grew rapidly during the Deng and Jiang eras after Mao Zedong's death in 1976 through the 1990s, with estimates of between 60 and 200 million practitioners throughout China. Along with popularity and state sanction came controversy and problems: claims of extraordinary abilities bordering on the supernatural, pseudoscience explanations to build credibility,[21] a mental condition labeled qigong deviation,[20] formation of cults, and exaggeration of claims by masters for personal benefit.[9][22] In 1985, the state-run National Qigong Science and Research Organization was established to regulate the nation's qigong denominations.[23] In 1999, in response to widespread revival of old traditions of spirituality, morality, and mysticism, and perceived challenges to State control, the Chinese government took measures to enforce control of public qigong practice, including shutting down qigong clinics and hospitals, and banning groups such as Zhong Gong and Falun Gong.[11]:161–174[24] Since the 1999 crackdown, qigong research and practice have only been officially supported in the context of health and traditional Chinese medicine. The Chinese Health Qigong Association, established in 2000, strictly regulates public qigong practice, with limitation of public gatherings, requirement of state approved training and certification of instructors, and restriction of practice to state-approved forms.[25][26]
Through the forces of migration of the Chinese diaspora, tourism in China, and globalization, the practice of qigong spread from the Chinese community to the world. Today, millions of people around the world practice qigong and believe in the benefits of qigong to varying degrees. Similar to its historical origin, those interested in qigong come from diverse backgrounds and practice it for different reasons, including for recreation, exercise, relaxation, preventive medicine, self-healing, alternative medicine, self-cultivation, meditation, spirituality, and martial arts training.
Overview[edit]
Practices[edit]
Qigong comprises a diverse set of practices that coordinate body (調身), breath (調息), and mind (調心) based on Chinese philosophy.[27][28] Practices include moving and still meditation, massage, chanting, sound meditation, and non-contact treatments, performed in a broad array of body postures. Qigong is commonly classified into two foundational categories: 1) dynamic or active qigong (dong gong), with slow flowing movement; and 2) meditative or passive qigong (jing gong), with still positions and inner movement of the breath.[29]:21770–21772 From a therapeutic perspective, qigong can be classified into two systems: 1) internal qigong, which focuses on self-care and self-cultivation, and; 2) external qigong, which involves treatment by a therapist who directs or transmits qi.[29]:21777–21781
As moving meditation, qigong practice typically coordinates slow stylized movement, deep diaphragmatic breathing, and calm mental focus, with visualization of guiding qi through the body. While implementation details vary, generally qigong forms can be characterized as a mix of four types of practice: dynamic, static, meditative, and activities requiring external aids.
- Dynamic practice
- involves fluid movement, usually carefully choreographed, coordinated with breath and awareness. Examples include the slow stylized movements of T'ai chi ch'uan, Baguazhang, and Xing Yi Quan.[30] Other examples include graceful movement that mimics the motion of animals in Five Animals (Wu Qin Xi qigong),[31][self-published source?] White Crane,[32] and Wild Goose (Dayan) Qigong.[33][34] As a form of gentle exercise, qigong is composed of movements that are typically repeated, strengthening and stretching the body, increasing fluid movement (blood, synovial, and lymph), enhancing balance and proprioception, and improving the awareness of how the body moves through space.[35]
- Static practice
- involves holding postures for sustained periods of time.[36] In some cases this bears resemblance to the practice of Yoga and its continuation in the Buddhist tradition.[37] For example Yiquan, a Chinese martial art derived from xingyiquan, emphasizes static stance training.[38] In another example, the healing form Eight Pieces of Brocade (Baduanjin qigong) is based on a series of static postures.[39]
- Meditative practice
- utilizes breath awareness, visualization, mantra, chanting, sound, and focus on philosophical concepts such as qi circulation, aesthetics, or moral values.[40] In traditional Chinese medicine and Daoist practice, the meditative focus is commonly on cultivating qi in dantian energy centers and balancing qi flow in meridian and other pathways. In various Buddhist traditions, the aim is to still the mind, either through outward focus, for example on a place, or through inward focus on the breath, a mantra, a koan, emptiness, or the idea of the eternal. In the Confucius scholar tradition, meditation is focused on humanity and virtue, with the aim of self-enlightenment.[12]
- Use of external agents
- Many systems of qigong practice include the use of external agents such as ingestion of herbs, massage, physical manipulation, or interaction with other living organisms.[14] For example, specialized food and drinks are used in some medical and Daoist forms, whereas massage and body manipulation are sometimes used in martial arts forms. In some medical systems a qigong master uses non-contact treatment, purportedly guiding qi through his or her own body into the body of another person.[41]
Forms[edit]
There are numerous qigong forms. 75 ancient forms that can be found in ancient literature and also 56 common or contemporary forms have been described in a qigong compendium.[42]:203–433 The list is by no means exhaustive. Many contemporary forms were developed by people who had recovered from their illness after qigong practice.
Most of the qigong forms come under the following categories:[citation needed]
- Medical qigong
- Martial qigong
- Spiritual qigong
- Intellectual qigong
- Life nourishing qigong
Development of "health qigong"[edit]
In order to promote qigong exercises in a standardised and effective way with a scientific approach, The Chinese Health Qigong Association (CHQA) appointed panels of Qigong experts, Chinese medicine doctors and sport science professors from different hospitals, universities and qigong lineage across China to research and develop new sets of qigong exercises. In 2003 the CHQA officially promoted a new system called "health qigong", which consisted of four newly developed health qigong forms:
- Health Qigong Muscle-Tendon Change Classic (Health Qigong Yì Jīn Jīng 易筋經).
- Health Qigong Five Animals Frolics (Health qigong Wu Qin Xi 五禽戲).
- Health Qigong Six Healing Sounds (Health Qigong Liu Zi Jue 六字訣).
- Health Qigong Eight Pieces of Brocade (Health Qigong Ba Duan Jin 八段錦).
In 2010, the Chinese Health Qigong Association officially introduced five additional health qigong forms:[43]
- Health Qigong Tai Chi Yang Sheng Zhang (太極養生杖): a tai chi form from the stick tradition.
- Health Qigong Shi Er Duan Jin (十二段錦): seated exercises to strengthen the neck, shoulders, waist, and legs.
- Health Qigong Daoyin Yang Sheng Gong Shi Er Fa (導引養生功十二法): 12 routines from Daoyin tradition of guiding and pulling qi.
- Health Qigong Mawangdui Daoyin (馬王堆導引术): guiding qi along the meridians with synchronous movement and awareness.
- Health Qigong Da Wu (大舞): choreographed exercises to lubricate joints and guide qi.
Other commonly practised qigong styles and forms include:
- Soaring Crane Qigong[44]
- Wisdom Healing Qigong[45]
- Pan Gu Mystical Qigong[46]
- Wild Goose (Dayan) Qigong[47]
- Dragon and Tiger Qigong[48]
- Primordial Qigong (Wujigong)[49][50]
- Chilel Qigong[51]
- Phoenix Qigong[52]
- Yuan Qigong[53]
- Zhong Yuan Qigong[54]
Techniques[edit]
Whether viewed from the perspective of exercise, health, philosophy, or martial arts training, several main principles emerge concerning the practice of qigong:[4][35][55][56]
- Intentional movement: careful, flowing balanced style
- Rhythmic breathing: slow, deep, coordinated with fluid movement
- Awareness: calm, focused meditative state
- Visualization: of qi flow, philosophical tenets, aesthetics
- Chanting/Sound: use of sound as a focal point
Additional principles:
- Softness: soft gaze, expressionless face
- Solid Stance: firm footing, erect spine
- Relaxation: relaxed muscles, slightly bent joints
- Balance and Counterbalance: motion over the center of gravity
Advanced goals:
- Equanimity: more fluid, more relaxed
- Tranquility: empty mind, high awareness
- Stillness: smaller and smaller movements, eventually to complete stillness
The most advanced practice is generally considered to be with little or no motion.
Traditional and classical theory[edit]
Over time, five distinct traditions or schools of qigong developed in China, each with its own theories and characteristics: Chinese Medical Qigong, Daoist Qigong, Buddhist Qigong, Confucian Qigong, and Martial Qigong.[57]:30–80 All of these qigong traditions include practices intended to cultivate and balance qi.[12][58][59][60]
Traditional Chinese medicine[edit]
The theories of ancient Chinese qigong include the Yin-Yang and Five Phases Theory, Essence-Qi-Spirit Theory, Zang-Xiang Theory, and Meridians and Qi-Blood Theory, which have been synthesized as part of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).[57]:45–57 TCM focuses on tracing and correcting underlying disharmony, in terms of deficiency and excess, using the complementary and opposing forces of yin and yang (陰陽), to create a balanced flow of qi. Qi is believed to be cultivated and stored in three main dantian energy centers and to travel through the body along twelve main meridians (Jīng Luò 經絡), with numerous smaller branches and tributaries. The main meridians correspond to twelve main organs ) (Zàng fǔ 臟腑). Qi is balanced in terms of yin and yang in the context of the traditional system of Five Phases (Wu xing 五行).[12][13] A person is believed to become ill or die when qi becomes diminished or unbalanced. Health is believed to be returned by rebuilding qi, eliminating qi blockages, and correcting qi imbalances. These TCM concepts do not translate readily to modern science and medicine.
Daoism[edit]
In Daoism, various practices now known as Daoist qigong are claimed to provide a way to achieve longevity and spiritual enlightenment,[61] as well as a closer connection with the natural world.[62]
Buddhism[edit]
In Buddhism meditative practices now known as Buddhist qigong are part of a spiritual path that leads to spiritual enlightenment or Buddhahood.[63]
Confucianism[edit]
In Confucianism practices now known as Confucian qigong provide a means to become a Junzi (君子) through awareness of morality.[64][65]
Contemporary qigong[edit]
In contemporary China, the emphasis of qigong practice has shifted away from traditional philosophy, spiritual attainment, and folklore, and increasingly to health benefits, traditional medicine and martial arts applications, and a scientific perspective.[9][11] Qigong is now practiced by millions worldwide, primarily for its health benefits, though many practitioners have also adopted traditional philosophical, medical, or martial arts perspectives, and even use the long history of qigong as evidence of its effectiveness.[12][55]
Contemporary Chinese medical qigong[edit]
Qigong has been recognized as a "standard medical technique" in China since 1989, and is sometimes included in the medical curriculum of major universities in China.[66]:34 The 2013 English translation of the official Chinese Medical Qigong textbook used in China[57]:iv,385 defines CMQ as "the skill of body-mind exercise that integrates body, breath, and mind adjustments into one" and emphasizes that qigong is based on "adjustment" (tiao 調, also translated as "regulation", "tuning", or "alignment") of body, breath, and mind.[57]:16–18 As such, qigong is viewed by practitioners as being more than common physical exercise, because qigong combines postural, breathing, and mental training in one to produce a particular psychophysiological state of being.[57]:15 While CMQ is still based on traditional and classical theory, modern practitioners also emphasize the importance of a strong scientific basis.[57]:81–89 According to the 2013 CMQ textbook, physiological effects of qigong are numerous, and include improvement of respiratory and cardiovascular function, and possibly neurophysiological function.[57]:89–102
Conventional medicine[edit]
Especially since the 1990s, conventional or mainstream Western medicine often strives to heed the model of evidence-based medicine, EBM, which demotes medical theory, clinical experience, and physiological data to prioritize the results of controlled, and especially randomized, clinical trials of the treatment itself.[67][68] Although some clinical trials support qigong's effectiveness in treating conditions diagnosed in Western medicine, the quality of these studies is mostly low and, overall, their results are mixed.[5]
Integrative, complementary, and alternative medicine[edit]
Integrative medicine (IM) refers to "the blending of conventional and complementary medicines and therapies with the aim of using the most appropriate of either or both modalities to care for the patient as a whole",[69]:455–456 whereas complementary is using a non-mainstream approach together with conventional medicine, while alternative is using a non-mainstream approach in place of conventional medicine.[70] Qigong is used by integrative medicine practitioners to complement conventional medical treatment, based on complementary and alternative medicine interpretations of the effectiveness and safety of qigong.[29]:22278–22306
Scientific basis[edit]
Scientists interested in qigong have sought to describe or verify the effects of qigong, to explore mechanisms of effects, to form scientific theory with respect to qigong, and to identify appropriate research methodology for further study.[57]:81–89 In terms of traditional theory, the existence of qi has not been independently verified in an experimental setting.[71] In any case, some researches have reported effects on pathophysiological parameters of biomedical interest.[72][73]
Practitioners, uses and cautions[edit]
Recreation and popular use[edit]
People practice qigong for many different reasons, including for recreation, exercise and relaxation, preventive medicine and self-healing, meditation and self-cultivation, and training for martial arts. Practitioners range from athletes to the physically challenged. Because it is low impact and can be done lying, sitting, or standing, qigong is accessible for disabled persons, seniors, and people recovering from injuries.[4]
Therapeutic use[edit]
Therapeutic use of qigong is directed by TCM, CAM, integrative medicine, and other health practitioners. In China, where it is considered a "standard medical technique",[66]:34 qigong is commonly prescribed to treat a wide variety of conditions, and clinical applications include hypertension, coronary artery disease, peptic ulcers, chronic liver diseases, diabetes mellitus, obesity, menopause syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome, insomnia, tumors and cancer, lower back and leg pain, cervical spondylosis, and myopia.[57]:261–391 Outside China qigong is used in integrative medicine to complement or supplement accepted medical treatments, including for relaxation, fitness, rehabilitation, and treatment of specific conditions.[69][74] However, there is no high-quality evidence that qigong is actually effective for these conditions.[75] Based on systematic reviews of clinical research, there is insufficient evidence for the effectiveness of using qigong as a therapy for any medical condition.[2][5]
Safety and cost[edit]
Qigong is generally viewed as safe.[76] No adverse effects have been observed in clinical trials, such that qigong is considered safe for use across diverse populations. Cost for self-care is minimal, and cost efficiencies are high for group delivered care.[73] Typically the cautions associated with qigong are the same as those associated with any physical activity, including risk of muscle strains or sprains, advisability of stretching to prevent injury, general safety for use alongside conventional medical treatments, and consulting with a physician when combining with conventional treatment.[2][77]
Clinical research[edit]
Overview[edit]
Although there is ongoing clinical research examining the potential health effects of qigong, there is little financial or medical incentive to support high-quality research, and still only a limited number of studies meet accepted medical and scientific standards of randomized controlled trials (RCTs).[2][73] Clinical research concerning qigong has been conducted for a wide range of medical conditions, including bone density, cardiopulmonary effects, physical function, falls and related risk factors, quality of life, immune function, inflammation,[73] hypertension,[75] pain,[78] and cancer treatment.[2][79]
Systematic reviews[edit]
A 2009 systematic review on the effect of qigong exercises on reducing pain concluded that "the existing trial evidence is not convincing enough to suggest that internal qigong is an effective modality for pain management."[78]
A 2010 systematic review of the effect of qigong exercises on cancer treatment concluded "the effectiveness of qigong in cancer care is not yet supported by the evidence from rigorous clinical trials."[79] A separate systematic review that looked at the effects of qigong exercises on various physiological or psychological outcomes found that the available studies were poorly designed, with a high risk of bias in the results. Therefore, the authors concluded, "Due to limited number of RCTs in the field and methodological problems and high risk of bias in the included studies, it is still too early to reach a conclusion about the efficacy and the effectiveness of qigong exercise as a form of health practice adopted by the cancer patients during their curative, palliative, and rehabilitative phases of the cancer journey."[80]
A 2011 overview of systematic reviews of controlled clinical trials, Lee et al. concluded that "the effectiveness of qigong is based mostly on poor quality research" and "therefore, it would be unwise to draw firm conclusions at this stage."[5] Although a 2010 comprehensive literature review found 77 peer-reviewed RCTs,[73] Lee et al.'s overview of systematic reviews as to particular health conditions found problems like sample size, lack of proper control groups, with lack of blinding associated with high risk of bias.[5]
A 2015 systematic review of the effect of qigong exercises on cardiovascular diseases and hypertension found no conclusive evidence for effect.[75] Also in 2015, a systemic review into the effects on hypertension suggested that it may be effective, but that the evidence was not conclusive because of the poor quality of the trials it included, and advised more rigorous research in the future.[81] Another 2015 systematic review of qigong on biomarkers of cardiovascular disease concluded that some trials showed favorable effects, but concludes, "Most of the trials included in this review are likely to be at high risk of bias, so we have very low confidence in the validity of the results.[75]
Mental health[edit]
Many claims have been made that qigong can benefit or ameliorate mental health conditions,[73] including improved mood, decreased stress reaction, and decreased anxiety and depression. Most medical studies have only examined psychological factors as secondary goals, although various studies have shown decreases in cortisol levels, a chemical hormone produced by the body in response to stress.[73]
China[edit]
Basic and clinical research in China during the 1980s was mostly descriptive, and few results were reported in peer-reviewed English-language journals.[29]:,22060–22063 Qigong became known outside China in the 1990s, and clinical randomized controlled trials investigating the effectiveness of qigong on health and mental conditions began to be published worldwide, along with systematic reviews.[29]:21792–21798
Challenges[edit]
Most existing clinical trials have small sample sizes and many have inadequate controls. Of particular concern is the impracticality of double blinding using appropriate sham treatments, and the difficulty of placebo control, such that benefits often cannot be distinguished from the placebo effect.[29]:22278–22306[82] Also of concern is the choice of which qigong form to use and how to standardize the treatment or amount with respect to the skill of the practitioner leading or administering treatment, the tradition of individualization of treatments, and the treatment length, intensity, and frequency.[29]:6869–6920,22361–22370
Meditation and self-cultivation applications[edit]
Qigong is practiced for meditation and self-cultivation as part of various philosophical and spiritual traditions. As meditation, qigong is a means to still the mind and enter a state of consciousness that brings serenity, clarity, and bliss.[14] Many practitioners find qigong, with its gentle focused movement, to be more accessible than seated meditation.[55]
Qigong for self-cultivation can be classified in terms of traditional Chinese philosophy: Daoist, Buddhist, and Confucian.
Martial Arts applications[edit]
The practice of qigong is an important component in both internal and external style Chinese martial arts.[14] Focus on qi is considered to be a source of power as well as the foundation of the internal style of martial arts (Neijia). T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Xing Yi Quan, and Baguazhang are representative of the types of Chinese martial arts that rely on the concept of qi as the foundation.[83] Extraordinary feats of martial arts prowess, such as the ability to withstand heavy strikes (Iron Shirt, 鐵衫)[84] and the ability to break hard objects (Iron Palm, 鐵掌)[85][86] are abilities attributed to qigong training.
T'ai Chi Ch'uan and qigong[edit]
T'ai Chi Ch'uan (Taijiquan) is a widely practiced Chinese internal martial style based on the theory of taiji, closely associated with qigong, and typically involving more complex choreographed movement coordinated with breath, done slowly for health and training, or quickly for self-defense. Many scholars consider t'ai chi ch'uan to be a type of qigong, traced back to an origin in the seventeenth century. In modern practice, qigong typically focuses more on health and meditation rather than martial applications, and plays an important role in training for t'ai chi ch'uan, in particular used to build strength, develop breath control, and increase vitality ("life energy").[30][87]
See also[edit]
- Yoga
- International Day of Yoga
- Asahi Health
- Cybersectarianism
- Falun Gong
- Hua Tuo
- Jing (TCM)
- Physiotherapy
- List of ineffective cancer treatments
- Mind-body problem
- Mindfulness (Buddhism)
- Neidan
- Neigong
- Paidagong
- Prana
- Self-healing
- Silk reeling
- Sima Nan
- Tao Yin
- Taoist sexual practices
- World Tai Chi and Qigong Day
- Zhong Gong
- Zhan Zhuang
References[edit]
- ^ "Qigong". Collins English Dictionary.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Tai chi and qi gong: In depth". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. October 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
- ^ Plaugher, Noel (2015). Standing Qigong for health and martial arts, Zhan Zhuang. Ebooks Corporation. ISBN 9780857012043.
- ^ a b c d e f Cohen, K. S. (1999). The Way of Qigong: The Art and Science of Chinese Energy Healing. Random House of Canada. ISBN 978-0-345-42109-8.
- ^ a b c d e Lee MS, Oh B, Ernst E (2011). "Qigong for healthcare: an overview of systematic reviews". JRSM Short Rep. 2 (2): 1–5. doi:10.1258/shorts.2010.010091. PMC 3046559. PMID 21369525.
- ^ Yang, Jwing-Ming (1987). Chi Kung: health & martial arts. Yang's Martial Arts Association. ISBN 978-0-940871-00-7.
- ^ Ho, Peng Yoke (Oct 2000). Li, Qi, and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41445-4.
- ^ MDBG dictionary entry for Gong
- ^ a b c Palmer, David A. (2007). Qigong fever: body, science, and utopia in China. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14066-9.
- ^ a b YeYoung, Bing. "Origins of Qi Gong". YeYoung Culture Studies: Sacramento, CA (http://literati-tradition.com). Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
- ^ a b c Ownby, David (2008). Falun Gong and the future of China. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532905-6.
- ^ a b c d e Yang, Jwing-Ming. (1989). The root of Chinese Chi kung: the secrets of Chi kung training. Yang's Martial Arts Association. ISBN 978-0-940871-07-6.
- ^ a b Holland, Alex (2000). Voices of Qi: An Introductory Guide to Traditional Chinese Medicine. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-55643-326-9.
- ^ a b c d Liang, Shou-Yu; Wu, Wen-Ching; Breiter-Wu, Denise (1997). Qigong Empowerment: A Guide to Medical, Taoist, Buddhist, and Wushu Energy Cultivation. Way of the Dragon Pub. ISBN 978-1-889659-02-2.
- ^ Yang, Jwing-Ming (1998). Qigong for health and martial arts: exercises and meditation. YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 978-1-886969-57-5.
- ^ Miura, Kunio (1989). "The Revival of Qi". In Livia Kohl (ed.). Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques. Center For Chinese Studies: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. ISBN 978-0-89264-085-0.
- ^ Voigt, John (Autumn 2013). "The Man Who Invented "Qigong""(PDF). Qi: The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health & Fitness. 23 (3): 28–33.
- ^ Otehode, Utiraruto (2009). "The Creation and Reemergence of Qigong in China". In Ashiwa, Yoshiko; Wank, David L. (eds.). Making religion, making the state: the politics of religion in modern China. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. pp. 241–265. ISBN 978-0-8047-5842-0.
- ^ Despeux, C. (1997). "Le qigong, une expression de la modernité Chinoise". In J. Gernet; M. Kalinowski (eds.). En suivant la Voie Royale: Mélanges en homage à Léon Vandermeersch. École Française d'Extrême-Orient. pp. 267–281.
- ^ a b Chen, Nancy N. (2003). Breathing Spaces: Qigong, Psychiatry, and Healing in China. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12804-9.
- ^ Lin, Zixin (2000). Qigong: Chinese medicine or pseudoscience. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-232-6.
- ^ Wanjek, Christopher (2003). Bad medicine: misconceptions and misuses revealed, from distance healing to vitamin O. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 182–187. ISBN 978-0-471-43499-3.
- ^ Palmer, David A. (2007). Qigong fever: body, science, and utopia in China. Columbia University Press. pp. 59. ISBN 978-0-231-14066-9.
- ^ Penny, Benjamin (1993). "Qigong, Daoism and Science: some contexts for the qigong boom". In Lee, M.; Syrokomla-Stefanowska, A.D. (eds.). Modernisation of the Chinese Past. Sydney: Wild Peony. pp. 166–179. ISBN 978-0-86758-658-9.
- ^ Karchmer, Eric (2002). "Magic, Science and Qigong in Contemporary China". In Blum, Susan Debra; Jensen, Lionel M (eds.). China off center: mapping the margins of the middle kingdom. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 311–22. ISBN 978-0-8248-2577-5.
- ^ Scheid, Volker (2002). Chinese medicine in contemporary China: plurality and synthesis. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2872-8.
- ^ Yang, Bai Long 杨柏龙 (2006). 气功标准教程 [A Standard Guide on Qigong]. Beijing Sport University Press 北京体育大学出版社. ISBN 9787811005400.
- ^ Lam Kam-Chuen, Master; Lam, Kam Chuen (1991). The way of energy: mastering the Chinese art of internal strength with chi kung exercise. New York: Simon Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-73645-3.
- ^ a b c d e f g Micozzi, Marc S. (2010). Fundamentals of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Elsevier Health Sciences, Kindle Edition.
- ^ a b Yang, Jwing-Ming (1998). The Essence of Taiji Qigong, Second Edition : The Internal Foundation of Taijiquan (Martial Arts-Qigong). YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 978-1-886969-63-6.
- ^ Fick, Franklin (2005). Five Animal Frolics Qi Gong: Crane and Bear Exercises. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-4116-2776-5.
- ^ Clark, Angus (2003). Secrets of Qigong (Secrets of). Evergreen. ISBN 978-3-8228-0967-9.
- ^ Zhang, Hong-Chao (2000). Wild Goose Qigong: Natural Movement for Healthy Living. YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 978-1-886969-78-0.
- ^ Connor, Danny; Tse, Michael (1992). Qigong: Chinese movement meditation for health. York Beach, Me.: S. Weiser. ISBN 978-0-87728-758-2.
- ^ a b Frantzis, Bruce Kumar (2008). The Chi Revolution: Harnessing the Healing Power of Your Life Force. Blue Snake Books. ISBN 978-1-58394-193-5.
- ^ Diepersloot, Jan (2000). The Tao of Yiquan: The Method of Awareness in the Martial Arts. Center For Healing & The Arts. ISBN 978-0-9649976-1-5.
- ^ Dumoulin, Heinrich; Heisig, James W.; McRae, John M.; Knitter, Paul F. (2005). Zen Buddhism: a history. Bloomington, Ind.: World Wisdom. ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1.
- ^ Dong, Paul; Raffill, Thomas (2005-12-10). Empty Force: The Power of Chi for Self-Defense and Energy Healing. Blue Snake Books/Frog, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-58394-134-8.
- ^ Yang, Jwing-Ming; Jwing-Ming, Yang (1997). Eight Simple Qigong Exercises for Health: The Eight Pieces of Brocade. YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 978-1-886969-52-0.
- ^ Lu, Kuan Yü (1969). The secrets of Chinese meditation: self-cultivation by mind control as taught in the Ch'an, Mahāyāna and Taoist schools in China. S. Weiser.
- ^ Xu, Xiangcai (2000). Qigong for Treating Common Ailments. YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 978-1-886969-70-4.
- ^ Ma Ji Ren 馬濟人 (1992). 實用中醫氣功學 [Practical Qigong for Traditional Chinese Medicine]. Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers 上海科学枝术出版社. p. 466. ISBN 978-7532327201.
- ^ Chinese Health Qigong Association. "Health Qigong Management Center introduced five sets of new exercises of Health Qigong". Beijing. Retrieved 2012-03-12.
- ^ Xiang, Zhao (1997). Chinese Soaring Crane Qigong. Qigong Association of America.
- ^ Gu, Mingtong (2011). Wisdom Healing (Zhineng) Qigong. Petaluma, CA: The Chi Center. pp. 61–80. ISBN 978-0-9835043-0-6.
- ^ Ou, Wen wei (1999). Pan Gu Mystical Qigong. Unique Publications. ISBN 978-1-892515-06-3.
- ^ Yu, Wen Mei (1998). Chi Kung: Taoist Secrets of Fitness and Longevity. Unique Publications. ISBN 978-0-86568-165-1.
- ^ Frantzis, Bruce (2010). Dragon and Tiger Medical Qigong: A Miracle Health System for Developing Chi. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-55643-921-6.
- ^ Elliott, Stephen Bennett (2010). Wuji Qi Gong And The Secret Of Immortality. Coherence Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9786399-4-5.
- ^ Lakshmana, Arjuna (2008). Enlightenment Qigong. Centre Namasté de Teràpies Alternatives, Barcelona.
- ^ Chan, Hou Hee (2015). Zhineng (Chilel) Qigong Overview and Foundation Methods. Rocklin CA: Chilel Qigong. ISBN 978-1-893104-12-9.
- ^ Lok, Joe (2014). Phoenix in Graceful Clouds of Blessing. Natural Energy Academy. ISBN 978-988-13353-3-3.
- ^ "What is Yuan Gong Practice? | Ren Xue of the Americas". Ren Xue of the Americas. Retrieved 2018-10-12.
- ^ Xu, Mingtang; Martynova, Tamara (2012). Zhong yuan qigong : the first stage of ascent : relaxation. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1467903943.
- ^ a b c Garripoli, Garri (1999). Qigong: Essence of the Healing Dance. HCI. ISBN 978-1-55874-674-9.
- ^ Patterson, Jeff (2014-03-12). "Use of Sound in Qigong". portlandtaichiacademy.com. Portland Tai Chi Academy. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Liu, Tian Jun; Qiang, Xiao Mei, eds. (2013). Chinese Medical Qigong, Third Edition. Singing Dragon. ISBN 978-1848190962.
- ^ Frantzis, Bruce Kumar (1995). Opening the Energy Gates of Your Body (The Tao of Energy Enhancement). North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-55643-164-7.
- ^ Liu, JeeLoo (2006-05-05). An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy: From Ancient Philosophy to Chinese Buddhism. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2949-7.
- ^ Li, Chenyang (1999). The Tao encounters the West: explorations in comparative philosophy. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4135-0.
- ^ Luk, C.; Chen Chao, Pi; Lu, Kʻuan Yü (1984). Taoist yoga: alchemy and immortality: a translation, with introduction and notes, of The secrets of cultivating nature and eternal life (Hsin ming fa chueh ming chih). York Beach, Me.: Samuel Weiser. ISBN 978-0-87728-067-5.
- ^ Réquéna, Yves (1996). Chi Kung: The Chinese Art of Mastering Energy. Healing Arts Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0892816392.
- ^ Bucknell, Roderick S.; Stuart-Fox, Martin (1993). The twilight language: explorations in Buddhist meditation and symbolism. London: Curzon Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-0234-3.
- ^ Hook, Mary, Van; Hugen, Beryl; Aguilar, Marian Angela (2001). Spirituality within religious traditions in social work practice. Australia: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-534-58419-1.
- ^ Richey, Jeffrey Edward (2008). Teaching Confucianism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-531160-0.
- ^ a b Douglas Wengell; Nathen Gabriel (2008). Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine. The Hunter Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-9776552-4-3.
- ^ Sackett DL, Rosenberg WM, Gray JA, Haynes RB, Richardson WS (January 1996). "Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't". BMJ. 312 (7023): 71–2. doi:10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71. PMC 2349778. PMID 8555924.
- ^
- Tenny S & Varacallo M, "Evidence based medicine (EBM)" @ NIH.gov (Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 2020).
- Guyatt GH, Haynes RB, Jaeschke RZ, Cook DJ, Green L, et al., "XXV, Evidence-based medicine: Principles for applying the Users' Guides to patient care", Users' Guides to the Medical Literature, in JAMA, 2000;284(10):1290-96, especially pp 1292–1293.
- Liberati A & Vineis P, "Introduction to the symposium: What evidence based medicine is and what it is not", J Med Ethics, 2004 Apr;30(2):120–121.
- ^ a b Kotsirilos, Vicki; Luis Vitetta; Avni Sali (2011). A Guide to Evidence-based Integrative and Complementary Medicine. Elsevier Health Sciences APAC. Kindle Edition.
- ^ "Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What's In a Name?". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. November 8, 2018. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
- ^ "Energy Medicine: An Overview". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2011-11-11. Archived from the original on 15 November 2008. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
- ^ Kevin Chen, Elizabeth R. Mackenzie & Master FaXiang Hou, "The benefits of qigong", in Elizabeth R. Mackenzie & Birgit Rakel, eds., Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Older Adults (New York: Springer, 2006).
- ^ a b c d e f g Jahnke, R.; Larkey, L.; Rogers, C.; Etnier, J; Lin, F. (2010). "A comprehensive review of health benefits of qigong and tai chi". American Journal of Health Promotion. 24 (6): e1–e25. doi:10.4278/ajhp.081013-LIT-248. PMC 3085832. PMID 20594090.
- ^ Kuntsler, R.A.; F.S. Daly (2010). Therapeutic Recreation Leadership and Programming. Human Kinetics. ISBN 978-0736068550.
- ^ a b c d Hartley L, Lee MS, Kwong JS, Flowers N, Todkill D, Ernst E, Rees K (2015). "Qigong for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (6): CD010390. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010390.pub2. PMC 6956616. PMID 26068956.
- ^ "Tai Chi and Qi Gong for Health and Well-Being". National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012-01-06. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
- ^ "Web MD: Are tai chi and qi gong safe?". Retrieved 14 March2014.
- ^ a b Lee MS, Pittler MH, Ernst E (November 2009). "Internal qigong for pain conditions: a systematic review". J Pain. 10 (11): 1121–1127.e14. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2009.03.009. PMID 19559656.
- ^ a b Lee MS, Chen KW, Sancier KM, Ernst E (2007). "Qigong for cancer treatment: a systematic review of controlled clinical trials". Acta Oncol. 46 (6): 717–22. doi:10.1080/02841860701261584. PMID 17653892.
- ^ Chan CL, Wang CW, Ho RT, et al. (June 2012). "A systematic review of the effectiveness of qigong exercise in supportive cancer care". Support Care Cancer. 20 (6): 1121–33. doi:10.1007/s00520-011-1378-3. PMC 3342492. PMID 22258414.
- ^ Xiong, X; Wang, P; Li, X; Zhang, Y (2015). "Qigong for Hypertension: A Systematic Review". Medicine. 94 (1): e352. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000000352. PMC 4602820. PMID 25569652.
- ^ "Clinical trials and CAM" (PDF). National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, US National Institutes of Health. August 2010. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
- ^ Li, Lu; Yun, Zhang (2006). The Combat Techniques of Tai Ji, Xing Yi, and Ba Gua : Principles and Practices of Internal Martial Arts. Frog, Ltd./Blue Snake Books. ISBN 978-1-58394-145-4.
- ^ Chia, Mantak (2006). Iron Shirt Chi Kung. Destiny Books. ISBN 978-1-59477-104-0.
- ^ Lee, Ying-Arng. (1973). Iron Palm in 100 days. Wehman Bros. Inc.
- ^ Chao, H.C. (1981). Complete iron palm training for self defense. Unitrade Company.
- ^ YeYoung, Bing. "Introduction to Taichi and Qigong". YeYoung Culture Studies: Sacramento, CA. Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-04-25.
External links[edit]
気功
気功（きこう）は、中国伝統の民間療法、代替治療である。
中国での状況[編集]
中国では中医学の経絡理論などと結びついて、健康法として太極拳と同様公園などで広く行なわれてきた。それまで呼び名が様々で統一されていなかったところを中華人民共和国建国後の1957年に北戴河の国営気功療養院院長だった劉貴珍が『気功療法実践』を著し、これが各国で翻訳されて「気功」という統一された名が世界的に定着した[1][2][3][4][5]。一定の医療効果を上げてきた医療健康面での功績のために、布教活動が禁止されている中国の中でも、気功と言えば宗教的な色彩のものでも容認される傾向が生まれ、1980年代以降、新しい宗教気功が次々と現れた。その結果中国国政府は「中国気功科学研究会」を設立して国家統制を図り[6]、中国共産党に都合のよくない中功（中華養生益智功）や法輪功を禁止し[7][8]、1999年の法輪功事件に至った。
法輪功事件以後、集団で気功をすることの規制が厳しくなり、95年以降中国国内の気功団体は一部を除き皆解体させられ、現在の中国では治癌功法として知られる郭林新気功など一部の公認グループを除いて公園で気功をしているのを見なくなった。中国では現在、健身気功という政府公認の気功を編集している。
近代中国気功の成り立ちとして、中国人・因是子が日本の調和道や岡田式静座法などを評価、研究した事を以って、日本から多大な影響を受けたとする向きもあるが、個人の研究を中国気功全体にあてはめるのは、やや拡大解釈に過ぎると言える。
世界医学気功学会[編集]
世界医学気功学会は気功が発祥した中華人民共和国の政府から世界で唯一認められている医学気功の振興と研究のための学会である。1989年11月16日に設立された。全世界で20数カ国の気功師と気功を研究する医師や科学者、気功の愛好者が参加している。本部は中国北京 北京中医薬大学内にある。
日本・台湾の状況[編集]
気功の分類[編集]
気功は、主に体内に「気」を循環させ「気」の質やコントロールする能力を高める内気功と、身体に必要な「良い気」を外から体内に入れ、身体に合わない「悪い気」を体外に排出させるなど「気」の積極的な交換を行って患部等を癒やす外気功とに大別される。ある種の気功師による外気功は、ときに超能力的なものとして捉えられる場合もある。中国では気功は自分で実践する「内気功」が主体で、外気功（ヒーリングに類似）は補助である。日本に気功が知られ始めた頃、中国の気功師がメディアで外気功を盛んに行っていた影響もあり、日本では「気功＝外気功」という誤解が残っている[12]。
内気功は、身体を動かすことで気を循環させる動功と、身体は動かさずに体内の気を循環させる静功に分類される。中国で実践されている気功の種類の多くは「動功」である[13]。
美容や病気の治癒も含めた健康面に関する気功を軟気功、護身術など相手を倒したりするものを硬気功と分類するのは日本独自のものである。中国において軟気功、硬気功という言葉はなく、軟功と硬功という言葉しかない。軟功は体を柔軟に柔らかくすることを目的とした気功、硬功は体を強く固くする目的の気功であり、それが日本で誤解されて伝わり広義の意味で用いられるようになった。
他に、法術（祝由十三科）と分類される気功法がある。これは、古くは巫術とよばれ、道教や仏教など宗教でも利用されてきた、「気の情報」を読み取り、または変化させることで病気の治癒や問題の解決を行う気功である。
気功が発祥した中国では数千種類の気功法が存在するといわれており、その練功法についても、体操や呼吸法、イメージ・トレーニングや瞑想のようなもの、それらを併せたようなものなど、気功によって多種多様である。
気[編集]
詳細は「気」を参照
気は目には見えないが何らかの働きのあるものととらえることができる。伝統中国医学では気血と言えば、具体的に体を巡っているものと考えられ、西洋医学で血液が血管を巡るのと同様に気は経絡を巡るものと考えられている。鍼灸治療はそうした気血の巡りをよくすることに主眼がある。気功の気は、明らかにこうした中医学の「気」のニュアンスを強く持っている。実際には、気は体内に、ある変化として感覚されるものを指すことが多い。そうした気の感覚のことを気感という。また、気は伝わる性質を持つ。例えば人から人へと瞬時にある状態が伝わる。そうした現象を利用して外気治療などが行われることがあるが、あくびや笑いが伝染するように、そうした気の現象は日常生活の中に常にある。また、公園で樹木と向き合ったり、海辺で波を感じたりしながら、自然界の気と交流することも気功ではよく行われている。気功の修練を積んだものは、気を目視することができるようになるという[要出典]。
気とは[編集]
その定義に基づけば気はこの世の全てのエネルギーの総称であり、またそのエネルギーを集めたり散じさせる力もまた気であると定義できる。
催眠、療養と気功[編集]
気功による治療、外気功は暗示による催眠効果、偽薬効果であるという主張する向きもある。しかし、外気功による幾つかの実験では被験者の視界の外、つまり被験者に気付かれない所から外気功を行なっても気功の効果があったという事例もある[要出典]。イメージ・トレーニング、自己催眠の自律訓練法やトランスパーソナル心理学と気功は共にある種の感応現象を利用して無意識の変化を促すという部分で非常に近い面がある。
タッチセラピー[編集]
ニューヨーク大学看護学教授のデローリス・クリーガーが中国から伝わる「気功」を基本にタッチセラピーを開発し、手術の補助手段として用いた。タッチセラピーの創始者であるクリーガーは、セラピューティック・タッチの効用を実証したことに対して1998年度のイグノーベル科学教育賞を受賞[14]、受賞式典は欠席 [15] [16]。
関連項目[編集]
- オーリングテスト
- 健康法
- 国際生命情報科学会
- 仙人
- 錬丹術
- 太極拳
- 代替医療
- 中医学
- 中国武術
- フランツ・アントン・メスメル
- ラジオニクス
- 量子脳力学
- 老荘思想
- 手かざし ハンドパワーで病気を治すなどと謳いセミナーを行なってきた「アースハート」社（代表・野中邦子）に対して、損害賠償を求める訴訟が起こされ[17]、2014年3月28日に、同社に賠償を命じる判決が下った[18]。
- エミリー・ローサ 盲検法を用いてタッチセラピーの効果を分析、論文[19]にしてJournal of the American Medical Associationに投稿、掲載。（1998年4月）
- 座禅
- 写経
出典・脚注[編集]
- ^ 気を知らなければ―気功入門・立禅のすすめ 東京図書出版会 (2002/06)
- ^ Voigt, John (Autumn 2013). "The Man Who Invented "Qigong"" . Qi: The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health & Fitness. 23 (3): 28–33.
- ^ Otehode, Utiraruto (2009). "The Creation and Reemergence of Qigong in China". In Ashiwa, Yoshiko; Wank, David L. (eds.). Making religion, making the state: the politics of religion in modern China. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. pp. 241–265. ISBN 978-0-8047-5842-0.
- ^ Despeux, C. (1997). Le qigong, une expression de la modernité Chinoise. In J. Gernet & M. Kalinowski (eds.), En suivant la Voie Royale: Mélanges en homage à Léon Vandermeersch. École Française d'Extrême-Orient. pp. 267–281.
- ^ Chen, Nancy N. (2003). Breathing Spaces: Qigong, Psychiatry, and Healing in China. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12804-9.
- ^ Palmer, David A. (2007). Qigong fever: body, science, and utopia in China. Columbia University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-231-14066-9.
- ^ Ownby, David (2008). Falun Gong and the future of China. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532905-6. p.161-174
- ^ Penny, Benjamin (1993). "Qigong, Daoism and Science: some contexts for the qigong boom". In Lee, M.; Syrokomla-Stefanowska, A.D. (eds.). Modernisation of the Chinese Past. Sydney: Wild Peony. pp. 166–179. ISBN 978-0-86758-658-9.
- ^ カール・セーガン『カール・セーガン 科学と悪霊を語る』青木薫訳、新潮社、1997年9月20日。ISBN 4-10-519203-5。
- ^ カール・セーガン『人はなぜエセ科学に騙されるのか』上巻、青木薫訳、新潮社、2000年11月。ISBN 4-10-229403-1。 カール・セーガン『人はなぜエセ科学に騙されるのか』下巻、青木薫訳、新潮社、2000年11月。ISBN 4-10-229404-X。
- ^ カール・セーガン『悪霊にさいなまれる世界 「知の闇を照らす灯」としての科学』上巻、青木薫訳、新潮社〈ハヤカワ文庫NF356〉、2009年7月。ISBN 978-4-15-050356-7。 カール・セーガン『悪霊にさいなまれる世界 「知の闇を照らす灯」としての科学』下巻、青木薫訳、新潮社〈ハヤカワ文庫NF357〉、2009年7月。ISBN 978-4-15-050357-4。
- ^ 中国ネット書店最大手「中国図書網（www.bookschina.com）」で気功（中国の簡体字で气功）、あるいは台湾の「三民網路書店（www.sanmin.com.tw）」（台湾の繁体字で氣功）で検索しても、外気功を主とした書籍が検索結果に表示されることはない。2016年7月21日閲覧。
- ^ 站樁功（たんとうこう）のような中間的なものも存在する。
- ^ ロバート・L・パーク『わたしたちはなぜ科学にだまされるのか――インチキ!ブードゥー・サイエンス』栗木さつき・訳、主婦の友社、2001年4月20日。ISBN 4-07-228921-3。
- ^ ロバート・L・パーク『わたしたちはなぜ「科学」にだまされるのか』栗木さつき・訳、主婦の友社、2007年10月。ISBN 978-4-07-258980-9。
- ^ マーク・エイブラハムズ『イグ・ノーベル賞 大真面目で奇妙キテレツな研究に拍手!』福嶋俊造・訳、阪急コミュニケーションズ、2004年3月。ISBN 4-484-04109-X。
- ^ 「このジュース甘くな～れ」ハンドパワーで被害多発のアースハート、被害者による集団訴訟第１陣が結審 カルト新聞、2013年12月13日
- ^ ハンドパワーに「裏付けなし」 福岡の会社に賠償命じる朝日新聞デジタル 3月28日
- ^ A Close Look at Therapeutic TouchLinda Rosa, BSN, RN; Emily Rosa; Larry Sarner; Stephen Barrett, MD
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