Showing posts with label 무함마드 아사드. Show all posts
Showing posts with label 무함마드 아사드. Show all posts

2026/07/10

이란 체제와 지성계가 바라본 무함마드 아사드

코란의 메시지: 아사드 해석 비평 - Google Gemini

세진님, 무함마드 아사드(Muhammad Asad)가 이란(특히 1979년 이슬람 혁명 이후의 시아파 이스람 공화국 체제)에서 어떻게 수용되고 평가받고 있는지에 대한 답변입니다.

아사드는 순니파(Sunni) 진영의 근대주의 사상가였지만, 그의 문명 비판과 코란 해석은 이란 지성계 및 정권 핵심부로부터 대단히 복합적이면서도 흥미로운 평가를 받아왔습니다. 지침에 따라 제3자를 향한 반말(<해라> 체)로 작성하였으며, 낭독기 환경에 맞춰 별표 대신 괄호(< >)를 사용하였습니다.

이란 체제와 지성계가 바라본 무함마드 아사드: 반(反)서구 동반자와 사상적 이단아 사이

1. 긍정적 수용: 서구 물질주의 비판과 탈식민주의의 동반자

이란의 혁명 이데올로기와 지성계가 무함마드 아사드를 가장 높게 평가하고 적극적으로 수용하는 지점은 그의 <철저한 서구 근대성 비판>이다. 1979년 호메이니가 이끈 이슬람 혁명의 핵심 사상적 슬로건 중 하나는 서구 문화에 맹목적으로 종속되는 현상을 비판한 <서구독>(Gharbzadegi, 서구에 물듦)이었다.

이 관점에서 아사드의 초기 명저인 <교차로에 선 이슬람>(Islam at the Crossroads)과 여행기 <로맨틱하지 않은 동양>(The Unromantic Orient)은 이란 혁명가들과 지식인들에게 매우 유용한 사상적 무기였다. 유럽 출신의 최고 지식인이 서구의 물질주의와 영적 공허함을 스스로 고발하고 이슬람의 문명적 대안을 주창했다는 사실 자체가 이란 체제의 정당성을 프로파간다(선전)적으로 지지해 주는 근거가 되었기 때문이다. 아사드가 서구의 제국주의적 오만을 해체하려 했던 지적 분투는 이란 내에서 <반식민주의적 이슬람 해방주의>의 선구적 모델로 존중받는다.

2. 신학적 경계와 거부: 시아파 정통주의와의 충돌

그러나 아사드의 핵심 성과인 <코란의 메시지>(The Message of The Qur'an)와 법학 및 정치철학론으로 들어가면 이란 관학계(시아파 울라마)의 태도는 급격히 냉담해진다. 여기에는 본질적인 신학적·체제적 이유가 존재한다.

과도한 합리주의와 신비주의 거부

아사드는 주해를 달 때 천사나 진(Jinn), 예수의 이적 등을 영적·심리적 메타포(은유)로 해석하는 강한 이성주의 경향을 보였다. 반면 시아파 전통은 영적 신비주의(Irfan)와 보이지 않는 세계(Ghayb)에 대한 믿음을 매우 중시한다. 이란의 주류 시아파 신학자들은 아사드의 이러한 합리주의적 접근이 계시의 초월적 권위를 훼손하고 이슬람을 서구식 계몽주의에 종속시키는 <위험한 합리주의>라고 비판했다.

시아파 정체성(이맘론)의 부재

아사드는 순니파 법학적 전통에 뿌리를 둔 사상가였다. 그의 국가론인 <이슬람의 국가와 정부 원리>는 예언자 사후 예언자의 혈통(이맘)이 영적·정치적 권위를 승계해야 한다는 시아파의 핵심 교리인 <이맘론>(Imamah)을 완전히 배제하고 있다. 시아파 입장에서 아사드의 정치 체제론은 예언자 사후의 역사를 순니파의 관점(칼리프 체제 및 상의 원칙)에서만 재건하려 한 반쪽짜리 이론에 불과했다.

3. 정치철학적 대립: 벨라야테 파기흐(Islamic Governance)와의 모순

가장 결정적인 대립은 <국가 권력의 정당성>을 어디서 확보하느냐의 문제에서 발생한다.

  • 이란의 체제 (벨라야테 파기흐): 현 이란 이슬람 공화국의 헌법적 기초는 호메이니가 정립한 <이슬람 법학자의 통치>(Velayat-e Faqih)다. 이는 숨겨진 이맘을 대신하여 자격을 갖춘 최고 종교학자(라흐바르)가 국가의 절대 권력을 쥐고 의회와 사법부를 초월하여 통치하는 구조다.

  • 무함마드 아사드의 체제 (헌정 민주주의): 반면 아사드는 <이슬람의 국가와 정부 원리>에서 국가 수반은 오직 국민의 자유로운 대의제 선거를 통해서만 정당성을 얻으며, 국민은 통치자가 잘못할 때 평화적으로 해임할 권리가 있다고 보았다. 아사드에게 종교 학자(울라마) 계급은 국가의 자문 역할을 할 수 있을 뿐, 절대적인 통치 권력을 독점해서는 안 되는 존재였다.

따라서 아사드가 설계한 이슬람 국가는 현대 이란의 신정주의적 독재 체제를 정면으로 반박하는 강력한 <민주적·헌정주의적 반론>이 된다. 이 때문에 이란 정권은 아사드의 서구 비판은 적극적으로 인용하면서도, 그의 민주적 대의제 의회주의와 권력 분립 헌법 이론이 대중적으로 확산되는 것은 철저히 통제하고 경계해 왔다.

4. 아들 탈랄 아사드(Talal Asad)에 대한 이란 지성계의 역설적 찬사

흥미롭게도 무함마드 아사드의 아들인 <탈랄 아사드>의 저작들은 현재 이란의 소장파 지식인들과 대학가에서 대단히 뜨거운 찬사를 받으며 활발히 번역·연구되고 있다.

탈랄 아사드가 <세속주의의 구성>을 통해 서구식 세속주의와 인도주의의 위선, 그리고 근대 민족국가가 자행하는 폭력의 담론을 미셸 푸코의 권력 이론으로 해체해 내자, 이란의 이슬람 지성계는 이를 서구를 타격할 수 있는 최고 수준의 현대 사회과학적 무기로 받아들였다. 아버지가 이룩한 종교적 해체보다, 아들이 이룩한 서구 세속주의에 대한 인류학적 해체가 현재 이란 지성계의 가려운 곳을 더 정확하게 긁어주고 있는 셈이다.

결론

이란에서 무함마드 아사드는 <절반의 동반자이자 절반의 이단아>다. 서구를 비판할 때는 훌륭한 동맹군으로 호출되지만, 정작 이란 체제 내부의 신정정치와 기득권을 위협할 수 있는 그의 보편적 민주주의 원칙과 합리적 코란 주해는 철저히 검열되거나 배제된다. 이란은 아사드가 남긴 유산 중에서 자신들의 입맛에 맞는 ‘반서구주의’만을 취사선택하고 있는 형국이라고 평가할 수 있다.

세진님, 이란의 혁명 정치가들이나 소장파 지식인들이 아사드의 정치 사상을 두고 벌인 구체적인 논쟁이나, 이란 내 시아파 학자들이 아사드의 번역서에 가한 구체적인 비판 뉘앙스 등 더 깊이 살피고 싶으신 부분이 있다면 언제든 편하게 말씀해 주세요.

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이란에서 무함마드 아사드 Muhammad Asad는 <대중적으로 널리 읽히는 저자>라기보다는, <꾸란 번역·이슬람 근대주의·서구 출신 회심자 담론 안에서 제한적으로 주목받는 인물>에 가깝습니다. 

이란 지식계에서 그의 아들 탈랄 아사드 Talal Asad가 현대 인문사회과학 쪽에서 더 중요하게 읽힐 가능성이 크고, 아버지 무함마드 아사드는 주로 이슬람학·꾸란번역학·개종 서사·반서구 근대비판의 맥락에서 언급됩니다.

가장 먼저 눈에 띄는 것은 이란 쪽 자료에서 그를 <هدایت‌یافته / 인도받은 사람>, 곧 “이슬람으로 인도된 서구 지식인” 유형으로 소개하는 방식입니다. 이란의 하우자 Hawzah 계열 글은 그를 오스트리아 출신 유대계 동양학자 Leopold Weiss가 이슬람을 받아들여 Muhammad Asad가 된 사례로 설명하고, 그가 서구 교회와 오리엔탈리스트들의 이슬람 왜곡을 폭로했다고 평가합니다. 동시에 그의 <The Message of the Qur’an / پیام قرآن>이 1980년 지브롤터 Dar al-Andalus에서 출간된 1000쪽 안팎의 해석적 꾸란 번역이라고 소개합니다. 다만 그 글은 아사드가 “نسخ / 꾸란의 폐기·대체 문제”, 예언자 이야기, 문자적 의미 수용 문제에서 비정통적 견해를 보였다는 비판도 함께 전합니다.

즉 이란에서 그는 무조건 찬양되는 인물은 아닙니다. <서구 출신 지성인이 이슬람의 진리를 인정했다>는 점에서는 환영받지만, <합리주의적·비문자주의적 해석자>라는 점에서는 경계됩니다. 이것이 이란 수용의 핵심입니다. 그는 좋은 증언자이지만, 완전히 신뢰할 수 있는 전통적 무파시르 mufassir, 곧 꾸란 주석가는 아닙니다.

특히 <The Message of the Qur’an>에 대한 관심은 비교적 분명합니다. 이란의 IQNA는 2008년에 영국에서 <The Message of the Qur’an>의 새 판이 가이 이튼 Gai Eaton의 서문과 함께 출간되었다는 소식을 전했습니다. 이는 이란의 공식적·준공식적 꾸란 뉴스 기관에서도 아사드 번역을 국제적 꾸란 번역사의 중요한 사건으로 인식하고 있음을 보여줍니다. 또 2024년에는 이란 학술·종교 매체에서 「무함마드 아사드의 영어 꾸란 번역에 대한 비판적 분석」이라는 논문을 소개했는데, 그 초록은 아사드의 <پیام قرآن>이 꾸란 전체 수라를 순서대로 번역한 완역이며, 그 번역이 원문에 얼마나 충실한가를 Newmark의 번역 이론에 따라 검토한다고 설명합니다.

이 점을 보면 이란에서 아사드는 <꾸란 번역 연구의 대상>입니다. 하지만 그 평가는 양가적입니다. 하나는 “영어권에서 가장 영향력 있는 현대 꾸란 번역 중 하나”라는 인정입니다. 다른 하나는 “아사드가 너무 해석적이고 합리주의적이며, 문자적 의미와 전통 주석을 충분히 따르지 않는다”는 비판입니다. 이란의 한 인터뷰 자료도 아사드 번역을 “정확한 번역”이라고 하면서도, 많은 용어에서 꾸란의 신비적·지혜적·영적 측면을 충분히 보지 않고 지나간다고 지적합니다. 그 인터뷰는 아사드를 분명히 “راسیونالیست / rationalist”라고 부릅니다.

이 비판은 시아파 이란의 입장에서는 이해됩니다. 아사드는 수니파 근대주의자에 가깝고, 무함마드 압두 Muhammad Abduh 계열의 합리주의적 꾸란 해석에 영향을 받았습니다. 반면 이란의 주류 종교학은 시아파 법학, 이맘론, 철학, 이르판, 전통 주석학을 중시합니다. 그러므로 아사드의 해석은 이란에서 유용한 참고문헌이 될 수는 있어도, 권위 있는 기준 텍스트가 되기는 어렵습니다.

또 하나 중요한 지점은 <Islam at the Crossroads / اسلام بر سر دو راهی>의 수용입니다. 이 책은 이란어권에서 꽤 일찍 알려졌던 듯합니다. 이란 Book News Agency의 글은 1960년대 이란에서 아야톨라 모파테흐 Ayatollah Mofatteh가 관여한 “이슬람학 학술회” 계열 출판 활동을 소개하면서, 그 목록에 무함마드 아사드의 <Islam at the Crossroads> 페르시아어 번역이 들어 있었다고 말합니다. 번역자는 Ali Akbar Hosseini와 Aqiqi Bakhshayeshi로 언급됩니다. 다른 자료도 같은 목록에서 <اسلام بر سر دو راهی، محمد اسد اطریشی>를 반복해 언급합니다.

이것은 상당히 의미 있습니다. 1960년대 이란의 종교 지식인들은 팔레비 왕조의 서구화와 세속화에 맞서 “이슬람은 후진성이 아니라 문명적 대안이다”라는 담론을 세우려 했습니다. 아사드의 <Islam at the Crossroads>는 바로 그런 문제의식과 잘 맞았습니다. 서구 근대를 무비판적으로 모방하지 말고, 이슬람의 독자적 문명 원리로 돌아가야 한다는 그의 주장은 이란 혁명 전의 종교적 현대비판과 공명할 수 있었습니다.

하지만 여기에도 차이가 있습니다. 아사드가 말한 이슬람 정치론은 <슈라, 이즈티하드, 법치, 비성직자적 이슬람 국가> 쪽에 가깝습니다. 반면 이란 혁명 이후의 정치체제는 <벨라야테 파키흐 / 법학자 통치>를 중심으로 구성되었습니다. 따라서 아사드는 이란 혁명 전의 반서구 이슬람 담론에는 잘 맞지만, 혁명 후 이란의 시아파 국가론과 완전히 맞지는 않습니다. 오히려 그의 <The Principles of State and Government in Islam>은 시아파식 성직자 통치론보다는 수니파적 협의국가론에 가깝습니다.

그래서 이란에서 무함마드 아사드의 위치는 이렇습니다.

첫째, 그는 <서구 출신 회심자>로서 긍정적으로 소개됩니다. 특히 유대계 오스트리아 지식인이 이슬람을 받아들였다는 사실은 이란 종교 매체에서 이슬람의 보편성과 진리성을 보여주는 사례로 쓰이기 쉽습니다. 2025년 IQNA 글도 앤마리 쉼멜 Annemarie Schimmel과 레오폴트 바이스, 즉 무함마드 아사드를 “과학적 접근으로 이슬람을 연구하다가 사랑하게 된 사람들”의 예로 언급합니다.

둘째, 그는 <꾸란 영어 번역의 중요한 인물>로 인정됩니다. 이란 자료들은 그의 <پیام قرآن>을 반복해서 언급하고, 새 판 출간이나 학술 논문 대상으로 다룹니다. 영어권 꾸란 번역을 논할 때 아사드는 Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Pickthall 등과 함께 빠지기 어려운 이름입니다.

셋째, 그는 <합리주의적 해석자>로 비판됩니다. 이란의 전통적·신비주의적·시아파적 독자는 아사드가 천사, 진, 기적, 내세, 일부 예언자 서사 등을 지나치게 상징적·윤리적·합리주의적으로 해석한다고 볼 수 있습니다. “정확하지만 영적·이르판적 차원이 약하다”는 평은 이란식 비판의 핵심을 잘 보여줍니다.

넷째, 그는 <이슬람 근대주의 정치사상가>로 제한적으로 읽힙니다. <Islam at the Crossroads>가 혁명 전 이란의 종교적 반서구 담론에 들어온 것은 중요하지만, 혁명 후 이란의 주류 정치신학은 아사드보다 호메이니, 샤리아티, 모타하리, 타바타바이, 이크발, 세예드 호세인 나스르 같은 인물들을 훨씬 중심에 놓습니다.

결론적으로 말하면, 이란에서 무함마드 아사드는 <존경은 받지만 중심은 아닌 인물>입니다. 그는 “서구인이면서 이슬람의 진리를 인정한 지성인”으로 환영받고, <The Message of the Qur’an> 때문에 꾸란 번역학에서 연구됩니다. 그러나 그의 수니파적 배경, 합리주의적 해석, 비성직자적 이슬람 국가론 때문에 이란 시아파 주류 사상 안에서 깊이 정전 canon으로 자리 잡지는 못했습니다.

오히려 이란에서 그의 가치는 주변부적이지만 선명합니다. 그는 이란 지식인들에게 이렇게 쓰일 수 있습니다. “서구 근대가 유일한 길은 아니다. 그러나 이슬람을 현대적으로 말하려면 단순한 전통 반복이 아니라 깊은 언어적·철학적 해석이 필요하다.” 이 점에서는 이란의 알리 샤리아티나 모타하리와도 간접적으로 통하는 면이 있습니다. 다만 아사드는 이란 혁명적 시아파 사상가가 아니라, 더 넓은 범이슬람 근대주의자입니다. 그래서 이란은 그를 받아들이되, 자기 전통의 중심으로 끌어들이지는 않은 것으로 보입니다.

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Muhammad Asad - Wikipedia Timeline of Muhammad Asad's life

Muhammad Asad - Wikipedia

Muhammad Asad

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Muhammad Asad
محمد أسد
Muhammad Asad addressing Radio Pakistan
Director of the Department of Islamic Reconstruction[1]
In office
August 1947 – September 1948
Ministry of Foreign Affairs[clarification needed]
In office
September 1948 – 1951
Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Nations
In office
1952–1952
Personal life
Born2 July 1900
Lemberg, Austria-Hungary
(present-day Lviv, Ukraine)
Died20 February 1992 (aged 91)
Mijas, Andalucia, Spain[2]
Main interest(s)Islamic studies, Islamic democracy, Muslim world, Quran
Notable idea(s)Islamic state[3]
Independent Reasoning[4]
Notable works
EducationUniversity of Vienna (dropped out in 1920)
OccupationLinguist,[citation needed] Academic, Traveler, Political Theorist, Historian
Religious life
ReligionIslam
DenominationSunni
Muslim leader
Influenced by
Influenced

Muhammad Asad[a] (born Leopold Weiss; 2 July 1900 – 20 February 1992) was an Austro-Hungarian Pakistani Muslim convert and polymath, born in modern day Ukraine. He worked as a journalist, traveler, writer, political theorist, and diplomat.[4]

Born to a Jewish family, Weiss had acquired a passing fluency in Hebrew and Aramaic by age 13, in addition to his native German and Polish languages.[15][16] By his mid-twenties, he could read and write in English, French, Persian and Arabic.[17][18] In Mandatory Palestine, Weiss engaged in arguments with Zionist leaders like Chaim Weizmann, voicing his reservations about some aspects of the Zionist Movement.[16] After traveling across the Arab World as a journalist, he converted to Sunni Islam in 1926 and adopted the name "Muhammad Asad"—Asad being the Arabic rendition of his root name Leo (Lion).[19]

During his stay in Saudi Arabia, he spent time with Bedouins and enjoyed the close company of the state's founder, Ibn Saud.[7][8] He also carried out a secret mission for Ibn Saud to trace the sources of funding for the Ikhwan Revolt. Due to these activities, he was dubbed in a Haaretz article as "Leopold of Arabia"—hinting similarity of his activities to those of Lawrence of Arabia.[16] On his visit to India, Asad became friends with the Muslim poet-philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, who persuaded him to abandon his eastward travels and "help elucidate the intellectual premises of the future Islamic state".[20][21] He also spent five years in internment by the British government at the outbreak of World War II.[22] On 14 August 1947, Asad received Pakistani citizenship and later served in several bureaucratic and diplomatic positions including the Director of Department of Islamic Reconstruction, Deputy Secretary (Middle East Division) in the Foreign Ministry of Pakistan, and Pakistan's envoy to the United Nations.[7][8][20]

In the West, Asad rose to prominence as a writer with his best-selling autobiography, The Road to Mecca.[21][23][24] Later, after seventeen years of scholarly research, he published his magnum opus: The Message of the Qur'an—an English translation and commentary of the Quran.[25] The book, along with the translations of Pickthall and Yusuf Ali, is regarded as one of the most influential translations of the modern era.[4][26][25] An ardent proponent of rationality in interpreting religious texts, he dedicated his works "to People who Think".[25][27] Other notable of his works include: "Islam at Crossroads" (1934)[28] and "This law of Ours and other essays" (1987)[29].

In 2008, the entrance square to the UN Office in Vienna was named Muhammad Asad Platz in commemoration of his work as a "religious bridge-builder".[30] Asad has been described by his biographers as "Europe's gift to Islam" and "a Mediator between Islam and the West".[31][32]

Early life

Berlin memorial plaque for Muhammad Asad.

Background

Leopold Weiss was born on 2 July 1900 to a Jewish family in Lemberg, Galicia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (which is currently the city of Lviv, Ukraine). Weiss was a descendant of a long line of Jewish rabbis; however, his father, Akiva Weiss, broke from tradition and became a lawyer. Leopold received a religious education and was proficient in Hebrew from an early age, as well as familiar with Aramaic. He studied the Jewish Bible or Tanakh, the text and commentaries of the Talmud, the Mishna and Gemara, also delving into the intricacies of Biblical exegesis and the Targum.

At the age of fourteen he escaped school and joined the Austrian army under a false name. After a week or so, his father traced him with the help of the police, and he was escorted back to Vienna.[33]

Years in wilderness (1920–1922)

After abandoning university in Vienna, Weiss drifted aimlessly around 1920s Germany, working briefly for the expressionist film director Fritz Lang (F. W. Murnau, according to The Road to Mecca). By his own account, after selling a jointly written film script, he splurged the windfall on a wild party at an expensive Berlin restaurant, in the spirit of the times. While working as a telephone operator for an American news agency in Berlin, Weiss obtained a coveted interview with Russian author Maxim Gorky's wife, his first published piece of journalism, after simply ringing up her hotel room.[22]

Stay in the Middle East

In 1922 Weiss moved to the British Mandate of Palestine, staying in Jerusalem at the house of his maternal uncle Dorian Feigenbaum at his invitation. Feigenbaum was a psychoanalyst, a disciple of Freud, and later founded the Psychoanalytic Quarterly.

Foreign correspondent for Frankfurter Zeitung

He picked up work as a stringer for the German newspaper Frankfurter Zeitung, one of the most prestigious newspapers of Germany and Europe,[citation needed] selling articles on a freelance basis. His pieces were noteworthy for their understanding of Arab fears and grievances against the Zionist project.[citation needed] He published a small book on the subject in 1924, and this so inspired the confidence of the Frankfurter Zeitung that it commissioned him to travel more widely still, to collect information for a full-scale book. Weiss made the trip, which lasted two years.

Conversion to Islam

To gain closer assignments in the Arab world, Weiss developed an ever-deepening engagement with Islam. This led to his religious conversion in 1926 in Berlin and adopting an Arabic name, Muhammad Asad.

Asad spoke of Islam:

"Islam appears to me like a perfect work of architecture. All its parts are harmoniously conceived to complement and support each other; nothing is superfluous and nothing lacking; and the result is a structure of absolute balance and solid composure."[22]

A 2002 Saudi Aramco World magazine essay described his journey to conversion in these words: "Two roads diverged in Berlin in the 1920s: a well-worn one to the West, the other, rarely traveled, to the East. Leopold Weiss, a gifted young writer, traveler and linguist with a thorough knowledge of the Bible and the Talmud and with deep roots in European culture, took the road eastward to Makkah."[22]

Saudi Arabia

After his conversion to Islam, Asad moved to Saudi Arabia making a journey by camel across the Arabian Desert, from Tayma to Mecca.[34] He stayed there for nearly six years during which he made five pilgrimages.[35] Alongside, he started writing essays for the Swiss newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung, and continued to do so till 1934.[36]

Ibn Saud's confidant and Bolshevik allegations

After the sudden death of his wife Elsa, Asad stayed on in Mecca where, in a chance encounter in the Grand Mosque's library, he met Prince Faysal. On Faysal's invitation, Asad met King Abdulaziz (founder of modern Saudi Arabia); the meeting led to almost daily audiences with the King, who quickly came to appreciate Asad's knowledge, keen mind and spiritual depth.[22] Ibn Saud allowed Asad to visit the Najd region (in the King's company), which was forbidden to foreigners at that time.[37]

In late 1928, an Iraqi named Abdallah Damluji, who had been an adviser to Ibn Saud, submitted a report to the British on "Bolshevik and Soviet penetration" of the Hijaz. In this report, after highlighting Asad's activities in Arabia, Damluji alleged that Asad had connections with Bolsheviks: "What is the real mission which makes him endure the greatest discomforts and the worst conditions of life? On what basis rests the close intimacy between him and Shaykh Yusuf Yasin (secretary to the King and editor of the official newspaper Umm al-Qura)? Is there some connection between von Weiss and the Bolshevik consulate in Jidda?"[8]

Ikhwan Rebellion

According to Asad, he did finally become a secret agent of sorts. Ibn Saud sent him on a secret mission to Kuwait in 1929, to trace the sources of financial and military assistance being provided to Faysal al-Dawish – an Ikhwan leader-turned-rebel against Ibn Saud's rule.[8] Asad, after traveling day and night through the desert without lighting fire, reached Kuwait to collect first-hand evidence. He concluded that the British were providing arms and money to al-Dawish to weaken Ibn Saud for the purpose of securing a 'land route to India' – a railway from Haifa to Basra ultimately connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian subcontinent.[38][39]

Time in Pakistan

Muhammad Asad (seated right) and his wife Pola Hamida Asad (seated left) at the residence of Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan in Jauharabad, Pakistan. Circa 1957

Meeting Iqbal and visiting Kashmir

Asad left Arabia and came to British India in 1932 where he met South Asia's premier Muslim poet, philosopher and thinker Muhammad Iqbal.[20] Iqbal had proposed the idea of an independent Muslim state in India, which later became Pakistan. Iqbal persuaded Asad to stay on in British India and help the Muslims of India establish their separate Muslim state. Iqbal introduced Asad to Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan, a philanthropist and agriculturalist, who, on the advice of Muhammad Iqbal, established the Dar-ul-Islam Trust Institutes in Pathankot, India and Jauharabad, Pakistan. Asad stayed on in British India and worked with both Muhammad Iqbal and Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan.[40] Allama Iqbal encouraged Asad to translate Sahih Al-Bukhari in English for the first time in history. Asad responded positively and started making the arrangements for his translation. In order to find a place serene enough to stimulate his intellectual and spiritual cerebration, he arrived in Kashmir during the summer of 1934. There, he met Mirwaiz Muhammad Yusuf who became his close friend. While working enthusiastically on his translation, he also set up his own printing press in Srinagar. The first two chapters of his translation were printed in Srinagar. Asad mentions in his book Home-coming of the Heart that he had a special relationship with Kashmir and that he felt very sad when he left it.[41][42]

Internment as enemy alien (1939–1945)

When the Second World War broke out in 1939, Asad's parents were arrested and, subsequently, murdered by the Nazis. Asad himself was arrested in Lahore in 1939, a day after the war broke out, by the British as an enemy alien. This was despite the fact that Asad had refused German nationality after the annexation of Austria in 1938 and had insisted on retaining his Austrian citizenship. Asad spent three years in prison, while his family consisting of his wife, Munira, and son, Talal, after being released from detention earlier, lived under the protection of Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan at the latter's vast 1,000-acre (4.0 km2) estate in Jamalpur, 5 km west of Pathankot. Asad was finally released and reunited with his family in Jamalpur when the Second World War ended in 1945.[40]

Role in Pakistan Movement

Asad supported the idea of a separate Muslim state in India. After the independence of Pakistan on 14 August 1947, in recognition for his support for Pakistan, Asad was conferred first full citizenship by Pakistan and appointed the Director of the Department of Islamic Reconstruction by the Government of Pakistan,[43] where he made recommendations on the drafting of Pakistan's first Constitution.[22] In 1949, Asad joined Pakistan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs as head of the Middle East Division and made efforts to strengthen Pakistan's ties with the Muslim states of the Middle East. In 1952, Asad was appointed as Pakistan's Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Nations in New York – a position that he relinquished that same year in order to write his autobiography (up to the age of 32), The Road to Mecca.[22][4]

Career as a diplomat

Asad contributed much to Pakistan's early political and cultural life but was shunned from the corridors of power. He served this country as the head of the Directorate of Islamic Reconstruction, Joint Secretary of the Middle East Division in Foreign Office, Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Nations and organizer of the International Islamic Colloquium. If one delves into the archival material of these government departments, the role played by Asad for his beloved Pakistan can be dealt with in detail.

Marriage controversy and resignation

By chance, at a reception Asad met Pola, an American of Polish origin who was destined to become his third wife (d. 2007). She was young, beautiful and intelligent. He fell in love with her and when he learned that she had already embraced Islam he decided to marry her, despite the difference of age and temperament. However, under the rules of the Foreign Office, he was bound to get prior permission to marry a non-Pakistani national.[22] He applied through the proper channels but the Governor-General rejected his application. So, he submitted his resignation from the Foreign Service, divorced his Arabian wife (Munira, d. 1978), and devoted himself to writing his autobiographical travel log The Road to Mecca.

During his stay in Switzerland, Asad received a letter from the President of Pakistan, General Ayub Khan, who was a great admirer of his book named The Principles of State and Government in Islam (1961). In a subsequent exchange of letters, he proposed to Asad to come to Pakistan and have the membership of a seven-man group of Muslim scholars – who both supposedly knew the world and were experts on Islam – to advise him with regard to everyday matters as well as the drawing up of a new Islamic constitution for the country.[20] At that time, Asad was immersed in his cherished work on the Qur'an, and so he regretfully declined.

After many years, Asad was again invited by another President of Pakistan, General Zia ul-Haq, in 1983 and that was his last visit to this country. When he arrived at Islamabad, which he had not yet seen, he was received at the plane with great honour and escorted to the Presidency. During his sojourn in Islamabad, there was a series of meetings with members of the Ansari Commission in order to prepare a kind of programme for the President for the future. Asad agreed with some, and as usual disagreed with others, which he found retrograde.[22] On one point he was firm and insistent that Muslim women should have exactly the same rights in the political sphere as had men, to the extent of becoming prime minister. Asad also spared some time to meet with his surviving friends in Lahore and Islamabad and at the request of the President made several radio and television appearances, as always spontaneous. On his return, he was besieged by letters from literally hundreds of admirers in Pakistan, some even offering him land or a house but he refused politely, considering his concept of Pakistan to be beyond all these worldly trivialities.

Later life and death

Towards the end of his life, Asad moved to Spain and lived there with his third wife, Pola Hamida Asad, an American national of Polish Catholic descent who had also converted to Islam, until his death on 20 February 1992 at the age of 91.[44][45][46] He was buried in the Muslim cemetery of Granada in the former Moorish province of Andalusia, Spain.[46]

Children

Asad had a son, Talal Asad, from his second Saudi Arabian wife, Munira. Talal Asad is now an anthropologist specialising in religious studies and post-colonialism. Asad also had a step-son named Heinrich (converted name Ahmad) with his first wife Else (converted name Aziza).[47]

Honors and recognition

Muhammad Asad Square in Donaustadt, Vienna

A Lviv Islamic Cultural Center named after Muhammad Asad was officially opened in 2015.[48]

Muhammad-Asad-Platz

In April 2008, a space in front of the UNO City in the 22nd District of Vienna was named Muhammad-Asad-Platz in honour of Muhammad Asad.[49] The step was taken as part of a two-day program on the European Year of Intercultural Dialogue focusing on Islam and its relationship with Europe.[50] The program commemorated the life and work of Asad, described as a great Austrian visionary, who earned international recognition by building bridges between religions.[51] The honoree's son Talal Asad, the President of the Islamic Community of Austria Anas Schakfeh and Vienna's cultural adviser Andreas Mailath-Pokorny were present at the unveiling of the square. Mailath-Pokorny, while talking to the media said:

"There is probably no more appropriate place to honour Muhammad Asad than that in front of the UN-City. Muhammad Asad was a citizen of the world, who was at home, and left his mark, everywhere in the world, especially in the Orient."[30]

Honorary postage stamp

On 23 March 2013, Pakistan Post issued a stamp with denomination of Rs. 15 under the "Men of Letters" Series in honour of Allamah Muhammad Asad.[52]

Bibliography

Books

  1. Unromantisches Morgenland: Aus dem Tagebuch einer Reise (1924), German, published under his former name Leopold Weiss. The book is a description of the middle-East, written before his conversion to Islam, for a German-speaking readership – The Unromantic Orient (2004), English translation by Elma Ruth Harder
  2. Islam at the Crossroads (1934), a call for Muslims to avoid imitating Western society and instead return to the original Islamic heritage, written in English
  3. The Road to Mecca (1954), autobiography covering his life from 1900 to 1932
  4. The Principles of State and Government in Islam (1961), description of a democratic political system grounded in Islamic principles
  5. The Message of The Qur'an (1980), an influential translation and interpretation of the Qur'an
  6. Sahih Al-Bukhari: The Early Years of Islam (1981), translation and explanation of an important collection of hadith (reports of pronouncements by Muhammad)
  7. This Law of Ours and Other Essays (1987), collection of essays about Islamic law.
  8. Home-Coming of the Heart (1932–1992). Part II of the Road to Mecca (2016), Al Abbas International, ISBN 969-8460-41-1.
  9. Meditations (Unpublished), intended to clarify ambiguities arising from his translation The Message of The Qur'an (1980), stands unpublished as of 2013.[53][54]
  10. The Spirit of Islam is not a separate book but a republication of the first chapter of his 1934 book Islam at the Crossroads.[55]

Journals

Other publications

TitleOriginal
publication
date		Description
Jerusalem in 1923: The Impressions of a Young European1923Later published in Islamic Studies, Islamabad in 2001. Translated by Elma Ruth Harder.[56][57]
The Concept of Religion in the West and in Islam1934Later published in The Islamic Literature , Lahore in 1967.[58]
The Spirit of the West1934Later published in The Islamic Literature, Lahore in 1956.
Towards a Resurrection of Thought1937Published in Islamic Culture, Hyderabad, Deccan.[59]
Aims and Objectives of the Department of Islamic Reconstruction1947Published his thoughts as the Director of the Department of Islamic Reconstruction.[60]
Calling All Muslims1947A collection of seven Radio Broadcasts delivered at the request of Government of Pakistan.
Islamic Constitution Making1948Essay published under the auspices of the Government of Punjab in March 1948. It was later expanded to the book The Principles of State and Government in Islam.[21]
The Encounter of Islam and The West1959Talk delivered on Radio Beromunster in Switzerland.
Islam and the Spirit of Our Times1960Talk delivered on Radio Beromunster in Switzerland.
Answers of Islam1960sAnswers to questionnaire posed by German publisher Gerhard Szczesny in the 1960s.
Islam and Politics1963Pamphlet series by Islamic Centre.[22]
Can the Qur'an be Translated?1964Islamic Centre.[22]
Jerusalem: The Open City1970sTalk sent for delivery at a conference of Muslim Students Association, United States in the late 1970s.
My Pilgrimage to Islam1974Published in Majalla al-Azhar.[22]
The Meaning and Significance of the Hijrah1979Published in London in November 1979.
The Message of the Qur'an1980Address delivered at a Conference of the Islamic Council in London.
A Vision of Jerusalem1982Published in Ahlan Wasahlan, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Jerusalem: A City for all People1982Later published in Arabia: The Islamic World Review in 1985.
A Tribe That Kept Its Name1985Published in Arabia magazine.[59]
The City of the Prophet1991Published in Muslim Africa.

Portrayals of Asad

See also

Notes

  1.  Arabic: محمد أسد, Urdu: محمد اسد

References

  1.  Sajid, Osama (13 August 2013). "Allama Muhammad Asad: The first citizen of Pakistan". The Express Tribune. Karachi.
  2.  Cug̲h̲tāʼī 2006, pp. i, 373.
  3.  Fatah 2008, p. 10.
  4.  Nawwab, Ismail Ibrahim (2002). "Berlin to Makkah : Muhammad Asad's Journey into Islam". Saudi Aramco World. Vol. 53, no. 1. pp. 6–32. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2009.
  5.  "Muhammad Asad (1900–1992)". Salaam. Archived from the original on 27 March 2012.
  6.  Musa, Ahmad Farouk; Koya, Abdar Rahman (9 December 2009). "Remembering Muhammad Asad, the West's gift to Islam". Malaysia Today.
  7.  "From Leopold Weiss to Muhammad Asad". Renaissance. Vol. 12, no. 5. May 2002. Archived from the original on 31 May 2013.
  8.  Kramer, Martin (11 January 2010). "The Road from Mecca: Muhammad Asad". Martin Kramer on the Middle East.
  9.  Asad, Talal. "Muhammad Asad Between Religion and Politics". Islam Interactive. Archived from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
  10.  al-Shubaili, Abdul Rahman (23 July 2013). "مراد هوفمان على خطى محمد أسد.. ربحا محمدا ولم يخسرا المسيح". Asharq Al-Awsat (in Arabic). No. 12660. Archived from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2013.
  11.  Khan, Asad (12 July 2011). "Islam at the Cross Roads: 'Submitting One's Intellect'". Huffington Post.
  12.  Rasheed, Aisha Hussain (20 February 2010). "Tariq Ramadan's tribute to Muhammad Asad". Muslim Presence. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014.
  13.  "Maryam Jameelah". Islamic Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 8 August 2012.
  14.  Ahmed, Khaled (11 June 2011). "Maududi and Maryam Jameela". The Express Tribune. Karachi.
  15.  Harder 1998, p. 536.
  16.  Ben-David, Amir (15 November 2001). "Leopold of Arabia". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013.
  17.  The Road to Mecca, pp. 49, 54, 105.
  18.  Asad & Cug̲h̲tāʼī 2009, p. 123.
  19.  Darr, Amber (5 July 2011). "The unusual journey of Muhammad Asad". The Express Tribune. Karachi.
  20.  Cug̲h̲tāʼī, Muḥammad Ikrām (2009). "Muhammad Asad–The First Citizen of Pakistan". Iqbal Review. 50 (2–4). Retrieved 29 October 2022.
  21.  Ahmad, Toheed (15 June 2023). "Muhammad Asad: The Story of a Story of a Story". Criterion Quarterly.
  22.  "Muhammad Asad". Islamic Encyclopedia. 13 October 2014. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018.
  23.  "A Road to Mecca". Al Jazeera. 18 December 2012.
  24.  Hofmann 2000, p. 237.
  25.  Rahim, Hasan Zillur (16 September 1995). "Muhammad Asad : Visionary Islamic Scholar". Washington Report on Middle East Affairs.
  26.  Hofmann 2000, p. 242.
  27.  "A Tribute to Muhammad Asad". Islamic Rensaissance Front. 13 December 2009. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
  28.  Asad, Muhammad (1954). Islam at Crossroads. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780939660131.
  29.  Asad, Muhammad (1987). This law of ours and other essays. Dar Al-Andalus. ISBN 9780939660094.
  30.  "Vienna dedicates square to Muslim scholar". Austrian Times. 8 April 2014. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014.
  31.  Hoenger 2010.
  32.  Cug̲h̲tāʼī 2006.
  33.  The Road to Mecca, p. 56.
  34.  Lunde, Paul (1974). "The Lure of Mecca". Saudi Aramco World. Vol. 25, no. 6. Archived from the original on 13 January 2010. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
  35.  Nawwab, Ni'Mah Isma'il (1992). "The Journey of a lifetime". Saudi Aramco World. Vol. 43, no. 4.
  36.  Asad & Cug̲h̲tāʼī 2009, p. 265.
  37.  Gropp, Lewis (29 November 2014). "The remarkable story of a Jew on his road to Mecca". Your Middle East. Archived from the original on 4 January 2015.
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