The current trend of Agriculture is going to reach its limits. Being a fossil fuel based economy, that has been the fuel for yield and crops in the last 100 years. However there are going to be limits on Energy, and Water. To have a continued future of agriculture based on more intensifying production – like the mega farms, is not going to cut it.
For more than four decades, Fred has been a champion of agricultural resilience, an articulate advocate for soil health and a pioneer of organic farming. His work has helped transform what was once obscure and marginal work—resilient, sustainable agriculture focused on the health and restoration of the soil—into an international movement. (Stone Barnes Centre)
His solution rests on a simple principle – Diversification.
We are preparing to expect a few big shifts. First, that energy will shift from a reliance on fossil fuels. What can we do as an alternative? We can diversify agriculture so that it creates mixes and combines different ecosystem to do the work.
“We have to diversify the food system if we’re going to diversify agriculture.”
How can we do this? By incorporating wilderness.
“You can incorporate wildness into the farm and improve their productivity” – Fred Kirschenmann
“In industrial agriculture what we have done is turned a solar powered ruminant into a fossel fuel machine”-Michael Pollan
But we can do otherwise, to the current situaton.
Animals form a beautiful circular economy in this system.Free solar grows grass, and plants which feeds ruminants like cows Chickens forage for insects, and larvae in cow manure and help to spread them Chicken manure adds fertility Grasses are managed Fertility builds soil, and stores more carbon in the soil More soil carbon holds more water You get more biodiversity, increased ecosystems,
You can find out more about what he says in this article:
Life is but an endless cycle of suffering and joy. We have to accept it, when we were born into this world we were set up for this cycle.
Suffering is simply a mental state, we create the concept of suffering in our minds.
We too have the authority to reframe that same concept of suffering into joy.
We cannot predict the future, and the more we think of about it, and the more we try to cling on to our posessions, the more we sorrow we cause for ourselves.
What we CAN do is focus on ourselves in the present by being a better person. We would have known that we have done our best, and that’s the best that we can do.
So lets focus on this and when we have a strong and trained mind and body, it may be possible that one day we could break out of this cycle when we reach enlightenment.
Our rooms, also called kutis
Ejoying a cuppa w vissen and evo, this is the coffee shop where we have our daily catchups with Ahjan Clyde
The pond where the BCDC hall overlooks
The BCDC meditation hall
One of my favourite places to meditate in the compound , the bamboo forest
Every Tuesday’s precession with the community at the Wat Sri Boonrung Temple
Every Tuesday’s precession with the community at the Wat Sri Boonrung Temple
Joel F. Salatin (born February 24, 1957) is an American farmer, lecturer, and author whose books include Folks, This Ain’t Normal; You Can Farm; and Salad Bar Beef. – Wikipedia.
I chanced upon Joel F Salatin during my readings on Regenerative Agriculture, and I was happy to hear about his thoughts on what shifts are required to shift the food system to a regenerative one. Below are some exerpts by Joel, from the video interview at Google.
Googler: It is still not economically viable for many people to Farm the way we want to and live that lifestyle of pureness. How does one deal with this struggle?
‘We have taken our western grecko Roman-linearised-individualised-compartmentalised- way of thinking to a philisolphical apartheid, and I think that those of us that want to come back together in a eastern wholistic, come together, and live in our teepees, have our medicine man should be able to opt out of the greater cultural that normalcy may not vanish from this side of our world.
‘It is a struggle, but, keep to it. The more people do it the more it gets easier, but it takes someone to start. Keep going’.
Googler: How do you break a cycle where capital flows to the people who own the system etc- people in the Govt?
Joel: ‘I believe that the greatest innovation & opportunity is when we allow people to self-actualize their own individual expression…rather than trying to regulate out what we don’t like, if we allow the people who want to eat differently and buy differently, and create a different landscape for their grandchildren, it would completely topple the Big Ag companies. The reason they are allowed to continue their position at the top is because they are protected from competition at the bottom.
Googler: Many entrepreneurial start ups morph into wall-street-ified companies that lose their disctinctives. And in the process, the business chews up its workers and founders in an attempt to dominate something. Does middle ground exist?..What values are more important than growth? Especially since, cancer is growth.
Joel: We didn’t want to get gobbled up, be bought over and turned into something else. What is it that defines us? We created a 10 liner-mantra. i.e. We would never have a ‘sales target’, you begin looking at people as commodities. All growth has to come from second-hand, word of mouth. If sales drop off- we need to look internally. Something we may not be doing well etc. We will never patent or copyright, and have to stay one step ahead of the copiers.
“When you spend too much time in an urban environment, you start to magnify your problems and your sense of self-importance. The scale of the architecture is human, and where-ever you go things cater to your needs. We have no frustration tolerance because everything revolves around us.
But in the countryside, nature puts you in your place. You walk in nature and you are an ant amongst the towering gum trees and the craggy mountains. You come back after six months of being away on a farm, and in the busy., paths you have painstakingly carved and slashed have vanished. Nature does not care if you hit the unsubscribed button and fly off to Boca Raton.
But yet your spirit soars. There is a certain bliss in being reminded of your smallness, your mortality. When you know you can’t control everything, you start to let go of the reins that never led to anything much anyway, and your incessant worrying mind starts to relax and stops drowning out your emotions and the senses of your body.
When you walk, there you are just walking.
When you ear, there you are, just eating.” Crystal Lim-Lange
Seth is an entrepreneur, best-selling author, and speaker. In addition to launching one of the most popular blogs in the world, he has written 18 best-selling books, including The Dip,Linchpin, Purple Cow, Tribes, and What To Do When It’s Your Turn (And It’s Always Your Turn).
My good mate Bryan who created https://bryanvictor.com/ introduced Seth’s podcast to me. What really stood about about Seth is his level headed-ness and almost no BS answer that achieving your goals are non-complicated, there are no shortcuts, and we live in an ecosystem where people can help us get to where we want to be. We just need to put in the work, intelligently. Here are some pointers from his interview. Happy Sunday!Being a LinchpinThe problem is that people are seduced into thinking that they should fit in more in the system. Through the school system & the industrial system, people are taught to fit in. On the flip side social media throws in ‘quick wins’ technique People are starting to feel broken because the promises are not kept on both sides If someone can tell you how to do your job, we can find someone cheaper, better and faster to replace you. You have a choice. Either be the replaceable cog in the pyramid who gets paid as little as possible, or be the founder owner, or, be the linchpin, the people who figures out what to do next. There is a real good reason to be afraid, it is for survival. You will need some of that, when you get into competition. But it is less relevant today. To do the things you want to do – like public speaking, etc you need to hack it. The work is the point, the process is the point.
2. How to get into that ‘space’ Being proactive. Putting yourself there into the space which may be uncomfortable, but extremely positive and opens up opportunities for yourself. Working in a space of some ‘fear’ keeps us on our toes.
3. Choosing happinessPeople are happy when they have agency in their life. When they can take control. How can I do things in the world to leave a better trail. The world does not like being hustled, how do I do things so I get my fair share. Its how you choose to react. You have a choice to react, you can either choose to be curious, or by angry at any given moment. The world responds really well to people who people who take responsibility, and give away credit. If you can’t find a fit in an organisation that accepts that, there is another one that wants you.
4. How do you define success?Turning down a billion dollars in stock options because he knew how to do that, but what would change for the better if he did. Don’t do it for money, do it because its meaningful This might not work, there might be no shortcuts, but you might be able to see a different way through. How can you live a life where you don’t need a fineprint, or a lawyer. As you build so much trust with people. The goal is to build that trust – putting things into the world with the promise that I made
5. How do you remove self-talk? When your limiting mindset loop gets started when you get certain triggers, how do you stop the reinforcing loop? Congitive Behaviour Therapy helps to put things in a distance and reflect on them. The minute you start saying – here we go again, we can reprogramme the cycle. Be present. Not to run away from the things that scare us, but to dance with them instead.
6. How do you put ‘getting better’ into a processIf you have enough ‘bad’ content, it is a great start because the environment will help you make it better. There is very little relevance about ‘Talent’, as we are in a culture where someone else can make things better for you. You can put yourself into a culture that helps you make things better. People get better in compounding ways, because they edit, they make improvements in their writing etc. Get into an iterative cycle, do more, do projects, get feedback, improve. You can simulate a bootstrap with people around you. i.e. a mastermind group. If you think you have a shortcut, you are WRONG. Seth had written 3000 direct emails before he got the hang of it. This economy is a connection economy, its not about who trusts you and how you can put things together, with what resources you can access. That is ignored by too many people. There may be a few people who will prod, provoke and encourage.
7. Should you follow your passion?Reframing following your passion to- choose to LOVE the thing we DO We don’t find the passion, we CREATE it Programme into yourself, this mindset Hack the fear in your head – fear of death, fear of being alone. Accept the fact that it’s all going to go away.
3weeks ago our group was told we could take our individual physical proficiency test (IPPT) when we headed back to camp for a briefing. I and most of the officers gladly chose to sign up for it, for some obvious reasons haha. I decided that despite a short timeline I would try out to aim to get a Gold. Something I had not have since my active days 10 years ago.
Long story short, we found out days before that it was canned. I definitely was disappointed because I didn’t want all that training to go to naught. Quickly I chose to book a test at one of the more challenging locations, where I had not managed to get a gold in the last 5 attempts.
So I had created a training programme with little or no experience in following one, and tried to get the shortest route to meet my targets to get gold, which I now felt was more achievable.
Race day.
First I did not have breakfast.
Push ups were a disappointment. On my first attempt I only had 30 counted pushups . My average was 50-55 when I did it regularly.
Sit-ups, I did 33. My average maxed out at 40.
2.4 run
From my training, the fastest I have reached was 9:08.
I clocked a 10:14.
In totally I had of 82 points, just missing gold by 3 points.
From my training I thought that had prepared myself mentally. Here’s why I think I did not get my Gold.
1. Lack of sticking through the training programme religiously.
– as much as I can give excuses on how busy I was and how many things got in the way. The fact remains that I was only about 50% close to the schedule. The last few days before the IPPT I let it slip.
2. Lack of preparation for race day.
A few things I could have done better. Slept a little earlier. Had breakfast earlier. Then I wouldn’t have run out of energy. I could have reached camp earlier. The wait was dreadful and it was energy sapping too.
3. Lack of a winners mentality
I did not PUSH hard enough. No other way to put it or excuse to give. Mentally I had relaxed.
So what am I going to do to redeem myself?
1. Try again
I plan to book the next test next week.
2. Train hard
Need to nail the key activities like push ups and sit-ups. Then the run requirements will be less intensive
3. Be prepared for race day
Sleep earlier, wake up earlier, have breakfast early.
4. Push an additional 10% on race day
If I work for it, I will get my gold, I believe I will. Hoo yah.
Anxiety is caused by thinking about a future that has not happened. Will we get hired in our future job? How will we do in our exams? Chances are we always tend to play the negative outcomes in our mind. Having a tense moment, worrying about the multiple things happening at once ie moving abroad, and not being able to get a job, jumping into an unfamiliar new industry, not doing anything with the projects I have had wanted to do, brought a surge of anxiety over me.
I looked at the book rack I had and thought, well well, aren’t there these 15 books that I’ve been wanting to read but never got down to touching them ever. It seems many of the projects which I have been keen to work on or explore have ended up this way. Becoming white elephants.
I don’t want to continue producing white elements. I want to start producing real world results. In order to start, I need to empty my list and start building it up.
At that very moment, I decided to remove all my books at keep them in my cabinet. This is what I felt- taking on many things on my plate cosnstantly gets me distracted. In the ends all the bits and pieces tend not to have a solid end result/deliverable. What if I chose to focus on completing one activity at a time. To have depth instead of breadth? Would this habit change the way I operate?
At that very moment when I played the audio book on zen za meditation, the words below was spoken.
It basically said, chris. Stop trying to understand and learn everything about anything. Start by understanding yourself.
However in order to do that, you need to do something quite counterintuitive. You need to remove all thoughts about the future. Your dreams, goals, etc. You need to completely empty your mind.
And when you do, practise sitting, (ie medication) and slowly, you may allow whatever necessary thoughts into your mind.
This was a moment that spoke to me. The universe had given me my answer.
This is what I needed to do next. To empty my mind, my thoughts and my expectations.
On a practical sense, of course there are things that were still needed to be done and projects needed to be completed. Ie job research etc. What I would need to do is list them out and work on them as projects. Not putting any expectation about the future of these projects but focusing on doing each of them well. Only then will I not dwell too much about the future, but be able to focus on good work in the present moment.
In Jan 19 – I had the following items listed on my wallCreate a Personal Brand Write a book by 31 Nov 2019 Create a Framework Start Focusing on Adult-Learning
In April 19, (4 Months ago) I had a coaching session with Danny to gain mental clarity. Here was what I had put down
What I want to achieve ****Having mental clarity. Which is to know what my goals are. Ideal life is one of being involved in nature. Surfing, water etc. Farm to table – being able to eat naturally good food
Next Steps
– The PlanResearch – Do an indepth study of the topic (April-June) Create a proof of concept (July – Nov) – This includes writing a book and publishing it in Dec. Monitor plan – Be accountable to someone. Check in on that plan weekly.
That did not go as planned. And here’s the new plan.
New planFocus on Creating a Sustainability consultant’s package by End of August
– Utilizing current skillsets and experience to create a viable product – Engagement & Projects
– Writing a book about being a Farmer (1 month – August). Complete End August.
2. Focus on Job Search for 2020.
– Create CV, Portfolio
– Job Search
– Gain skillset required
I’m not sure if i’m getting better clarity or getting more confused. Plan after plan, idea after idea, my focus keeps changing. With the constantly shifting goalpost, I think its time to calm myself down and focus on the long term plan.
When I shared with Bryan what a ‘Good Job’ Meant for me, he asked me to list down what good meant to me. It was a great exercise because it helped me to define what I am truly looking for.
Constraints – Income: $42000 ~ $66000/year – location: Singapore (by 1 Feb 2020), then Vancouver on (Dec 2020?).
Definition of a Good Job 1. Company culture of respect, trust, growth mindset like a lab. (What question would you ask the people working there to test for this?) 2. Being able to create new ideas/innovations to exercise my design thinking/Creative/problem solving muscles, being able to Work on new projects every 6 – 12 months. 3. Agriculture / Food/ Environment/ psychology/ related field 4. Being able to work independently- ie not in a regimented style, being micromanaged, Given time and trust to execute plans. 5. No office cubicle. Outdoor element preferred. 6. Flexible working hours preferred.
So just putting it out there. Im gonna need to stick to my plan…!! Gahhh!
We live in a culture that dreads the inevitability of growing older, treats it like a disease to be cured with potions, tries to silence it with botox. And through all of this, we’ve forgotten that to grow old at all is a tremendous privilege - to become a person worthy of old age is the triumph of life.
Our goal shouldn’t be to cling to youth as we get older, but to keep our joy alive by tending our inner child throughout our days while also nurturing our connection to the changing world. In doing so, we balance wisdom with wonder, confidence with curiosity and depth with delight.
A long life is a gift. But will we really be grateful for it?
Featuring Vicki Robin (https://vickirobin.com) and friends Ross and Deborah Koff-Chapin.
Filmed in Whidbey Island, Washington State, USA.
The full quote shared by Vicki during this film is by Florida Scott Maxwell - "You need only claim the events of your life to make yourself yours. When you truly possess all you have been and done, which may take some time, you are fierce with reality. When at last age has assembled you together, will it not be easy to let it all go, lived, balanced, over?"
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Who is Reflections of Life? We are Justine and Michael (previously known as Green Renaissance). We use our passion for filmmaking and our love of storytelling, to remind our audience of one simple truth – that we are all human. The more that we understand and believe in this interconnectedness, the more we will treat ourselves, one another, and planet earth with a greater sense of compassion.
우파니샤드 사상가 ’웃다라카 아르니‘Uddālaka Āruṇi BC 8C의 생각은 신화적 사고와 합리적 사고가 뒤섞여 있었지만 종교철학으로 발전해 가는 특징이 나타나 있음. (웃다라카아르니는 근원적 일자를 인정)
1 근원적 일자에서 다양한 사물이 산출(넘쳐 흐르듯이 자동적으로 뿜어져 나오는 것으로 ) 2근원적 일자에 의해 다양한 사물이 만들어 진다.(창조자가 만드는 것으로 외부의 힘이 작용.. ) 3근원적 일자가 변용해 다양한 사물인 実在로 나타나는 것(일자의 변용) 4근원적 일자가 변용해 다양한 사물 非実在인데 환영으로 나타나는 것
-2장에서는 근원적 일자라는 초월적 존재를 인정하지 않는 사상을 다뤘었다. 불교(붓다), 자이나교(마하비라)
무엇이 브라만인가 질문에 여기에서는 시간, 자성, 정해짐, 우연, 제 원소 푸르샤 아트만이라는 답이 제시된다. 이른 시기부터 근본원인에 대한 물음이 있었음.  자이나교 경전…세상을 존재하게 하는 근본 원리에 대한 생각은
-뿌르샤설(原人説) 뿌르샤는 과거 미래에 걸친 모든 것이며 신들, 인간도 지배하는 모든 존재물의 근본 원인.
(여기서 뿌르샤는 우파니샤드의 브라만이나 아트만과 같은 위치)-
푸르샤와 현상계의 비교는 몸에 대한 궤양과 몸이 안 좋은 관계, 대지에 있어 개미지옥이나 나무나 연꽃의 관계, 물에 대한 파도나 포말의 관계 뿌르샤=브라만=아트만(베단타의 생각, 후에 아트만 설 ,아트만 불이일원설로 불림)
-아트만설 쟈이나교 “고맛타사라”-아트만은 위대한 자기이고 중심이고 모든 부분의 숨겨진 것이고 이성을 가지며 속성을 가지지 않는 최고의 근원적 일자로써 아트만을 주장하는 설..일원론 그 일자만을 실재로서 인정한다. 아트만설에서 발전한 근원적일자가 다시 인격적인 신의 모습으로 나타나는 것이 이슈바라이다. 그것이 슈베다슈바라 우파니샤드에 나타난다. (힌두교의 지배적 생각…시바교나, 비슈누교)
-이슈바라설 아트만의 행 불행은 이슈바라가 모든 것을 주관한다, 신이 과보를 가져오는 업을 만든다,,이슈바라 신은 그 자신의 죄에 더럽혀질 것이다라고 “마하바라타”여 주인공이 폭력적 운명의 힘을 원망. 업의 관념은 신화적 색채가 강한 근원적 일자의 관념을 대신해서 전혀 다른 종류의 원리로써 인도 사람에게 강박관념처럼 된다
-결정론-운명설 시간 자성 운명 우연..운명이나 숙명 이라는 관념과 연결된다. 아트만의 활동과 함께 인간의 자유의지도 또한 부정되어 인과 관계 조차 그 존재가 부정되는 경우가 있다. 이번 세계에서 한 노력의 결과는 다음 세계에도 이어지고 행위의 결과가 제로가 되지 않는다. 영원히 해탈 할 수 없다 어떻게 하면 좋은가? 자이나교가 생각한 것은 아무것도 행위를 하지 않으면 된다는 것. 이 결론은 힌두교 경전인 바가바드기타에서도 마찬가지인데 자이나교의 경우는 막대기처럼 선채로 있는 것, 직립부동, 이것이 이상인데 자이나교는 이 부동의 실천이 과거 행위의 결과를 소멸 시킴과 함께 행위의 결과를 새롭게 만들어 내는 것은 아니다라고…. 이에 대해 고사라.. 과거 행위를 소멸시킬 수 없다고 생각 누구나가 840 만대겁의 기간 윤회를 계속 한다 그리고 운명으로써 괴로움을 멸 하고 해탈 한다고 생각.
-결정론-때(카라)설 ”마하바라타“-시간은 살아있는 모든 것을 성숙시킨다 시간은 태어나는 모든 것들을 다시 죽음으로 몰아 놓는다 시간은 사람들이 잠자고 있는 동안에도 눈을 뜨고 있으며 감시하고 있다. 실로 시간은 초월 하기 어려운 것이다.- 시간을 의인화, 인격신화..시간을 표현 “아타르바 베다“BC1000이래의 전통적 관념.
-결정론-자성론(스바바바) 2C 쿠샤나 왕조 궁정 불교시인 ”아슈바고샤“ 가시 나무의 가시의 날카로움은 누가 만듭니까. 짐승이나 새들의 다양한 성질은 도대체 누가 만듭니까. 모든 것들은 스스로의 성질로 그렇게 되는 것입니다. 자유로운 의지에의한 행위는 없습니다. 노력 따위는 기능할 여지가 없습니다. 왕의 사주로 왕자붓다에게 대신이 설득하려 한 말…자성이란 그 자신의 본래 성질…모든게 정해져 있으니 해탈하려고 노력해도 쓸데 없다. 이미 이 시대에 근원적 일자를 둘러싼 문제가 활발하게 논의되었다는 걸 알 수 있다
-우연설-그리고 무인설 자성설은 그것의 원인은 없다라는 것과 연결 되어 세상에서 일어나는 일은 정해진게 없다는 것이다. 무인설를 외치면 궁극적으로 어떻게 되는가? 모든 원인을 인정하지 않는 것이기 때문에 근본원인으로서 신의 존재도 인정하지 않는 것이 될 것이다. 이것은 인도 사상사의 흐름 속에서 오랫동안 영향을 미치는 문제이다.
=== 쉽지않다. 일어 표현도 이해가 어려운 것이 있다. 그렇지만 신서로서 정리 요약은 잘 해 놓았다고 볼 수 밖에 없다. 내용이 생소해서일 수 있지만 완전 생소하다고 보기도 어려운게 이즈츠도시히코의 수피즘앤타오이즘의 독서가 도움이 되고 있다.
This article is about one of the six Hindu philosophy schools. For the umbrella term "yoga" which includes religion, philosophy, and practices, see Yoga. For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation).
Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy,[1][2] though it is only at the end of the first millennium CE that Yoga is mentioned as a separate school of thought in Indian texts, distinct from Samkhya.[3][4][web 1] Ancient, medieval and most modern literature often refers to Yoga-philosophy simply as Yoga.[1][5] A systematic collection of ideas of Yoga is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,[6][7] a key text of Yoga[web 1] which has influenced all other schools of Indian philosophy.[8][9]
The metaphysics of Yoga is Samkhya's dualism,[web 1] in which the universe is conceptualized as composed of two realities: Puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and Prakṛti (nature). Jiva (a living being) is considered as a state in which puruṣa is bonded to Prakṛti in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[10] During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one or more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end of this bondage is called liberation, or mokṣa, by both the Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism,[11] and can be attained by insight and self-restraint.[12][web 1]
The ethical theory of Yoga-philosophy is based on Yamas and Niyama, as well as elements of the Guṇa theory of Samkhya.[web 1] The epistemology of Yoga-philosophy, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six Pramanas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge.[13] These include Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference) and Sabda (Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[14][15] Yoga-philosophy differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara).[16][17][18]
The origins of yoga-practice are unclear, but seems to have developed in ascetic milieus in the first millennium BCE. Some of its earliest discussions and of proto-Samkhya ideas are found in 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the Maitri Upanishad.[19]
The root of the word "Yoga" is found in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rig Veda, a dedication to rising Sun-god in the morning (Savitri), interpreted as "yoke" or "yogically control".[20]
युञ्जते मन उत युञ्जते धियो विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः (…)[21]
Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically [युञ्जते, [yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence... (…)[20]
— Rigveda 5.81.1
The Rig Veda, however, does not describe Yoga philosophy with the same meaning or context as in medieval or modern times. Early references to practices that later became part of Yoga-philosophy, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the oldest Upanishad. Gavin Flood translates it as, "...having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), within oneself." The practice of pranayama (consciously regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), and the practice of pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE).[22][23]
The Katha Upanishad, dated to be from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, in verses 2.6.6 through 2.6.13 recommends a path to Self-knowledge akin to Samkhya, and calls this path Yoga.[24]
यदा पञ्चावतिष्ठन्ते ज्ञानानि मनसा सह । बुद्धिश्च न विचेष्टते तामाहुः परमां गतिम् ॥ १० ॥ तां योगमिति मन्यन्ते स्थिरामिन्द्रियधारणाम् । अप्रमत्तस्तदा भवति योगो हि प्रभवाप्ययौ ॥ ११ ॥[25]
Only when Manas (mind) with thoughts and the five senses stand still, and when Buddhi (intellect, power to reason) does not waver, that they call the highest path. That is what one calls Yoga, the stillness of the senses, concentration of the mind, It is not thoughtless heedless sluggishness, Yoga is creation and dissolution.
Yoga as a separate school of thought is mentioned in Indian texts from the end of the 1st millennium CE.[3] The systematic collection of ideas of the Yoga school of Hinduism is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. After its circulation in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many Indian scholars reviewed it, then published their Bhāṣya (notes and commentary) on it, which together form a canon of texts called the Pātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga of Patañjali").[6][7] Yoga as a separate school of philosophy has been included as one of the six orthodox schools in medieval era Indian texts;[4] the other schools are Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[28] According to Bryant,
Sāṁkhya and Yoga should not be considered different schools until a very late date: the first reference to Yoga itself as a distinct school seems to be in the writings of Śaṅkara in the 9th century C.E.[web 1]
There are numerous parallels in the concepts in the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga and the Abhidharma schools of thought, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson.[19] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, the Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge.[19] From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhism, which believes that there is no fixed self, Yoga is physicalist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul.[19] The third concept that the Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection.[19]
Yoga-philosophy is Samkhya. In both, the foundational concepts include two realities: Purusha and Prakriti.[28] The Purusha is defined as that reality which is pure consciousness and is devoid of thoughts or qualities. The Prakriti is the empirical, phenomenal reality which includes matter and also mind, sensory organs and the sense of identity (self, soul).[28] A living being is held in both schools to be the union of matter and mind. The Yoga school differs from the Samkhya school in its views on the ontology of Purusha, on axiology and on soteriology.[29][30]
The metaphysics of Yoga-Samkhya is a form of dualism. It considers consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities.[31]
The Samkhya-Yoga system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two "irreducible, innate and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti. While the Prakriti is a single entity, the Samkhya-Yoga schools admit a plurality of the Puruṣas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world of objects. The Puruṣa is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya-Yoga believes that the Puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. This metaphysics is a pluralistic spiritualism, a form of realism built on the foundation of dualism.[32]
Yoga-philosophy adopts the theory of Guṇa from Samkhya.[web 1] Guṇas theory states that three gunas (innate tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three are sattva guna (goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas guna (passion, active, confused), and tamas guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic).[33][34] These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of these three gunas.[web 1] When sattva guna predominates an individual, the qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmonious, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifests. The guṇas theory underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga school of Hinduism.[web 1]
The early scholars of Yoga philosophy, posit that the Puruṣa (consciousness) by its nature is sattva (constructive), while Prakriti (matter) by its nature is tamas (chaotic).[web 1] They further posit that individuals at birth have buddhi (intelligence, sattvic). As life progresses and churns this buddhi, it creates asmita or ahamkara (ego, rajasic). When ego in turn is churned by life, manas (temper, mood, tamasic) is produced. Together, buddhi, ahamkara and manas interact and constitute citta (mind) in Yoga school of Hinduism.[web 1] Unrestrained modification of citta causes suffering. A way of life that empowers one to become ever more aware of one's consciousness and spirituality innate in buddhi, is the path to one's highest potential and a more serene, content, liberated life. Patanjali's Yoga sutra begins, in verse 2 of Book 1, by defining Yoga as "restraining the Citta from Vrittis."[35]
Yoga school of Hinduism holds that ignorance is the cause of suffering and saṁsāra.[web 1] Liberation, like many other schools, is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminative discernment, knowledge and self-awareness. The Yoga Sūtras is Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this.[web 1]Samādhi is the state where ecstatic awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the process of becoming aware of Purusa and true Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is moksha, the soteriological goal in Hinduism.[web 1]
Book 3 of Patanjali's Yogasutra is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by stating that all limbs of yoga are necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and liberation. He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as sanyama, in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of citta and self-knowledge.[36][37] In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfect sant (tranquility) and udita (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This leads to one's ability to discern the difference between sabda (word), artha (meaning) and pratyaya (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.[38][39] Once a yogi reaches this state of sanyama, it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and kaivalya, the soteriological goal of the yogi.[38]
The benefits of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism is then summarized in verses III.46 to III.55 of Yogasutras, stating that the first five limbs leads to bodily perfections such as beauty, loveliness, strength and toughness; while the last three limbs through sanyama leads to mind and psychological perfections of perceptiveness, one's nature, mastery over egoism, discriminative knowledge of purity, self and soul.[40][41] This knowledge once reached is irreversible, states Yogasutra's Book IV.
Ethical rules in the texts of Yoga school of Hindu philosophy include both a theory of values through the observances of positive values and avoidance of negative, as well as an aesthetic theory on bliss from intrinsic and extrinsic perspectives.[42][43] The values to be observed are called Niyamas, while those to be avoided are referred in the Yamas in Yoga philosophy.
Over sixty different ancient and medieval era texts of Yoga philosophy discuss Yamas and Niyamas.[44][45] The specific theory and list of values varies between the texts, however, Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Svādhyāya, Kșhamā, and Dayā are among the predominantly discussed ethical concepts by majority of these texts.[44]
The five yamas listed by Patañjali in Yogasūtra 2.30 are:[46]
Ahiṃsā (अहिंसा): Nonviolence, non-harming other living beings[47]
Patanjali, in Book 2, explains how and why each of the above self restraints help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.35, Patanjali states that the virtue of nonviolence and non-injury to others (Ahimsa) leads to the abandonment of enmity, a state that leads the yogi to the perfection of inner and outer amity with everyone, everything.[49][50] Other texts of the Yoga school of Hinduism include Kṣamā (क्षमा, forgiveness),[51]Dhṛti (धृति, fortitude, non-giving up in adversity), Dayā (दया, compassion),[51]Ārjava (आर्जव, non-hypocrisy)[52] and Mitāhāra (मितहार, measured diet).[53]
The Niyamas part of theory of values in the Yoga school include virtuous habits, behaviors and observances.[54][55] The Yogasutra lists the niyamas as:[56]
Śauca: purity, clearness of mind, speech and body[57]
Santoṣa: contentment, acceptance of others, acceptance of one's circumstances as they are in order to get past or change them, optimism for self[58]
Svādhyāya: study of Vedas (see Sabda in epistemology section), study of self, self-reflection, introspection of self's thoughts, speeches and actions[60][61]
As with Yamas, Patanjali explains how and why each of the above Niyamas help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.42, Patanjali states that the virtue of contentment and acceptance of others as they are (Santoṣa) leads to the state where inner sources of joy matter most, and the craving for external sources of pleasant ceases.[63] Other texts of the Yoga school expanded the list of values under Niyamas, to include behaviors such as Āstika (आस्तिक, belief in personal God, faith in Self, conviction that there is knowledge in Vedas/Upanishads), Dāna (दान , charity, sharing with others),[64]Hrī (ह्री, remorse and acceptance of one's past/mistakes/ignorance, modesty)[65]Mati (मति, think and reflect, reconcile conflicting ideas)[66] and Vrata (व्रत, resolutions and vows, fast, pious observances).[67][68][69]
The Yoga school considers perception, inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge.[14][15]
Yoga school, like Samkhya school, considers Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense perception), Anumāna (inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or Pramana.[14] Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such as Advaita Vedanta, Yoga did not adopt the following three Pramanas: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).[15]
Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्षाय) means perception. It is of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of the five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of the inner sense, the mind.[70][71] The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:[72]Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one's sensory organ/s with the object, whatever is being studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), Avyabhicara (without wandering; correct perception is without change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).[72] Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as pramana and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).[73] Further, some schools of Hinduism considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from Pratyakṣa-pranama, so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment).[74]
Anumāṇa (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.[75] Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana.[70] In all except one of the Hindu philosophies,[76] this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta (examples).[77] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to be proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti – the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.[77][78] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).[79]
Śabda (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.[80][81] Hiriyanna explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.[82] He must cooperate with others to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is neither spoken or written, but through Sabda (sound).[82] The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the Sabda of reliable sources.[80][82] The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as Carvaka, state that this is never possible, and therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.[83]
Yoga philosophy allows the concept of God, unlike the closely related Samkhya school of Hinduism which is non-theistic.[29] Hindu scholars such as the 8th century Adi Sankara, as well many modern academic scholars describe the Yoga school as "Samkya school with God."[2][17][30]
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali use the term Isvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutras' release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara. These commentaries range from defining Isvara as a "personal god" to a "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[17][84] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[85]
Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[86]
This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by the past or by one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions or intentions (आशय, ashaya).[87][88]
References to the teachings of the Yoga school of Hinduism abound in ancient Indian texts of other orthodox schools of Hinduism, for example, verse 5.2.17[90] of Vaisheshika Sutra by Kanada, belonging to the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism and dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE,[91] states[92]
Pleasure and pain results from contact of soul, sense, mind and object. Non-origination of that follows when the mind becomes steady in the soul. After it, there is non-existence of pain in the embodied soul. This is that Yoga.
The Nyāya Sūtras by Akshapada variously dated to be from 4th to 2nd century BCE,[91] and belonging to the Nyaya school of Hinduism, in chapter 4.2 discusses the importance of Yoga as follows,[3]
We are instructed to practice meditation in such places as a forest, a cave or a sand-bank. Such possibilities [the opponent claims] may occur even in release. It is, we reply, not so, because knowledge must spring up only in a body already in the state of formation. And there is absence of a body in our release. For that purpose, there should be a purifying of our soul by abstinence from evil, and observance of certain virtues, as well as by following the spiritual injunctions gleaned from Yoga. To secure release [moksha], it is necessary to study and follow this treatise on knowledge [Yoga], as well as to hold discussions with those learned in that treatise.
The Brahma Sutras by Badarayana, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,[94] while the original version might be ancient and composed between 500 BCE and 200 BCE,[95][91] belonging to the Vedanta school of Hinduism, in chapter 2 assumes the existence of a text called Yoga Smriti. Scholars contest whether this text was a precursor or the same as Patanjali's Yogasutra, but either premise is uncertain.[3] The verses of Brahma Sutras assert that dualism of the prevailing Yoga philosophy is refuted, as the value of Yoga is as a means to realization of the Self, not in propositions about Self that is in conflict with the Vedic texts. Radhakrishnan translates the text as follows,
If it is said that there will result the defect of not allowing room for certain Smritis, we say not so, because there will result the defect of not allowing room for some other smritis [further knowledge], and on account of the non-perception of others. Thereby [pradhāna theory of] the Yoga Smriti is refuted.
The Yoga Vasistha is a syncretic text on Yoga philosophy, variously dated to be from 6th- to 14th-century CE.[98] It is structured as a dialogue between sage Vasistha of the Vedic era and the philosopher-king Rama of the Hindu epic Ramayana.[99] The text synthesizes elements of Vedanta, Jainism, Yoga, Samkhya, Saiva Siddhanta and Mahayana Buddhism.[99] Among other things, the text discusses Yoga philosophy in its various chapters. In section 6.1, Yoga Vasistha introduces Yoga as follows,[100]
Yoga is the utter transcendence of the mind and is of two types. Self-knowledge is one type, another is the restraint of the life-force of self limitations and psychological conditioning. Yoga has come to mean only the latter, yet both the methods lead to the same result. To some, Self-knowledge through inquiry is difficult, to others Yoga is difficult. But my conviction is that the path of inquiry is easy for all, because Self-knowledge is the ever-present truth. I shall now describe to you the method of Yoga.
— Vasistha to Rama, Yoga Vasistha 6.1.12–13, [100]
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^Max Muller, The Upanishads, The Sacred Books of the East – Part 1, Oxford University Press, Quote: (He who engages in) self study, concentrates all his senses on the Self, never giving pain to any creature, except at the tîrthas, he who behaves thus all his life, reaches the world of Brahman, and does not return, yea, he does not return". GN Jha: Chandogya Upanishad VIII.15, page 488
^ Jump up to:abcJessica Frazier (2014), in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN978-1-4725-1151-5, pages 24-25
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^Robert S. Hartman (2002), The Knowledge of Good: Critique of Axiological Reason, Rodopi, ISBN978-9042012202, pages 224-225
^Howard Coward (2002), Yoga and Psychology: Language, Memory, and Mysticism, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-5500-5, pages 42-46, 88-89, 109-110
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^Jean Varenne and Coltman Derek (1977), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, University Of Chicago Press, ISBN978-0-226-85116-7, pages 197-202
^ Jump up to:abcdJames Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN978-0-8239-3179-8, page 777
^ Jump up to:abcArti Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347-372
^The Yoga Philosophy TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives, page 80
^Jan E. M. Houben and Karel Rijk van Kooij (1999), Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History, Brill Academic, ISBN978-9004113442, page 5
^ Jump up to:abStuart Sovatsky (1998), Words from the Soul: Time East/West Spirituality and Psychotherapeutic Narrative, State University of New York, ISBN978-0-7914-3949-4, page 21
^SV Bharti (2001), Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: With the Exposition of Vyasa, Motilal Banarsidas, ISBN978-8120818255, Appendix I, pages 680-691
^Mikel Burley (2000), Haṭha-Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice, Motilal Banarsidas, ISBN978-8120817067, pages 190-191
^Hartmut Scharfe, Handbook of Oriental Studies – Education in Ancient India, Brill, ISBN978-9004125568, pages 217-222
^ Jump up to:abMM Kamal (1998), "The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy", Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13-16
^B Matilal (1992), Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-823976-5
^ Jump up to:abKarl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN81-208-0309-4, pages 160-168
^Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN81-208-0309-4, pages 168-169
^Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN81-208-0309-4, pages 170-172
^W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reflection, State University of New York Press, ISBN0-7914-0362-9, page 26-27
^ Jump up to:abJames Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN0-8239-2287-1, page 46-47
^Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN81-208-0779-0
^Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom – Religious, Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co, London, page 61
^ Jump up to:ab* Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN978-0-8153-3611-2, pages 245-248;
John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-3067-5, page 238
^DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, ISBN978-1-4419-8109-7, page 172
^P. Billimoria (1988), Śabdapramāṇa: Word and Knowledge, Studies of Classical India Volume 10, Springer, ISBN978-94-010-7810-8, pages 1-30
^* Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aporisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93;
Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126-129
^Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-3815-2, page 86
^* Sanskrit Original with Translation 1: The Yoga Philosophy TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives;
^Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120832329, pages 31-45
^CK Chapelle (2003), Reconciling Yogas, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-5900-3, pages 12-15, 39-48
^This verse appears as 6.1 in some manuscripts of Vaiseisika Darsana
^ Jump up to:abcMichael Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN978-0-7391-3846-5, page 7
^Original Sanskrit and Translation: The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama SC Vidyabhusana (Translator), The Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, University of Toronto Archives
^Hajime Nakamura (1989). A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part 1. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 436. ISBN81-208-0651-4., Quote: "...we can take it that 400-450 is the period during which the Brahma Sūtras was compiled in its extant form."
^Oliver Leaman (1999), Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN978-0-415-17363-6, page xiv
^For a more recent translation of the same verse, see Jan E. M. Houben and Karel Rijk van Kooij (1999), Violence Denied, Brill Academic, ISBN978-9004113442, page 149
^S Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-87395-954-4, page x
^ Jump up to:abS Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-87395-954-4, pages xi-xii
^ Jump up to:abS Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-87395-954-4, pages 275, also 239-246, 272-277
Maas, Philipp A. (2006), Samādhipāda: das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert, Aachen: Shaker, ISBN3-8322-4987-7
Sen, Amiya P. (2006). "Raja Yoga: The Science of Self-Realization". The Indispensable Vivekananda. Orient Blackswan. pp. 219–227. ISBN978-81-7824-130-2.
Alain Daniélou (1991), Yoga: Mastering the Secrets of Matter and the Universe, ISBN978-0-89281-301-8, Appendix D: Main Sanskrit Treatises on Yoga
Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, ISBN978-0-8135-4068-9, Chapter 5
Karl Potter (2009), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. 1: Bibliography, ISBN978-8120803084, Bibliography on Yoga school of Hinduism, pages 1073–1093
Maehle, Gregor (2007). Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy. New World Library.