2022/01/13

Somatotype and constitutional psychology - Wikipedia 체질 심리학

Somatotype and constitutional psychology - Wikipedia

Somatotype and constitutional psychology  체질 심리학

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
This article is part of a series on
Alternative medicine
Outline-body-aura.svg

Somatotype is a taxonomy developed in the 1940s by American psychologist William Herbert Sheldon to categorize the human physique according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements which he termed 'somatotypes', classified by him as 'ectomorphic', 'mesomorphic' and 'endomorphic'. He named these after the three germ layers of embryonic development: the endoderm, (which develops into the digestive tract), the mesoderm, (which becomes muscle, heart and blood vessels) and the ectoderm (which forms the skin and nervous system).[1] Later variations of the method, developed by his original research assistant Barbara Heath, and later Lindsay Carter and Rob Rempel, are still in occasional academic use.[2][3]

Constitutional psychology is a theory developed by Sheldon in the 1940s, which attempted to associate his somatotype classifications with human temperament types.[4][5] The foundation of these ideas originated with Francis Galton and eugenics.[2] Sheldon and Earnest Hooton were seen as leaders of a school of thought, popular in anthropology at the time, which held that the size and shape of a person's body indicated intelligence, moral worth and future achievement.[2]

In his 1954 book, Atlas of Men, Sheldon categorized all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for each of the three 'somatotypes', where the pure 'endomorph' is 7–1–1, the pure 'mesomorph' 1–7–1 and the pure 'ectomorph' scores 1–1–7.[6][7][8] 

From type number, an individual's mental characteristics could supposedly be predicted.[7] In a late version of a pseudoscientific thread within criminology in which criminality is claimed to be an innate characteristic that can be recognized through particular physiognomic markers (as in Cesare Lombroso's theory of phrenology), Sheldon contended that criminals tended to be 'mesomorphic'.[9] The system of somatotyping is still in use in the field of physical education.

The three types[edit]

Sheldon's "somatotypes" and their associated physical and psychological traits were characterized as follows:[3][8][10]

Somatotypes proposed by W.H. Sheldon
SomatotypePhysical traitsPsychological traitsNotes
Ectomorphiccharacterized as skinny, weak, and usually tall with low testosterone levelsdescribed as intelligent, gentle and calm, but self-conscious, introverted and anxious.[3][6][8][11]
Mesomorphiccharacterized as naturally hard and strong, with even weight distribution, muscular with weight training, thick-skinned, and as having good posture with narrow waistdescribed as competitive, extroverted, and tough.[3][6][8]
Endomorphic    characterized as fat, usually short, and having difficulty losing weightdescribed as outgoing, friendly, happy and laid-back, but also lazy and selfish[3][6][8]
Comparison of body types

Stereotyping[edit]

There may be some evidence that different physiques carry cultural stereotypes, as some cultures are more prone to certain physiques. According to one study endomorphs are likely to be perceived as slow, sloppy, and lazy. Mesomorphs, in contrast, are typically stereotyped as popular and hardworking, whereas ectomorphs are often viewed as intelligent, yet fearful.[12]

Heath–Carter formula[edit]

Sheldon's physical taxonomy is still in use, particularly the Heath–Carter variant of the methodology.[13] This formulaic approach utilises an individual's weight (kg), height (cm), upper arm circumference (cm), maximal calf circumference (cm), femur breadth (cm), humerus breadth (cm), triceps skinfold (mm), subscapular skinfold (mm), supraspinal skinfold (mm), and medial calf skinfold (mm), and remains popular in anthropomorphic research, as to quote Rob Rempel "With modifications by Parnell in the late 1950s, and by Heath and Carter in the mid 1960s somatotype has continued to be the best single qualifier of total body shape".[14]

This variant utilizes the following series of equations to assess a subject's traits against each of the three somatotypes, each assessed on a seven-point scale, with 0 indicating no correlation and a 7 a very strong:

 where:

  • Ectomorphy : Calculate the subjects Ponderal Index: 
    • If , 
    • If , 
    • If , 

This numerical approach has gone on to be incorporated in the current sports science and physical education curriculums of numerous institutions, ranging from the UK's secondary level GCSE curriculums (14- to 16-year-olds), the Indian UPSC Civil Service exams, to MSc programs worldwide, and has been utilized in numerous academic papers, including:

Criticism[edit]

Sheldon's ideas that body type was an indicator of temperament, moral character or potential – while popular in an atmosphere accepting of the theories of eugenics – were later disputed.[2][29]

A key criticism of Sheldon's constitutional theory is that it was not a theory at all but a general assumption of continuity between structure and behavior and a set of descriptive concepts to measure physique and behavior in a scaled manner.[3]

His use of thousands of photographs of naked Ivy League undergraduates, obtained without explicit consent from a pre-existing program evaluating student posture, has been strongly criticized.[2][30]

While popular in the 1950s,[30] Sheldon's claims have since been dismissed as "quackery".[3][4][31][32][33]

Barbara Honeyman Heath, who was Sheldon's main assistant in compiling Atlas of Men, accused him of falsifying the data he used in writing the book.[2]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Hollin, Clive R. (2012). Psychology and Crime: An Introduction to Criminological Psychology. Routledge. p. 59. ISBN 978-0415497039.
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Vertinsky, P (2007). "Physique as destiny: William H. Sheldon, Barbara Honeyman Heath and the struggle for hegemony in the science of somatotyping". Canadian Bulletin of Medical History. 24 (2): 291–316. doi:10.3138/cbmh.24.2.291. PMID 18447308.
  3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Roeckelein, Jon E. (1998). "Sheldon's type theory". Dictionary of Theories, Laws, and Concepts in Psychology. Greenwood. pp. 427–428. ISBN 9780313304606.
  4. ^ Jump up to:a b Rafter, N (2008). "Somatotyping, antimodernism, and the production of criminological knowledge". Criminology. 45 (4): 805–33. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00092.x.
  5. ^ "Constitutional Theory". The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. Penguin. 2009. ISBN 9780141030241 – via Credo Reference.
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Mull, Amanda (2018-11-06). "Americans Can't Escape Long-Disproven Body Stereotypes". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2018-12-31.
  7. ^ Jump up to:a b Sheldon, William Herbert (1954). Atlas of Men: A Guide for Somatotyping the Adult Male at All Ages. New York: Harper.
  8. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Kamlesh, M.L. (2011). "Ch. 15: Personality and Sport § Sheldon's Constitutional Typology". Psychology in the Physical Education and Sport. Pinnacle Technology. ISBN 9781618202482.
  9. ^ DiCristina, Bruce; Gottschalk, Martin; Mayzer, Roni (2014). "Four currents of criminological thought". In Bruce Arrigo; Heather Bersot (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of International Crime and Justice Studies. Routledge. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-1-136-86850-4.
  10. ^ Timmermans, Floyd; Jansen, Britt; Mokken, Sterre; Heer, Merel; Veen, Kevin; Bouman, Mark-Bram; Mullender, Margriet; Grift, Tim (2021-02-17). "The ideal location of the male nipple-areolar complex: A pinpointing algorithm". International Journal of Transgender Health: 1–9. doi:10.1080/26895269.2021.1884926. S2CID 233928744.
  11. ^ "What is your body type?". 2014-04-24. Retrieved 2018-12-31.
  12. ^ Ryckman, R.M.; Robbins, M.A.; Kaczor, L.M.; Gold, J.A. (1989). "Male and female raters' stereotyping of male and female physiques". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 15 (2): 244–251. doi:10.1177/0146167289152011. S2CID 145753602.
  13. ^ Norton, Kevin; Olds, Tim (1996). Anthropometrica: A Textbook of Body Measurement for Sports and Health Courses. Australian Sports Commission; UNSW Press. ISBN 978-0868402239.
  14. ^ Rempel, R (1994). A Modified Somatotype Assessment Methodology. Simon Fraser University. ISBN 978-0-612-06785-1.
  15. ^ Kerr, D; Ross, WD; Norton, K; Hume, P; Kagawa, Masaharu (2007). "Olympic Lightweight and Open Rowers possess distinctive physical and proportionality characteristics for selecting elite athletes" (PDF). Journal of Sports Sciences. 25 (1): 43–53. doi:10.1080/02640410600812179. PMID 17127580. S2CID 19851908.
  16. ^ Sánchez‐Muñoz, C; Sanz, D; Mikel Zabala, M (November 2007). "Anthropometric characteristics, body composition and somatotype of elite junior tennis players". Br J Sports Med. 41 (11): 793–799. doi:10.1136/bjsm.2007.037119. PMC 2465306. PMID 17957016.
  17. ^ Lewandowska, J; Buśko, K; Pastuszak, A; Boguszewska, K (2011). "Somatotype Variables Related to Muscle Torque and Power in Judoists". Journal of Human Kinetics. 30 (2011): 21–28. doi:10.2478/v10078-011-0069-y. PMC 3588646. PMID 23487284.
  18. ^ Papadopoulou, S (January 2003). de Ridder, H.; Olds, T. (eds.). "Anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek elite women volleyball players". Kinanthropometry VII (7 ed.). Pochefstroom University for CHE: 93–110.
  19. ^ Purenović-Ivanović, T; Popović, R (April 2014). "Somatotype of Top-Level Serbian Rhythmic Gymnasts". Journal of Human Kinetics. 40 (1): 181–187. doi:10.2478/hukin-2014-0020. ISSN 1899-7562. PMC 4096098. PMID 25031686.
  20. ^ Irurtia Amigó, Alfredo (2009). "Height, weight, somatotype and body composition in elite Spanish gymnasts from childhood to adulthood". Apunts Med Esport. 61: 18–28.
  21. ^ Petroski (2013). "Anthropometric, morphological and somatotype characteristics of athletes of the Brazilian Men's volleyball team: an 11-year descriptive study". Brazilian Journal of Kineanthropometry & Human Performance. 15 (2): 184.
  22. ^ Leake, Christopher N.; Carter, JE (1991). "Comparison of body composition and somatotype of trained female triathletes". Journal of Sports Sciences. 9 (2): 125–135. doi:10.1080/02640419108729874. PMID 1895351.
  23. ^ Yang, LT (2015). "Study on the adult physique with the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype in the Han of Xi'an, China". Anat Sci Int. 91 (2): 180–7. doi:10.1007/s12565-015-0283-0. PMID 25940679. S2CID 29933361.
  24. ^ Baltadjiev, AG (2013). "Somatotype characteristics of female patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus". Folia Med (Plovdiv). 55 (1): 64–9. doi:10.2478/folmed-2013-0007. PMID 23905489.
  25. ^ Baltadjiev, AG (2012). "Somatotype characteristics of male patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus". Folia Med (Plovdiv). 54 (2): 40–5. doi:10.2478/v10153-011-0087-5. PMID 23101284.
  26. ^ Noh; et al. (2013). "Somatotype analysis of elite Taekwondo athletes compared to non-athletes for sports health sciences". Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences. 5 (4): 189–196. doi:10.1007/s13530-013-0178-1. S2CID 16963270.
  27. ^ Stewarta; et al. (2014). "Somatotype: a more sophisticated approach to body image work with eating disorder sufferers". Advances in Eating Disorders: Theory, Research and Practice. 2 (2): 125–135. doi:10.1080/21662630.2013.874665. S2CID 145547027.
  28. ^ Pourbehzadi; et al. (2012). "The Relationship between Posture and Somatotype and Certain Biomechanical Parameters of Iran Women's National Dragon Boat Team". Annals of Biological Research. 3 (7): 3657–3662.
  29. ^ Vertinsky (2007). "Body type". In Reynolds, Cecil R.; Fletcher-Janzen, Elaine (eds.). Encyclopedia of Special Education: A reference for the education of children, adolescents, and adults with disabilities and other exceptional individuals (3rd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. ISBN 9780471678021. Retrieved 2014-11-20 – via Credo Reference.
  30. ^ Jump up to:a b Rosenbaum, Ron (15 January 1995). "The great ivy league nude posture photo scandal". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
  31. ^ Zentner, Marcel; Shiner, Rebecca L. (2012). Handbook of Tempermaent. Guilford Press. p. 6. ISBN 9781462506514 – via Google Books.
  32. ^ Ryckman, Richard M. (2007). Theories of Personality (9th ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 260–261. ISBN 9780495099086 – via Google Books.
  33. ^ "Nude photos are sealed at Smithsonian". The New York Times. 21 January 1995. Retrieved 1 December 2011.

Sources[edit]

  • Gerrig, Richard; Zimbardo, Phillip G. (2002). Psychology and Life (16th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0-205-33511-X.
  • Hartl, Emil M.; Monnelly, Edward P.; Elderkin, Roland D. (1982). Physique and Delinquent Behavior (A Thirty-year Follow-up of William H. Sheldon's Varieties of Delinquent Youth). New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-328480-5.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

Posted by at

2022/01/12

William H Sheldon - Wiki - physique - temperamental patterns, Aldous Huxley

William Herbert Sheldon - Wikipedia

William Herbert Sheldon

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Lieutenant Colonel

William Herbert Sheldon
William Herbert Sheldon.jpg
BornNovember 19, 1898
Warwick, Rhode Island
DiedSeptember 17, 1977 (aged 78)
Cambridge, Massachusetts
NationalityAmerican
Alma materBrown University (BSc)
University of Colorado (MSc)
University of Chicago (Ph.D & M.D)
OccupationPsychologist and eugenicist
EmployerHarvard University (Formerly)
Columbia University (Formerly)
University of Chicago

William Herbert Sheldon, Jr. (November 19, 1898 – September 17, 1977) was an American psychologist and numismatist. He created the field of somatotype and constitutional psychology that correlate body types with Temperament, illustrated by his Ivy League nude posture photos.[1][2]

Early life and education[edit]

Sheldon was born in Pawtuxet, Rhode Island on November 19, 1898 to William Herbert Sheldon, Sr., a naturalist and animal breeder, and Mary Abby Greene, a village midwife. His godfather was the noted psychologist and philosopher, William James. He graduated from Warwick Veterans Memorial High School in 1915 and attended Brown University. After graduating, he worked in a range of fields before studying for his master's degree at the University of Colorado. Sheldon attended the University of Chicago and earned his Ph.D. in 1925. He taught psychology at the University of Chicago and at the University of Wisconsin. He attended the University of Chicago Medical Center, receiving his M.D. in 1933.[3][4]

Gaining a two-year fellowship in Europe allowed him to study under Carl Jung, and visit Sigmund Freud and Ernst Kretschmer. After Europe, he moved to Harvard University in 1938. He served in the Army Medical Corps at lieutenant colonel rank in the Second World War.[4]

From 1947 to 1959 he was Director of the Constitutional Laboratory at the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. He became a professor of medicine at the University of Oregon Medical School in 1951.[4][5]

Work[edit]


In psychology, he developed a new version of somatotypology by classifying people into endomorphic, mesomorphic, and ectomorphic types, based on many photographs and measurements of nude figures at Ivy League schools.[4] 

Somatotype classification



Ron Rosenbaum writes: "He believed that every individual harbored within him different degrees of each of the three character components. By using body measurements and ratios derived from nude photographs, Sheldon believed he could assign every individual a three-digit number representing the three components, components that Sheldon believed were inborn -- genetic -- and remained unwavering determinants of character regardless of transitory weight change. In other words, physique equals destiny."[1]

Sheldon also argued that physique was closely correlated with temperamental viscerotonic patterns that powerfully influenced attitudes to food, comfort and luxury, ceremoniousness, sociability, nostalgia, pain, and a great variety of other aspects of human experience. 

Aldous Huxley took a considerable interest in and popularized knowledge of Sheldon's work, writing that "Sheldon has worked out what is, without question, the best and most adequate classification of human differences," [6] and 

Sheldon's concepts influenced Huxley's understanding of himself, friends and family, characters in his own work and the work of others, various historical figures, and even entire schools of philosophy and religions.[7]

In numismatics, William Sheldon authored Early American Cents and later revised that work within Penny Whimsy (these were the most exhaustive catalogues of the varieties of early American large cents at that time). The Sheldon variety list for Early American Cents is still in use today. He also developed the "Sheldon scale" that graded coins on a numeric basis from 1 to 70, which is still standard among American numismatists.[8]

Allegations of theft, and posthumous suits[???]

William Herbert Sheldon was also a specialist in United States cents. After his death, he was accused by the American Numismatic Society (ANS) of substitution of lower grade examples of his cent coins with high grade examples from the cabinets of the ANS.[9][10]   


Death[edit]

Sheldon died in his office at the Biological Humanics Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts on September 17, 1977.[5]

Publications[edit]

  • Sheldon, William H. ♦ Psychology and the Promethean Will ♦ Harper & Brothers, 1936
  • Sheldon, William H. ♦ The Varieties of Human Physique (An Introduction to Constitutional Psychology) ♦ Harper & Brothers, 1940
  • Sheldon, William H. ♦ The Varieties of Temperament (A Psychology of Constitutional Differences) Harper & Brothers, 1942
  • Sheldon, William H. ♦ Varieties of Delinquent Youth (An Introduction to Constitutional Psychiatry) Harper & Brothers, 1949
  • Sheldon, William H. ♦ Early American Cents, 1793–1814 ♦ Harper & Brothers, 1949
  • Sheldon, William H. ♦ Atlas of Men ♦ Harper and Brothers, 1954
  • Sheldon, William H. ♦ Penny Whimsy ♦ Harper & Row, 1958

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b Ron Rosenbaum (1995-01-15). "The Great Ivy League Nude Posture Photo Scandal". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
  2. ^ "Nude Photos Are Sealed At Smithsonian". New York Times. January 21, 1995. Retrieved December 1, 2011. Later, other photographs were taken by W. H. Sheldon, a researcher who believed that there was a relationship between body shape and Temperament traits. Mr. Sheldon has since died.
  3. ^ Margaret Alic (6 April 2001), "Sheldon, William Herbert (1898-1977)", Encyclopedia of Psychology
  4. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Richard N. Walker (1978). "W. H. Sheldon" (PDF). Nature in Psychiatric Bulletin. Retrieved 2011-12-07.
  5. ^ Jump up to:a b "William H. Sheldon, 78. Correlated Physiques and Traits of Behavior. Headed Research Center". The New York Times. September 18, 1977. Retrieved 2007-07-21. Dr. William Herbert Sheldon, a psychologist and researcher in correlating human biology and physique with social behavior, died Friday of a heart ailment at his office at the Biological Humanics Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was 78 years old.
  6. ^ Aldous Huxley, The Perennnial Philosophy (New York: Harper & Row/Harper Colophon, 1970; originally published 1945), p. 149; see also essays collected in Themes and Variations (1950).
  7. ^ Philip Thody, Aldous Huxley: A Biographical Introduction (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), pp. 98-99.
  8. ^ "Grading Coins". Archived from the original on 2006-02-04. Retrieved 2009-09-30.
  9. ^ ANS search for 129 missing cents becomes legal battle: Society attorney names late William Sheldon as suspect," by Bill Gibbs, Coin World Aug. 23, 1993; ANS Magazine, vol. 3. no. 2, Summer 2004, by ANS curator Robert W. Hoge
  10. ^ "More on Collector Ted Naftzger and the Switched Large Cents," by John Kleeberg, The E-sylum, Vol. 11, No. 24, June 15, 2008, Article 17.

Further reading[edit]

Posted by at
Labels:
Subscribe to: Posts (Atom)