화엄철학 : 쉽게 풀어쓴 불교철학의 정수 The Buddhist Teaching of Totality 이찬수

싸니까 믿으니까 인터파크도서 - 화엄철학

화엄철학 : 쉽게 풀어쓴 불교철학의 정수[양장]

저 : 까르마 C.C. 츠앙, 이찬수

출판사 : 경서원발행 : 1990년 08월 20일

쪽수 : 428

[중고] 화엄철학  중  9,000원

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목차

머리말

일러두기

들어가는 말

제1부 총체성의 세계

부처의 무한한 경계

총체성에 관한 대화

무애-총체성의 추축

거울로 둘러싸인 방

총체성의 근본원인

보살이 깨달음에 이르기 위한 열 단계

부사의한 불법

삼매, 신통력, 법계

제2부 화엄의 철학적 기초

머리글

제1장 공의 철학

공-불교의 핵심

반야심경의 요지

무아설과 자성공

절대공

쑤냐타와 논리학

쑤냐타의 의의

제2장 총체성의 철학

상즉과 상입-화엄철학의 두 기본 원리

상즉에 대한 검토

사법계 철학

제3장 유심론

마음과 외부의 세계

알라야식과 총체성

제3부 화엄 문헌 몇편과 조사들의 전기

[보현행원품]

[반야심경약소]

[법계관문]

[금사자장]

조사들의 전기

맺음말

옮긴이의 말

낱말풀이

찾아보기

펼쳐보기

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저자소개

까르마 C.C. 츠앙 [저]

펜실바니아 주립대학 종교학과 불교전공 교수.

저서로 [선수행],[티벳 요가의 가르침] 등이 있다.

-------------------------------

이찬수 [저]

서강대학교 화학과를 졸업하고 같은 대학교 대학원 종교학과에서 불교학과 신학으로 각각 석사학위를, 칼 라너(Karl Rahner)와 니시타니 게이지(西谷啓治)를 비교하여 박사학위를 받았다. 강남대학교 교수, (일본)WCRP평화연구소 객원연구원, 대화문화아카데미 연구위원 등을 지냈고, 종교철학에 기반한 평화인문학의 심화와 확장을 연구 과제로 삼고 있다. 저서로 [평화와 평화들: 평화다원주의와 평화인문학], [다르지만 조화한다, 불교와 기독교의 내통], [사람이 사람을 심판할 수 있는가: 사형폐지론과 회복적 정의](공역), [아시아평화공동체]가 있고, 논문으로는펼쳐보기

저자의 다른책

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기대평10.0최근순평점 높은순

kang***

화엄철학의 진수!!

2016/09/07

eunis***

저술이 탁월하여, 화엄경을 읽기 전에, 그리고 읽은 후에 각각 읽어본다면 가슴에 와닿을 것입니다!

2011/04/07

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The Buddhist Teaching of Totality: The Philosophy of Hwa Yen Buddhism, 1971

by Garma C.C. Chang (Author)

4.3 out of 5 stars    9 ratings

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The Hwa Yen school of Mahayana Buddhism bloomed in China in the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. Today many scholars regard its doctrines of Emptiness, Totality, and Mind-Only as the crown of Buddhist thought and as a useful and unique philosophical system and explanation of man, world, and life as intuitively experienced in Zen practice. For the first time in any Western language Garma Chang explains and exemplifies these doctrines with references to both oriental masters and Western philosophers. The Buddha's mystical experience of infinity and totality provides the framework for this objective revelation of the three pervasive and interlocking concepts upon which any study of Mahayana philosophy must depend. Following an introductory section describing the essential differences between Judeo-Christian and Buddhist philosophy, Professor Chang provides an extensive, expertly developed section on the philosophical foundations of Hwa Yen Buddhism dealing with the core concept of True Voidness, the philosophy of Totality, and the doctrine of Mind-Only. A concluding section includes selections of Hwa Yen readings and biographies of the patriarchs, as well as a glossary and list of Chinese terms.

300 pages

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4.7 out of 5 stars 11

Paperback

$24.00

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Editorial Reviews

Review

“That The Buddhist Teaching of Totality is a unique and long-needed contribution to Buddhological literature in English cannot be denied. Not only is it one of the very few introductions to a school of Chinese Buddhism other than Ch’an, it is one of the few attempts in any language to present systematically the essential features of the Flower (Hwa Yen) Garland School, perhaps the most philosophical sophisticated example of Buddhist syncretism ever to be produced.”

—Journal of the American Oriental Society

“Chang’s style is easy and concise, enjoyable, and stimulating. . . . This would be a useful book for any college or university library. Highly recommended.”

—Choice

“[This] is indeed a most welcome addition to the literature on the most comprehensive and most profound branch of Chinese Buddhism, the Hwa Yen School. . . . [It is] a work of real and present value.”

—Main Currents in Modern Thought

“The Western student of Buddhism should be grateful for this first full-length treatment in English of an important and interesting school of Buddhist thought.”

—Philosophy East and West

“This book is highly recommended to advanced students of Buddhism and to Westerners whose interests in Buddhism incline toward the metaphysical and phenomenological.”

—Philosophy and Phenomenological Research

About the Author

Renowned for his English translation of The 100,000 Songs of Milarepa, Garma Chen-Chi Chang was also the author of The Practice of Zen and The Teachings of Tibetan Yoga, and the editor and translator of A Treasury of Mahāyāna Sūtras. At the time of his death in 1988, Dr. Chang was Professor Emeritus of Religious Studies at The Pennsylvania State University.

Product details

Publisher : Pennsylvania State University Press; 1st edition (September 1, 1971)

Language : English

Paperback : 300 pages

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Customer Reviews: 4.3 out of 5 stars    9 ratings

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Top reviews from the United States

Tay Yong Meng

3.0 out of 5 stars The book is well written with very good and clear explanations and examples/parables to enhance the meanings

Reviewed in the United States on January 5, 2017

Verified Purchase

The book is well written with very good and clear explanations and examples/parables to enhance the meanings. However, the ereader version has many typo errors.

One person found this helpful

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richard hunn

5.0 out of 5 stars An authoritative study by an experienced Buddhist

Reviewed in the United States on April 3, 2002

For an easy ride, visit Disneyland. C.C. Chang's study of the Hua Yen is a demanding work, because it presuposes that the reader wishes to find such insight - through practice. The Hua Yen Ching is said to have been expounded immediately after the Buddha's own enlightenment. It is one of the few sutras that actually endeavour to hint about the enlightened state itself- positively, rather than obliquely, by referring to it in relation to what it is not (viz. asrava, klesa defilements, trsna, dualism) - the 'neither-nor' aspect. Hua Yen deals with the 'mutually inclusive' dimension(s) of totality. Beware! Too many Western writings on Hua Yen (Kegon) jump straight into shih-shih wu ai - the 'non-obstruction between thing-events.' But actually, without insight into li-shih wu ai, seeing 'form' as grounded in the kung or 'void' aspect, nobody knows anything about shih-shih wu ai. C.C. Chang had the best Chinese and Tibetan teachers. He writes with authority - because he writes with eperiential insight into what the Hua Yen teaches. I've savoured Chang's work for 25 years, yet it remnains as inspiring and stimulating, as the day I first saw it. A lifelong study this. Find the meaning in your own experience. Candy is for the kids!

31 people found this helpful

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Barnaby A Thieme

3.0 out of 5 stars Good Intro, though sectarian

Reviewed in the United States on May 29, 2002

The Hwa Yen school, which drew chiefly from the Avatamsaka Sutra (translated by Cleary), emphasizes Dharma from the perspective of realization, or enlightened mind. Like the Lotus Sutra, The Avatamsaka Sutra is equally an evocation of a state of mind as a presentation of information. The Hwa Yen thinkers of Sung China used this as their starting point to paint a dazzling portrait of our universe filled with mind-blowing images and rich ideas.

This is a pretty good introduction to Hwa Yen Buddhism, although the reader will have to wade through a fair amount of unapologetic sectarianism. Hwa Yen, we learn, is the "highest" and "most advanced" form of Buddhism, and Chang clearly considers himself to have full knowledge of what Buddha "really meant" in his teachings. Despite this sometimes tedious lack of modesty, the book is a good overview of the history and doctrine of this school. Given the unfortunate paucity of material on this intriguing movement, that is a welcome addition.

19 people found this helpful

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accwai

5.0 out of 5 stars Don't skip this one...

Reviewed in the United States on August 1, 2002

The first reviewer says skip this and go to Thomas Cleary. I would assume that means "Entry into the Inconceivable". I have both actually, and I like "The Buddhist Teaching of Totality" better.

To me, the Cleary approach seems to be just to pick you up and dump you right into the middle of things. By page 24, you're already into the four dharmadatu's. These are very subtle concepts that require serious preparation to understand deeply. They may be interesting doctrines if you're into that kind of thing, but I personally like to see how all the pieces fit together. In that sense, I'm totally lost. The Garma Chang book covers a lot more basics before going into the heavy stuff. The pace may be slower, but in the end, I have a much clearer picture. And after that, the Cleary book becomes much more palatable.

Another reviewer mentioned that Garma Chang seems to think he knows everything. I don't know, but from the writing, it's clear that he has a great deal of personal experience on the subject at hand. His discussion on emptyness, for example, is particularly subtle and insightful. Thomas Cleary, on the other hand, doesn't seem to show much opinion of his own. Much of the "Entry into the Inconceivable" text is translated from Chinese works. Same goes for his translation of the Avatamsaka Sutra itself as well. Even the introduction is paraphrasing of Chinese text. Not that translation is not useful of course...

A bonus included in the Garma Chang book is an almost complete translation of "The Great Vows of Samantabhadra". It is important because it's supposed to give one a good feel for what the complete Avatamsaka is like. It is the last part of the Forty Hwa Yen and is often treated as a separate sutra on its own. (It's also classified as one of the Five Sutras of Pure Land) And it's not in Cleary's English translation of Avatamsaka Sutra, which is strictly a translation of Eighty Hwa Yen.

In any case, I'd probably get both books. They serve different purposes. Seems to me that the person who says to skip this one is treating the meaning of the books as self-existent and real and therefore their relative merit should be completely self-evident. We all know that is not true right?

Read less

43 people found this helpful

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Frank J. Boccio

5.0 out of 5 stars A justifiably classic "Classic."

Reviewed in the United States on March 24, 2007

Chang has done something really important and necessary in writing this concise and comprehensible overview of Hwa-Yen philosophy. I'd recommend this to any student who wishes to cultivate a deeper understanding of the Avatamsaka Sutra and the elements of Mahayana thought that culminates in Hwa-Yen.

3 people found this helpful

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Peter Kalnin

Apr 13, 2020Peter Kalnin rated it it was amazing

This was another writer whom Professor Francis Cook introduced to a very small class of students at the University of California, Riverside in 1971. I felt honored and privileged to have been a part of that group and very lucky to have Professor Cook as a guide to an esoteric but beautiful part of the Buddhist cannon.

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Thank you Professor Cook.

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Greg

Mar 30, 2009Greg rated it really liked it

Shelves: buddhism

This is an excellent introduction to the doctrines of Hwa Yen Buddhism. The author does a good job of distinguishing that school from other schools of Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. One thing that the author stresses is that although there is a large doctrinal literature, really what the doctrine is meant to do is not build philosophical systems, but rather to explain the experiences that practitioners have while meditating - i.e., enlightenment.

Presence and Process A Path Toward Transformative Faith and Inclusive Community Daniel P. Coleman

Presence and Process

Presence and Process: A Path Toward Transformative Faith and Inclusive Community

author: Daniel P. Coleman

The North American Christian church of the early twenty-first century finds itself in a period of decline. A growing percentage of young adults are not entering the front doors of churches while at the same time older and previously dedicated Christians are leaving. Coinciding with the deflation of the Western church is the explosion in popular culture of the mindfulness movement, which emphasizes meditation practices derived from Buddhism. These concurrent phenomena—the decline of Christendom in North America and the rise of a Westernized form of Buddhism and various secularized applications of Buddhist meditative practice—form an interesting juxtaposition that warrants exploration.

published:
2017


The North American Christian church of the early twenty-first century finds itself in a period of decline. A growing percentage of young adults are not entering the front doors of churches while at the same time older and previously dedicated Christians are leaving. Reasons for the rise of the Nones and the Dones have been well-documented: they have found the institutional church to be increasingly irrelevant to their lives; they want to be part of an engaged and interactive community rather than members of a passive audience; they are sick of judgmentalism and exclusion; they question the efficacy of churches spending 85 percent of their budgets on buildings and pastoral salaries; they are not in accord with political/ideological stances of their churches or denominations; they are disinterested in serving organizational structures; or they simply no longer believe the doctrines taught by the churches in which they grew up. Coinciding with the deflation of the Western church and the dramatic increase in Nones and Dones is the explosion in popular culture of the mindfulness movement, which emphasizes meditation practices derived from Buddhism. These concurrent phenomena—the decline of Christendom in North America and the rise of a Westernized form of Buddhism and various secularized applications of Buddhist meditative practice—form an interesting juxtaposition that warrants exploration.

In Presence and Process, Daniel Coleman has created a unique and useful synthesis—showing how a convergence of perennialism, process theology, and mysticism (Christian, Buddhist, and Quaker) could have a profound role in fostering spiritual formation in this postmodern, post-Christendom age. This is a pioneering work of practical theology.
Richard Rohr
author of Falling Upward: A Spirituality for the Two Halves of Life

After three decades in Quaker ministry, I’ve noticed how religious traditions I once believed to be separate pursuits now merge as one. Truth, as it turns out, is happy to share the road with others. Daniel Coleman’s helpful book, Presence and Process, marries Christianity and Buddhism for contemporary seekers. Both traditions are honored, both enriched, and both made better by Coleman’s thoughtful union.
Philip Gulley
author of Living the Quaker Way: Discover the Hidden Happiness in the Simple Life

In our time when people are leaving church but are as spiritual as ever, inclusive and incisive resources such as Presence and Process are deeply needed. As interest grows in mystical traditions, bridges of recognition are built in surprising places. This wise, well-researched book creatively weaves Buddhism, mystical Christianity, Quakerism, and process theology. It is just this type of sensitive boundary-crossing that will help lay groundwork for the meaning-seekers of the future.
Mark Longhurst
editor of Ordinary Mystic

Presence and Process is an amazing book. It provides the best, most compact introduction I’ve come across to key concepts like mysticism, contemplation, and process theology. It explores the productive ferment that is taking place at the intersection of Christianity and Buddhism. And it invites practitioners to imagine a new kind of church for the journey before us. I highly recommend Presence and Process.
Brian D. McLaren
author of The Great Spiritual Migration

Daniel Coleman’s book points the way to a global spirituality, joining East and West, and theology and philosophy. Intellectually solid and spiritually insightful, Coleman’s text captures the heart of the Buddhist and Christian mystical traditions in ways that respond to the needs of spiritual seekers of our time. Presence and Process is an excellent invitation to the growing global mysticism of our time in which spiritual pilgrims creatively integrate practices from diverse religious traditions and in so doing not only experience spiritual insight but transform these traditions themselves. In a time when religious institutions are struggling to survive, Coleman provides a pathway to institutional and spiritual transformation through lively global and earth-affirming spirituality.
Bruce Epperly
author of Becoming Fire: Spiritual Practices for Global Christians
and The Gospel According to Winnie the Pooh

While some long for fruitful dialogue between Christianity and Buddhism, Daniel is bringing in the first fruits of the harvest! In Presence and Process, you get a clear and insightful invitation to a place where the boundaries we have inherited between the East and West, contemplation and justice, and theory and practice are dissolved. I loved so much of this book, but can’t wait for church leaders to take the ecclesiological vision to heart.
Tripp Fuller
host of Homebrewed Christianity

Coleman works from a fertile field of thinkers in order to unpack—as much as such a thing is possible—the experiential core of Christian and Buddhist practices. His account of contemplation is a much-needed corrective to the empty moralism afflicting many religious communities. The resulting synthesis of Vipassana and apophasis has as much to offer the lay practitioner as the professional theologian.
J. R. Hustwit
author of Interreligious Hermeneutics and the Pursuit of Truth

If Karl Rahner predicted that the survival of Christianity will depend on Christians becoming mystics, Daniel Coleman shows why that is the case and how Rahner’s hopes might be realized. His review and comparison of Christian and Buddhist contemplative practices will speak to both those who are struggling with, as well as those who are looking beyond, organized religion. The book’s brevity belies its engaging richness.
Paul F. Knitter
author of Without Buddha I Could Not Be a Christian




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Presence and Process: A Path Toward Transformative Faith and Inclusive Community

by Daniel P. Coleman, Darryl Brown (Cover Design)

4.43 · Rating details · 7 ratings · 3 reviews
Average rating4.43 · Rating details · 7 ratings · 3 reviews

Write a review

Nicholas

Aug 12, 2020Nicholas rated it liked it · review of another edition

The book has a good list of recommended reading at the end to find out more about the the main subjects of the book: Christan contemplation, Buddhist meditation, and process theology. The author strung a lot of quotes together, which made it a dry read. While the overview of each topic was informative, the book lacks synthesis at the conclusion. The author's main stance on community is to build centered on the practices of contemplation rather than creeds. The book felt half-finished, without a practical outline of how to build the kind of communities the book envisions. (less)

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dp

Nov 29, 2017dp rated it it was amazing

Very informative and engaging work. Coleman provides great introductions to Christian meditation and contemplative practices, as well as Buddhism & process theology. I think this is an ideal primer/jumping off point to go deeper into any of these disciplines, and to have a solid framework from which a more robust praxis can be built.

flagLike · comment · see review

Cara Meredith

Nov 01, 2017Cara Meredith rated it liked it



Great in concept and in application, but a bit of a heady theological read ...which wasn’t exactly what I was craving upon reading about the subject.
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Product description

Review

"In Presence and Process, Daniel Coleman has created a unique and useful synthesis--showing how a convergence of perennialism, process theology, and mysticism (Christian, Buddhist, and Quaker) could have a profound role in fostering spiritual formation in this postmodern, post-Christendom age. This is a pioneering work of practical theology." - Richard Rohr, author of Falling Upward: A Spirituality for the Two Halves of Life




"Presence and Process is an amazing book. It provides the best, most compact introduction I've come across to key concepts like mysticism, contemplation, and process theology. It explores the productive ferment that is taking place at the intersection of Christianity and Buddhism. And it invites practitioners to imagine a new kind of church for the journey before us. I highly recommend Presence and Process." - Brian D. McLaren, author of The Great Spiritual Migration




"After three decades in Quaker ministry, I've noticed how religious traditions I once believed to be separate pursuits now merge as one. Truth, as it turns out, is happy to share the road with others. Daniel Coleman's helpful book, Presence and Process, marries Christianity and Buddhism for contemporary seekers. Both traditions are honored, both enriched, and both made better by Coleman's thoughtful union." - Philip Gulley, author of Living the Quaker Way: Discover the Hidden Happiness in the Simple Life




"Daniel Coleman's book points the way to a global spirituality, joining East and West, and theology and philosophy. Intellectually solid and spiritually insightful, Coleman's text captures the heart of the Buddhist and Christian mystical traditions in ways that respond to the needs of spiritual seekers of our time. Presence and Process is an excellent invitation to the growing global mysticism of our time in which spiritual pilgrims creatively integrate practices from diverse religious traditions and in so doing not only experience spiritual insight but transform these traditions themselves. In a time when religious institutions are struggling to survive, Coleman provides a pathway to institutional and spiritual transformation through lively global and earth-affirming spirituality." - Bruce Epperly, author of Becoming Fire: Spiritual Practices for Global Christians and The Gospel According to Winnie the Pooh




"Coleman works from a fertile field of thinkers in order to unpack--as much as such a thing is possible--the experiential core of Christian and Buddhist practices. His account of contemplation is a much-needed corrective to the empty moralism afflicting many religious communities. The resulting synthesis of Vipassana and apophasis has as much to offer the lay practitioner as the professional theologian." - J. R. Hustwit, author of Interreligious Hermeneutics and the Pursuit of Truth




"If Karl Rahner predicted that the survival of Christianity will depend on Christians becoming mystics, Daniel Coleman shows why that is the case and how Rahner's hopes might be realized. His review and comparison of Christian and Buddhist contemplative practices will speak to both those who are struggling with, as well as those who are looking beyond, organized religion. The book's brevity belies its engaging richness." - Paul F. Knitter, author of Without Buddha I Could Not Be a Christian




--This text refers to the paperback edition.

About the Author

Daniel P. Coleman holds an M.A. in Religion from the Earlham School of Religion and describes himself as a progressive Christian Quaker theologian with Buddhist leanings. His work touches on contemplative spirituality, process theology, interfaith dialogue, Quakerism, and biblical studies. Daniel and his wife, Carla, live in Seattle, Washington. --This text refers to the paperback edition.

Product details

ASIN : B079G6MZP8

Publisher : Barclay Press (29 January 2018)
Print length : 233 pages

Customer Reviews: 4.7 out of 5 stars 5 ratings

Customer reviews

4.7 out of 5 stars

5.0 out of 5 stars Excellent spirit-oriented book we needed right now. Timely and well done!

Reviewed in the United States on 18 January 2019

Verified Purchase

I predict Presence and Process is going to be an essential stepping off text for those looking for a deeper spiritual life beyond creed and dogma. Coleman has done a fine job of bringing together in one text the various strands of meditative spirituality that are presently active in our culture. The quotes in the book, from sources he has chosen, are just spot on, bringing clarity and inspiration in one blow. Wonderful. If you are already meditating alone and want to start a local meditation group that is not tied to a specific limiting institution, this could be a very helpful book. Just a wish on my part, as a long time student of Soto Zen, would be for Coleman to do a second book that would examine the fine contributions that could be made to his ongoing project from Zen Masters like: Kosho Uchiyama, Dainin Katagiri, Shohaku Okumura, Kodo Sawaki; also including spiritual teachers like Eckhart Tolle, Toni Packer, and Ajahn Sumedho. Coleman has planted a valuable seed book to move us along. We learn by going where we have to go (Roethke).

One person found this helpful

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Jazzman

5.0 out of 5 stars On the Path Toward Transformation

Reviewed in the United States on 19 September 2017

Verified Purchase

I thoroughly enjoyed this very well researched, exceptional book on the history of Christian contemplation/meditation and it's relevancy for individuals seeking a deeper interior relationship with God. There is much to learn from reading this book with pages and pages of excellent resources for continued study. Daniel Coleman finds just the right intersection between the Quaker faith, Buddhism and Christian mysticism. I would highly recommend this book to anyone in the Centering Prayer community.

One person found this helpful

Report abuse

DP

5.0 out of 5 stars A Fresh Perspective on Spirituality

Reviewed in the United States on 30 November 2017

Verified Purchase

Very informative and engaging work. Coleman provides great introductions to Christian meditation and contemplative practices, as well as Buddhism & process theology. I think this is an ideal primer/jumping off point to go deeper into any of these disciplines, and to have a solid framework from which a more robust praxis can be built.

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Park, Han S.

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오강남 - 함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의-- 신비주의적 관점을 중심으로

함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의-오강남 > 연구논문 | 바보새함석헌

함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의
- 신비주의적 관점을 중심으로

오강남 (리자이나대학교 명예교수 종교학)

들어가는 말


제가 함석헌 선생님을 뵌 것은 몇 번에 지나지 않지만 제가 받은 강력한 인상으로 인해 이런 만남들을 아직까지 생생하게 기억하고 있습니다. 1963년 8월 대광 고등학교에서 시국 강연을 하실 때 수많은 청중에 끼어서 흰 두루마기를 입으신 함 선생님의 모습을 처음으로 뵈었고, 그 후 대중 강연 때 몇 번 뵌 적이 있습니다. 특히 1978년 제가 캐나다 에드먼튼에 있는 알버타 대학에서 가르칠 때 친구 김영호 교수의 주선으로 함 선생님이 알버타 대학 강당에서 교민들을 위해 강연하시고, 그 날 밤 저의 집에 묵으시고, 다음날 교수회관에서 종교학과 교수들과 대화하시던 모습은 지금도 눈에 보이는 듯합니다. 돌아가시기 얼마 전에 김영호 교수, 황필호 교수와 함께 우이동 댁으로 찾아 뵈었을 때 동경 유학시절 겪으셨던 관동지진 때의 경험을 들려주신 것도 또렷하게 기억하고 있습니다.


이런 몇 번의 행복한 만남에도 불구하고, 또 함 선생님의 글을 열심히 읽은 편이기는 하지만, 유감스럽게도, 저는 함석헌 선생님의 사상을 전문적으로나 체계적으로 연구할 수 있는 기회를 얻지 못했습니다. 작년 5월 이 모임에 참석했다가 박재순 교수님과 김성수 교수님이 저에게 이번 강연을 맡으시라고 강권하시는 바람에 전문가도 아닌 주제에 얼떨결에 수락하였다가 지난 1년 본격적으로 충분히 연구할 여유를 얻지도 못한 채 1년 내내 걱정만 하면서 시간을 다 보냈습니다. 이렇게 여러 전문 연구인들이 모인 자리에서 비전문가로서 말씀드리는 것이 송구스러울 따름입니다. 그저 평소 제가 비교종교학을 가르치면서 관심을 가지고 있던 몇 가지 문제와 연관해서 함 선생님 사상의 종교사적 의의를 부각시켜보려고 합니다. 제가 발표를 한다기 보다 그저 말머리를 트고 여러분의 고견에서 많은 것을 배우려는 마음으로 몇 마디 말씀드리는 것이라 이해해주시기 바랍니다.

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무엇보다 먼저 제가 강조하고 싶은 것은 다석 류영모 선생님이나 심천 함석헌 선생님의 사상은 세계적으로 각광을 받아야 마땅하다고 생각한다는 것입니다. 현재 세계의 많은 종교학자들이나 사상사 전공인들이 일본의 니시다 기타로(西田畿多郞, 1870-1940)나 스즈끼 다이세츠(鈴木大拙, 1970-1966))에 대해 이야기하고 연구하는 것을 보면서, 저는 류영모 선생님이나 함석헌 선생님에 대한 연구도 이에 못 미칠 이유가 없다고 봅니다. 몇 년 전 서울신대의 최인식 교수가 미국 종교학회에 참석했을 때 저는 그분에게 미국종교학회 연회에 함석헌 패널을 하나 만들어 함석헌 연구자들이 논문을 발표할 수 있는 기회를 갖도록 하는 것이 어떻겠느냐고 제안한 적이 있는데, 최인식 교수의 노력도 불구하고 아직 실현되지 않고 있는 것이 안타까운 일이라 생각합니다. 곧 그런 일이 성사되기 빕니다.


저는 이 논문에서 함석헌 선생님의 사상을 세계 종교사에서 면면히 흐르는 ‘신비주의’의 맥락에서 한번 구체적으로 짚어보고 그 의의를 되새겨 보고 싶습니다. 함 선생님이 스스로를 신비주의자로 의식하셨는지, 혹은 정말로 신비주의자이셨는지, 저로서는 잘 알지 못합니다. 그러나 그는 천안에서 씨알농장을 경영할 때 거기 모인 사람들과 매일 새벽 여섯시에 일어나 30분씩 명상의 시간을 가졌고,1) 또 퀘이커 교도로서 적어도 매주 한 시간씩의 침묵 예배, 곧 명상을 실천한 분이었습니다. 또 훌륭한 종교라면 그 속에 ‘신비’가 있어야 함을 말씀하셨고,2) “나는 지금도 ‘그이’가 내 속에 말씀하시는 것을 듣는다”는 말씀도 하셨습니다. 

그러나 제가 강조하고 싶은 것은 무엇보다 그의 사상을 전체적으로 살펴보면 그것이 세계 종교 전통의 심층에 보편적으로 흐르는 신비주의 전통과 맥을 같이 하고 있다는 사실을 발견하게 된다는 것입니다. 저는 이 짧은 글에서 신비주의에 대해 약간 언급하고, 제가 언제나 관심을 가지고 있는 네 가지 관점에서 함 선생님의 사상이 어떻게 신비주의 전통들과 맞닿아 있는가를 잠시 살펴보고자 합니다. 물론 이 네 가지 관점이란 서로 연관되어 있어서 완전히 독립된 항목들은 아니지만 편의상 그냥 네 가지 정도로 간추려 보는 것뿐입니다.


신비주의란 무엇인가?

‘신비주의’라고 하면 일반적으로 부정적인 시각으로 보기 일쑤입니다. ‘신비주의’라는 말의 애매성 때문이라 할 수 있습니다. 똑 같은 말은 아니지만 신비주의라는 말 대신 ‘영성’이라는 말이라든가, 라이프니츠가 창안한 ‘영속철학(perennial philosophy)’이라는 말을 쓰는 이도 있지만 이런 말들도 모호하기는 마찬가지입니다.3)

이런 애매함이나 모호함을 덜기 위해 독일어에서는 신비주의와 관련하여 두 가지 말을 사용하고 있습니다. 

부정적인 뜻으로서의 신비주의를 ‘Mystismus’라고 합니다. 일반적으로 영매, 육체이탈, 점성술, 마술, 천리안 등 초자연 현상이나 그리스도교 부흥회에서 흔히 발견되는 열광적 흥분, 신유체험 등과 같은 것을 지칭하는 말입니다. 이런 일에 관심을 보이거나 거기에 관여하는 사람을 ‘Mystizist’라 합니다. 

이와는 대조적으로 종교의 가장 깊은 면, 인간의 말로 표현할 수 없는 순수한 종교적 체험을 목표로 하는 신비주의는 ‘Mystik’이라 하고 이와 관계되거나 이런 일을 경험하는 사람을 ‘Mystiker’라 합니다. 함석헌 선생님의 사상이 ‘신비주의’ 전통과 맥을 같이 한다고 할 때 제가 말씀드리는 신비주의는 물론 후자에 속한 것입니다.

신비주의에 대한 정의로 중세 이후 많이 쓰이던 ‘cognitio Dei experimentalis’라는 말이 있습니다. ‘하느님을 체험적으로 인식하기’입니다. 하느님, 절대자, 궁극실재를 아는 것입니다. 그러나 이 때 ‘안다’고 하는 것은 이론이나 추론이나 개념이나 논리나 교설이나 문자를 통하거나 다른 사람이 하는 권위 있는 말을 믿는 믿음을 통해서 아는 것이 아니라, 내 자신의 영적 눈이 열림을 통해, 내 자신의 내면적 깨달음을 통해, 직접적으로, 체험적으로 안다는 것을 의미합니다. 사실 “종교에서 이런 신비주의적 요소가 없는 종교는 진정한 의미에서 종교라 할 수 없다.”고 볼 수 있습니다.4) 그래도 ‘신비주의’라는 말이 거슬린다고 생각하시면, 일단은 그것을 ‘심층 종교’나 ‘열린 종교’ 등으로 바꾸어 읽으셔도 좋으리라 생각합니다.

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함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의


1. 문자주의를 극복하고 신앙에서 자라가라


“경전의 생명은 그 정신에 있으므로 늘 끊임없이 고쳐 해석하여야 한다.... 소위 정통주의라 하여 믿음의 살고 남은 껍질인 경전의 글귀를 그대로 지키려는 가엾은 것들은 사정없는 역사의 행진에 버림을 당할 것이다. 아니다, 역사가 버리는 것이 아니라 자기네가 스스로 역사를 버리는 것이다.”5)


“신앙은 생장기능(生長機能)을 가지고 있다. 이 생장은 육체적 생명에서도 그 특성의 하나이지만, 신앙에 있어서도 그러하다. 신앙에서 신앙으로 자라나 마침내 완전한 데 이르는 것이 산 신앙이다.”6)


종교적 진술을 문자적으로 이해하려는 “근본주의적 태도”는 종교의 더욱 깊은 뜻을 이해하는데 가장 큰 걸림돌이 됩니다. 이런 근본주의적 문자주의는 어느 종교에나 다 있는 일이지만 특히 유대교, 그리스도교, 이슬람에 두드러지게 나타나는 현상입니다.7) 신학자 폴 틸리히가 적절히 지적한 것처럼, “성경을 문자적으로 읽으면 심각하게 받아들일 수 없고, 심각하게 받아들이려면 문자적으로 읽을 수 없다”는 것이 사실입니다.


미국의 종교 심리학자 윌리엄 제임스(William James, 1842-1910)는 신비 체험의 네 가지 특징 중 하나가 ‘말로 표현할 수 없음(ineffability)’이라고 하였습니다.8) <도덕경>1장 첫머리에 언급된 것처럼 “말로 표현한 도는 진정한 도가 아니라”는 것입니다. 궁극 실재나 진리는 말로 표현할 수 없으므로 말의 표피적이고 문자적인 뜻에 사로잡히지 말고 그야말로 ‘불립문자(不立文字)’의 입장을 취해야 한다는 것입니다. 세계의 여러 신비 전통에서는 언제나 표피적인 의미와 심층적인 의미를 분간하고 표피적인 의미를 지나 심층적인 뜻을 간파하라고 가르칩니다. 가장 잘 알려진 예로 경전이나 의식 등 외부적인 것들은 결국 “달을 가리키는 손가락”이라고 강조하는 선불교의 가르침을 들 수 있을 것입니다.


제가 여기서 특히 소개하고 싶은 것은 종교적 진술의 뜻을 좀 더 세분하여 네 가지 차원이 있다고 하는 초기 그리스도교 영지주의(Gnosticism)의 가르침입니다.9) 그리스도교 영지주의, 혹은 영지주의적 그리스도교에서는 모든 종교적 진술에는 적어도 다음과 같이 네 가지 차원이 있다고 주장합니다.


1) 물리적(physical, hylic, 땅) 차원,
2) 심리적(psychological, psychic, 물) 차원,
3) 영적(spiritual, pneumatic, 공기=영) 차원,
4) 신비적(mystical, gnostic, 불) 차원입니다.


첫째 차원은 종교와 별로 관계가 없는 일상적 차원입니다. 이른바 육이나 땅에 속한 사람들이 종교와 상관없이 살아가면서 눈에 보이는 데 따라 극히 표피적으로 이해하는 세상입니다. 이들이 종교에 관심을 갖고 물로 세례를 받으면 둘째 차원으로 들어가는데, 이 단계에서는 예수의 죽음, 부활, 재림 등의 종교적 진술이나 이야기를 ‘문자적’인 뜻으로 받아들이고 이런 문자적인 의미에서 일종의 심리적 기쁨이나 안위를 얻습니다. ‘그리스도교의 외적 비밀(the Outer Mysteries of Christianity)’에 접한 것입니다. 여기서 나아가 영으로 세례를 받으면 예수의 죽음과 부활과 재림 등의 이야기가 전해주는 셋째 차원의 뜻, 곧 ‘은유적(allegorical)’ 혹은 ‘신화적(mythical)’ 혹은 영적 의미를 파악한 영적 사람이 됩니다. 이들이 바로 그리스도교의 내적 비밀(the Inner Mysteries of Christianity)에 접한 사람들입니다. 이들이 더 나아가 최종적으로 불로 세례를 받으면 그리스도와 하나 됨이라는 신비 체험에 이르고, 더 이상 문자적이나 은유적이나 영적인 차원의 뜻이 필요 없는 경지에 이르는 것입니다.10)


함 선생님은 이와 완전히 같지는 않지만 삶의 단계 혹은 의식의 단계를 다음과 같이 말했습니다:


“생명에는 세 단계가 있다. 맨 밑은 물질이고 그 다음은 마음이고 맨 위에 영 혹은 정신이다. 우리의 생명은 육체에서 시작하여 영에까지 자라는 것이다. 육체에는 자유가 없다. 온전히 물질에 의존한다. 영은 순전히 자유하다.

“평화운동은 전체의식이 없이는 될 수 없다. 우리는 하나다 하는 자각이 모든 가치활동의 근원이 된다.... 그 의식이 없을 때 그것을 이루는 각 분자는 이기주의에 떨어질 수밖에 없고 따라서 배타적이 되므로 거기는 싸움이 일어나고야 만다.”11)

저는 이를 쉽게 이해할 수 있도록 하기 위해서 크리스마스와 산타크로스 이야기를 즐겨 사용합니다. 어릴 때는 내가 착한 어린이가 되면 크리스마스 이브에 산타 할아버지가 와서 벽난로 옆에 걸린 양말에 선물을 잔뜩 집어넣고 간다는 것을 문자 그대로 믿습니다. 산타 이야기는 그 아이에게 기쁨과 희망과 의미의 원천이기도 합니다. 일 년 내내 싼타 할아버지의 선물을 위해 착한 아이가 되려고 애를 씁니다.

나이가 들면서 자기 동네에 500집이 있는데, 싼타 할아버지가 어떻게 그 많은 집에 한꺼번에 찾아와 선물을 주고 갈 수 있는가, 우리 집 굴뚝은 특별히 좁은데 그 뚱뚱한 싼타 할아버지가 어떻게 굴뚝을 타고 내려올 수 있는가, 학교에서 배운 바에 의하면 지금 오스트랄리아에는 여름이라 눈이 없다는데 어떻게 썰매를 타고 갈 수 있을까 하는 등의 의심이 들기 시작합니다. 그러다가 어느 날은 자기 아빠 엄마가 양말에 선물을 넣는 것을 보게 되었습니다. “아, 크리스마스는 식구들끼리 서로 사랑을 나누는 시간이구나. 나도 엄마 아빠, 동생에게 선물을 해야지.”하는 단계로 올라갑니다. 싼타 이야기의 문자적 의미를 넘어선 것입니다. 예전처럼 여전히 즐거운 마음으로 똑 같이 “징글벨, 징글벨”을 불러도 이제 자기가 싼타 할아버지에게서 선물을 받는다는 생각보다는 선물을 서로 주고받는 일이 더욱 의미있고 아름다운 일이라는 생각을 하게 됩니다.

좀 더 나이가 들어 크리스마스와 싼타 이야기는 교회 교인 전부, 혹은 온 동네 사람들 전부가 다 같이 축제에 참여하여 서로 선물이나 카드를 주고받음으로 즐거움을 나누고 사회적 유대를 더욱 강화하는 기회가 된다는 것을 깨닫게 됩니다. 좀 더 장성하면, 사실 장성한다고 다 이런 단계에 이르는 것은 아니지만, 아무튼 더욱 성숙된 안목을 갖게 되면 크리스마스 이야기는 하느님이 땅으로 내려오시고 인간이 그를 영접한다는 천지합일의 신비적 의미를 해마다 경축하고 재연한다는 의미도 있을 수 있구나 하는 것까지 알게 됩니다.

물론 이 예화에서 싼타 이야기의 문자적 의미, 윤리적 의미, 사회공동체적 의미, 신비적 의미 등 점진적으로 심화된 의미를 알아보게 되는 과정이 영지주의에서 말하는 네 가지 발전단계와 완전히 일치하는 것은 아니지만, 적어도 깊은 신앙이란 문자주의를 극복하고 이를 초월함으로써 가능하다는 것을 말하는 점에서 맥을 같이 한다고 볼 수 있을 것입니다.

저는 함 선생님의 기본 가르침이 이처럼 문자주의를 극복함으로 종교의 진수에 접하라는 권고라고 생각합니다. 함 선생님은 젊은 시절부터 성서를 읽되 문자적으로 읽기를 거부하고 성서에서 그 당시 조선인들에게 성서가 줄 수 있는 더 깊은 ‘뜻’을 찾아내려고 했습니다. 성서뿐만 아니라 그의 전 생애를 통해 동서고금의 종교 문헌을 섭렵하면서 그런 문헌의 문자 뒤에 담긴 뜻을 우리에게 전하려고 했습니다. 이 말은 그가 문자주의의 제한성을 넘어서 종교적 진술이나 예식을 “상징적으로” “은유적으로” 읽었다는 것을 의미합니다. 이렇게 문자주의를 극복할 때 우리의 신앙은 계속 자라나 “완전한 데” 이를 수 있다고 보신 것입니다.


2. 참나를 찾으라


“하나님의 구체적인 모습이 민중이요 민중 속에 살아 있는 산 힘이 하나님이다.”
“하나님은 다른 데선 만날 데가 없고, 우리 마음속에, 생각하는 데서만 만날 수가 있다.”
“자기를 존경함은 자기 안에 하나님을 믿음이다....그것이 자기발견이다.”12)


영국 사상가로서 The Perennial Philosophy 라는 책을 쓴 올더스 헉슬리(Aldous Huxley)는 세계 여러 종교의 신비주의 전통에서 발견되는 공통점들을 열거하면서 힌두교에서 말하는 “tat tvam asi,” 곧 범아일여(梵我一如) 개념을 첫 번째 항목으로 들었습니다.13) 헉슬리의 말을 빌리지 않더라도 우리가 관찰할 수 있는 세계 신비주의 전통들을 살펴보면 한결같이 “신이 내 속에 있다,” “가장 깊은 면에서 신과 나는 결국 하나다” 하는 생각을 강조하고 있습니다. 여기서 한 가지 주의해야 할 점은 이런 신관은 신의 내재(內在)만을 주장하고 신의 초월(超越)을 무시하거나 신과 나를 전혀 구별하지 않고 양자를 완전히 동일시하는 범신론(汎神論, pantheism)과 분명히 구별해야 한다는 것입니다. 신비주의 전통에서 공통적으로 보이는 입장은 나와 신을 구별하여 신의 초월성을 인정하면서 동시에 신의 내재성을 함께 수납하는 이른바 범재신론(汎在神論, panentheism)적 신관이라 할 수 있습니다. 

범재신론은 다른 모든 사물에서와 마찬가지로 “내 ‘속에’ 신적인 요소가 있다,” “나의 바탕은 신적인 것이다”, “나의 가장 밑 바탕은 신의 차원과 닿아 있다” 하는 것을 강조합니다. 말하자면 신의 초월과 동시에 내재를 함께 강조하는 ‘변증법적 유신론’이라 할 수도 있습니다.14) 세계 신비전통에 나타나는 이런 유형의 신관 몇 개 만 예로 들어 봅니다.

가장 잘 알려진 것으로 “내 속에 불성이 있다”고 하는 것을 강조하는 불교의 불성 사상이라 할 수 있습니다. 이를 좀 더 구체적으로 표현한 것이 바로 “여래장(如來藏, tathāgatagarbha) 사상입니다. ‘장(garbha)’이라는 말은 ‘태반(matrix)’과 ‘태아(fetus)’라는 이중적인 뜻을 가지고 있기에 우리는 모두 생래적으로 여래 곧 부처님의 ‘씨앗’과 그 씨앗을 싹트게 할 ‘바탕’을 내장하고 있다는 뜻입니다. 인간이란 너나 할 것 없이 모두 이 잠재적 요소를 깨닫고 성불할 수 있는 가능성을 지니고 있다는 생각입니다.


이와 덧붙여 한마디 할 수 있는 것은 부처님이 출생하자 말자 “천상천하 유아독존(天上天下唯我獨尊)”이라고 했다는 말을 두고서도 여기의 ‘나(我)’란 ‘고타마 싯다르다’라는 역사적 개인을 지칭하는 것이 아니라 내 속에 있는 불성, 혹은 ‘참나’를 가리키는 말이므로 이 참나야 말로 천상천하에서 오로지 높임을 받아 마땅한 것이라 풀이할 수 있다고 봅니다. 만약 이런 풀이가 가능하다면 예수님이 “나는 길이요 진리요 생명”이라고 했을 때 그 ‘나’도 결국 역사적 예수를 지칭하는 것이라 보기보다 “아브라함 보다 먼저” 있었던 그리스도, 그의 바탕이 되는 신적 요소, 그의 참나를 가리키는 말로 이해할 수도 있을 것이라 봅니다.15)


물론 예수님도 직접 “내가 아버지 안에 있고 아버지께서 내 안에 계시다”(요14:10)고 했습니다. 사도 바울도 “나는 그리스도와 함께 십자가에 못 박혔습니다. 이제 살고 있는 것은 내가 아닙니다. 그리스도께서 내 안에서 살고 계십니다.”(갈2:20)고 했습니다. 이런 것을 보면 그리스도교 초기부터 신성의 내재라는 신비주의적 특색을 강조하는 저류가 강했음을 알 수 있습니다. 비록 콘스탄티누스 황제의 정치적 의도에 의해 그리스도교 내에서 이런 신비적 흐름이 억눌리고 문자주의적 그리스도인들이 득세하는 비극이 초래되기는 했지만 이런 사상은 그리스도교 전통 속에 면면히 이어져 온 것 또한 사실입니다. 중세 가장 위대한 그리스도교 신비 사상가 마이스터 에크하르트(Meister Eckhart, 1260-1328)도 “영혼 속에는 창조되지도 않았고 창조될 수도 없는 무엇이 있다”고 했고 그 외의 많은 신비주의 그리스도 사상가들이 우리 속에 있는 그리스도, 그리스도의 씨앗, 그리스도의 탄생 등에 대해 계속 이야기합니다. 특히 지금까지 기독교 신비 전통의 한 가닥을 이어가고 있는 퀘이커교에서는 우리 속에 있는 신적인 요소를 ‘신의 한 부분(that part of God)’ 혹은 ‘내적 빛(inner light)’이라는 말로 표현합니다.

어느 종교보다도 신의 초월을 강조하는 이슬람교에서조차 신의 내재를 동시에 역설하는 수피(Sufi) 전통이 있습니다. 그들은 신이 내 “우리의 핏줄보다도 우리에게 가까운 분”이라는 쿠란의 말을 근거로 하여 신의 내재성과 ‘신에로의 몰입’을 주장합니다. “만물 안에 내재한 그 일자(一者)를 보라”고 가르칩니다.

동양 사상 중 특히 ‘우리가 한울님을 모시고 있다’는 것을 강조하는 동학의 시천주(侍天主) 사상도 이와 맥을 같이 한다고 봅니다.

저는 우리 속에 있는 신적 요소, 혹은 내재적 하느님 사상을 학생들에게 더욱 이해하기 쉽도록 하기 위해, 물론 얼마간의 무리와 오해의 위험이 있음을 알면서도, 저 나름대로 이렇게 설명합니다. 우리가 ‘나’라고 할 때 제일 먼저 나를 나의 ‘몸’과 동일시하는 것이 보통입니다. 몸이 아프면 바로 ‘내가’ 아픈 것입니다. 그러나 가만히 생각해보면 우리가 ‘나의 몸’이라고 하는 것은 나와 몸이 하나가 아니고 몸은 ‘나’라고 하는 무엇이 가지고 있는 소유물이라는 뜻입니다. 그러면 몸을 소유하고 있는 나는 무엇인가? 마음인가? 그러나 여기서도 역시 ‘나의 마음’이라고 하는 것을 보면 마음의 소유자, 주인이 마음과 별도로 존재한다는 뜻입니다. 그러면 영혼이 나인가? 역시 마찬가지로 ‘나의’ 영혼이라고 하는 것을 보면 영혼이 주인이 아니고 영혼을 소유하고 있는 ‘나’라고 하는 더 근본적인 주인이 따로 있다는 뜻입니다. 그러면 나의 몸도, 마음도, 영혼도 아닌 그 근본 주인, 그 소유자, 그 바탕이 무엇인가? 우리는 그것을 ‘참 나,’ 혹은 내 속에 있는 ‘신적 요소,’ ‘내 속의 하느님’이라 할 수 있지 않겠는가 하고 설명해 봅니다.


중세 그리스도교 신비주의자 제노아의 성 캐더린(St. Catherine of Genoa)의 말: “나의 나는 하느님이다. 내 하느님 자신 이외에 다른 나를 볼 수 없다.”(My Me is God, nor do I recognize any other Me except my God Himself.)16)고 한 것은 나의 진정한 나는 결국 신일 수밖에 없다는 생각을 잘 표현한 것이라 여겨집니다.17)


물론 이런 이론적 설명이 완전히 만족스러운 것은 아닙니다. 이런 설명과 함께 명상을 권장하기도 합니다. 깊은 명상 속에서 우리는 나의 몸이나 감정이나 마음 상태를 관찰하는 ‘또 하나의 나’를 의식하게 됩니다. 다시 가만히 보면 나의 몸이나 감정이나 마음 상태를 관찰하는 그 또 하나의 나를 관찰하는 또 다른 관찰자를 의식합니다. 이런 식으로 거슬러 올라가면 한이 없기에 이쯤에서 일단 이렇게 나의 몸이나 감정이나 마음을 관찰하는 또 하나의 나를 의식하고, 이 또 하나의 나는 일상적이고 일차적인 나와 다른 나가 아닌가, 이 나가 하느님의 일부이든가 아직 하나님의 일부가 아니면 하나님에 가까운 나, 혹은 내 속에서 하느님과 맞닿은 부분이 아닌가 하는 생각을 할 수 있다고 말해주기도 합니다. 함 선생님도 이와 비슷하게 하나님을 만나는 것은 “시간·공간을 다 잊어버리고 내 마음을 될수록 순수하게, 잡념을 없애고” 해야 한다고 했습니다.


저는 함석헌 선생님이 말씀하시는 ‘씨알’이라는 것도 이런 관점에서 다시 음미해 볼 필요가 있다고 생각합니다.18) 물론 ‘씨알’이라는 말이 때 묻지 않은 ‘맨사람,’ 근본을 잃지 않고 인위적인 것으로 덧씌워지지 않은 민중을 뜻하는 것만은 분명합니다. 그러나 “씨알의 알은 하늘에서 온 것이다. 하늘은 한 얼이다. 하늘에서 와서 우리 속에 있는 것이 알이다.”19)하는 말이나 “정말 있는 것은 ‘알’ 뿐이다.... 그 한 ‘알’이 이 끝에서는 나로 알려져 있고, 저 끝에서는 하나님, 하늘, 뿌리로 알려져 있다.”20)고 한 말을 보면 적어도 씨알의 ‘알’은 우리 속에 공통적으로 내재한 신적 요소, 혹은 신과 인간이 맞닿아 있는 경지를 일컫는 말이라 이해해도 무리가 아니라는 생각이 듭니다.


이런 몇 가지 관점에서 볼 때 함석헌 선생님의 가르침은 근본적으로 세계 신비주의 전통 속에서도 가장 중요시되는 신인합일, 신인무애(無礙), 신과 만물의 융합, 라틴어로 ‘unio mystica’의 사상을 함의하고 있다고 하여 틀 릴 것이 없다고 생각합니다. 다음 글에서 함 선생님의 이런 사상이 그리스도교적 표현으로 압축된 것 같아 인용합니다:


나는 역사적 예수를 믿는 것이 아니다. 믿는 것은 그리스도다. 그 그리스도는 영원한 그리스도가 아니면 안 된다. 그는 예수에게만 아니라 본질적으로는 내 속에도 있다. 그 그리스도를 통하여 예수와 나는 서로 다른 인격이 아니라 하나라는 체험에 들어갈 수 있다. 그 때에 비로소 그의 죽음은 나의 육체의 죽음이요, 그의 부활은 내 영의 부활이 된다. 속죄는 이렇게 해서만 성립된다. <하나님의 발길에 채여서>


3. 우주공동체에서 평화를 체현하라


“평화주의가 이긴다.
인도주의가 이긴다.
사랑이 이긴다.
영원을 믿는 마음이 이긴다.“21)


세계 신비주의 전통에서는 나와 하느님이 하나임을 말함과 동시에 나와 다른 이들, 다른 사물들과도 결국 일체임을 깨닫는 것이 중요하다고 강조합니다.


마이스터 에크하르트가 말했습니다. “어떤 경우가 천박한 이해인가? 나는 답하노라. ‘하나의 사물을 다른 것들과 분리된 것으로 볼 때’ 라고. 그리고 어떤 경우가 이런 천박한 이해를 넘어서는 것인가? 나는 말할 수 있노라. ‘모든 것이 모든 것 안에 있음을 깨닫고 천박한 이해를 넘어섰을 때’ 라고.”22)


물론 이런 사상을 가장 극명하고 조직적으로 개진하는 사상체계는 중국 불교의 화엄종(華嚴宗)이라 할 수 있을 것입니다. 화엄에서는 이사무애법계(理事無礙法界)와 사사무애법계(事事無礙法界)라는 기본 원칙을 강조합니다. 보편적 원리로서의 이(理)와 개별적 사물로서의 사(事)가 아무 거침이 없이 서로 융통한다는 일즉다 다즉일(一卽多 多卽一) 생각을 기초로 하여, 이제 모든 사물 자체가 상즉·상입(相卽相入)한다는 것까지 강조하고 있습니다. 요즘 말로 고치면 모든 사물은 상호연관, 상호의존의 관계를 가지고 있다는 생각입니다. 나와 하느님만이 하나가 아니라 나와 너, 나와 만물이, 만물과 만물이 궁극적 차원에서는 하나라는 가르침입니다. 유기체적(organic), 통전적(holistic) 세계관입니다.


함 선생님은 “내 속에 참 나가 있다,” “이 육체와 거기 붙은 모든 감각·감정은 내가 아니다,” “나의 참 나는 죽지도 않고, 늙지도 않고, 변하지도 않고 더러워지지도 않는다”고 하면서, 그러나 이것만으로는 부족하고 나와 일체가 하나임을 알아야 함을 강조했습니다.


“나는 나 혼자만 있는 것이 아니다. 남과 같이 있다. 그 남들과 관련 없이 나는 있을 수 없다. 그러므로 나와 남이 하나인 것을 믿어야 한다. 나·남이 떨어져 있는 한, 나는 어쩔 수 없는 상대적인 존재다. 그러므로 나·남이 없어져야 새로 난 ‘나’다. 그러므로 남이 없이, 그것이 곧 나다 하고 믿어야 한다. 다른 사람만 아니라, 모든 생물, 무생물까지도 다 티끌까지도 다 나임을 믿어야 한다.”23)


저는 이런 유기체적이고 통전적인 세계관을 설명하기 위해 학생들에게 자기 뺨을 만져보라고 합니다. 거기에서 부모님을 발견하고 조부모님, 증조부모님, 나아가 수없이 많은 조상들, 그리고 그들이 살아가기 위해 필요했던 공기, 물, 비, 구름, 햇빛, 음식, 음식 만드는데 필요한 도구, 도구를 만든 사람들, 그들이 농사짓는데 필요했던 토양, 씨앗, 시간과 공간 등등 이런 모든 것이 지금 내 뺨에 함께 존재하는 것을 느껴보라고 합니다. 가만히 생각해보면 나는 온통 나 아닌 것들로만 구성되어 있다고 볼 수도 있습니다. ‘나’라는 개인은 이 모든 것과 상즉상입의 관계를 벗어나서는 존재할 수도 없고 의미도 없는 셈입니다. 저는 이렇게 온 우주가 서로 연관되었음을 깨닫는 것이 바로 ‘우주 공동체’를 새로이 발견하는 일이라 주장합니다.

이렇게 나와 너, 만물이 서로 관련을 맺고 있다는 것을 깨닫는 것이 실제 삶과 무슨 연관이 있는가 반문할 수 있습니다. 사실 세계 여러 신비주의 전통에서 가르치는 것들은 단순히 논리 정연한 이론적 체계를 구축하겠다는 뜻이 아닙니다. 일견 복잡하기 그지없이 보이는 교설들도 사실은 이른바 ‘구원론적 의도(soteriological intent)’를 가진 것입니다. 헉슬리가 말한 것처럼 “진정한 신비주의자들은 이론적이면서도 동시에 실제적”입니다.24)


이런 통전적, 유기적 세계관에서 어떤 실제적 유익을 얻을 수 있습니까? 여러 가지를 들 수 있겠지만, 저는 만물의 일체감에서 세계의 고통을 ‘함께 아파하는’ 자비(compassion)의 마음을 가질 수 있고, 이런 아픔을 줄이려는 노력으로 평화로운 세상의 구현을 위해 힘쓰게 된다는 점을 특히 부각하고자 합니다.


함 선생님도 이런 사실을 잘 알고 있었습니다. 그는 평화운동이 감상적이거나 윤리적 차원에 근거하는 것이 아니라 ‘모두가 하나’라고 보는 더욱 근본적인 우주관에 기초하지 않으면 안 된다고 하면서, “평화운동은 전체의식 없이는 될 수 없다. 우리는 하나다 하는 자각이 모든 가치 활동의 근원이 되어야 한다.... 그 의식이 없을 때 그것을 이루는 각 분자는 이기주의에 떨어질 수밖에 없고 따라서 배타적이 되므로 거기는 싸움이 일어나고야 만다.”25) 고 한 말이나 “사랑은 하나 됨이다. 둘이면서 하나 됨이다. 둘이면서 둘인 줄을 모를 뿐 아니라, 하나면서 하나인 줄을 모를이만큼 하나여야 할 것이다.”26)고 한 그의 말이 이를 뒷받침하고 있습니다.

모두가 하나 됨으로 남의 고통을 나의 고통으로 여기고 남이 아플 때 나도 아파하는 일종의 보살 정신입니다. 틱낫한 스님이 제창한 참여불교(Engaged Buddhism) 운동처럼 올바른 세계관에 입각한 사회참여의 정신입니다. 함 선생님은 제가 보기 ‘행동하는’ 신비주의를 몸소 보이주고 실천하신 분이라 생각합니다.


4. 종교 상호간의 보완과 조화를 중시하라


“우리의 생각이 좁아서는 안 되겠지요. 우주의 법칙, 생명의 법칙이 다원적이기 때문에 나와 달라도 하나로 되어야지요. 사람 얼굴도 똑같은 것은 없지 않아요? 생명이 본래 그런 건데, 종교와 사상에서만은 왜 나와 똑 같아야 된다고 하느냐 말이야요. 생각이 좁아서 그렇지요. 다양한 생명이 자라나야겠는데....”27)

앞에서 말한 우주공동체에서의 평화운동과 궤를 같이 하는 이야기이지만 여기서 특히 종교다원주의적 자세에 대해 별도로 언급하고자 합니다. 일반적으로 신비주의 전통에서는 자기만 옳다고 하는 독선적 주장이 별로 없습니다. 앞에서 지적한 것과 마찬가지로 신비주의 전통에서는 궁극적 실재가 인간의 이성으로 완전히 파악될 수 없다는 것을 너무나 잘 알고 있기 때문에 말이나 문자로 표현된 것에 절대적 타당성을 인정하지 않습니다. 한 가지 예로 불교에서 말하는 ‘공(空)’ 사상은 궁극 실재에 대한 우리 인간의 견해(見解)는 그 타당성이 전혀 없다, ‘비었다’는 것을 단적으로 말해주는 사상 체계입니다. 모든 견해가 이럴 진데 나의 견해만 예외적으로 절대로 옳다고 주장할 수가 없습니다.


이와 함께 신비주의 전통에서는 단순한 이분법적 사고를 지양하고 사물을 더욱 깊은, 더욱 높은, 더욱 넓은, 더욱 많은 관점에서 보려고 노력하기 때문에 어느 특정 관점에서 본 한 가지 의견을 절대적이라고 주장할 수 없는 것입니다. 궁극 실재가 무한히 크면서 동시에 무한히 작다고 하는 ‘역설’의 논리가 무리 없이 수용됩니다. <장자>의 “제물론(齊物論)”에 나오는 ‘조삼모사(朝三暮四)’ 이야기 중 원숭이 훈련사의 경우처럼 양쪽을 다 보는 ‘양행(兩行)’의 태도를 보입니다. 똑 같은 커피 잔이 위에서 보면 둥글지만 앞에서 보면 네모라는 것을 아는 것입니다. 이런 태도를 요즘말로 바꾸면 시각주의(perspectivalism)이라고 할 수 있습니다. 모든 것은 어느 시각, 어느 관점에서 보느냐에 따라 달리 보일 수 있다는 뜻입니다. 자연히 함 선생님처럼 “글쎄요”의 태도를 가질 수밖에 없습니다.28) 하나의 시각, 하나의 관점을 절대화할 수 없고 다원적인 시각의 상대적 타당성을 인정할 뿐입니다.


이런 태도를 다종교(多宗敎) 현상에 적용하면 자연스럽게 종교 다원주의적 태도를 가질 수밖에 없습니다. 어느 한 종교의 가르침만을 절대적 진리라 주장하는 배타적 태도를 견지할 수 없게 됩니다.29) 이런 의미에서 신비주의와 종교 다원주의적 태도는 동전의 양면과 같은 관계, 혹은 나무와 그 열매와 같은 관계라 할 수 있을 것입니다. 함 선생님이 세계 신비주의 전통과 맥을 같이 한다는 말은 함 선생님은 세계 종교들을 다룰 때 다원주의를 견지할 수밖에 없는 분이라는 것을 의미한다고 생각합니다.30)


여기서 이 문제를 길게 논의하는 대신 함 선생님의 말씀 하나를 인용하고 그칩니다:


“나는 갈수록 퀘이커가 좋습니다. 좋은 이유는...‘우리 교회에 오셔요’, ‘이것 아니고는 구원 없습니다’ 식의 전도가 없고, 있다면 그저 밭고랑에 입 다물고 일하는 농부처럼 잘됐거나 못됐거나, 살림을 통해서 하는 전도가 있을 뿐입니다....그들은 자연스럽고, 속이 넓으면서도 정성스럽습니다. 누가 와도, 불교도가 오거나, 유니테리안이 오거나, 무신론자가 온다해도, 찾는 마음에서 오기만 하면 환영입니다. 그러니 좋지 않습니까?”31)


나가는 말


20세기 가장 위대한 가톨릭 신학자로 알려진 칼 라너(Karl Rahner, 1904-1984)는 21세기 그리스도교가 신비주의적으로 변하지 않으면 아무 것도 아닌 존재가 되고 말 것이라 예견했습니다. 그리스도교가 신비주의적 차원으로 심화되지 않으면 망하고 만다는 뜻입니다. 어찌 그리스도교뿐이겠습니까? 저는 모든 종교가 궁극적으로 도달해야 할 경지는 결국 신비주의적 차원이라 확신합니다.32)


물론 지금까지 이런 신비주의적 차원에 접한 종교인들은 그 숫자가 극소수에 불과합니다. 거의 모든 종교의 신도들이 문자주의적, 교리 중심적, 기복주의적, 자기중심적, 배타주의적 종교에 속해 있으면서도 그것이 참된 종교가 이를 수 있는 구경의 경지가 아니라는 사실도 모르고 있는 실정입니다. 이제 이런 비극적 사태가 개선되므로 더욱 많은 이들이 종교의 신비주의적 차원에 접할 수 있어야 한다고 생각합니다.


독일 여성 신학자 도로테 죌레(Dorothee Soelle, 1929-2003)는 최근에 펴낸 그의 The Silent Cry: Mysticism and Resistance  라는 책에서 신비주의 체험이 역사적으로 특수한 몇몇 사람에서만 기대할 수 있는 무엇이라는 선입견을 버리고, 그것이 모든 사람에게도 보편적으로 가능한 것으로 인정해야 할 것이라고 역설하며, 이른바 ‘신비주의의 민주화(democratization of mysticism)’를 주창했습니다.33) 저도 이 말에 전적으로 동감합니다.


저는 이번 이 논문을 쓰기 위해 함석헌 선생님의 글을 다시 읽으면서 다시 한 번 함 선생님의 신비주의적 사상이 바로 21세기를 살아가는 우리 모두를 이끌 수 있는 사상이며, 함석헌 선생님이야 말로 이런 ‘신비주의의 민주화’에 앞장서신 분이었구나 하는 확신을 더욱 공고하게 할 수 있었습니다. 저는 여기에 바로 함석헌 선생님의 비교사상사적 의의가 있다고 주장하며 이 글을 마칩니다. 감사합니다.

====

1) 김성수, <함석헌 평전> (삼인, 2001), p. 105 참조.

2) “하워드 브린튼이 퀘이커리즘을 서양에서 난 종교들 중 가장 동양적인 것을 가진 종교다 그랬는데....하여간 비슷하게 동양적인 그런 게 있는 것은 사실이오. 신비를 인정하는 거지요.” (<함석헌 전집15>p. 51), 김성수, 위의 책 p. 126에서 재인용.

3) 또 다른 분류법으로 종교의 ‘표의적(exoteric)’ 차원과 ‘밀의적(esoteric)’ 차원을 말하는 사람들이 있고, 필자도 다른 글에서는 표피적(surface) 차원 vs. 심층적(depth) 차원, 닫힌 종교 vs. 열린 종교로 분류했다. 졸저 <예수가 외면한 그 한가지 질문>(현암사, 2002), Frithjof Schuon, The Transcendent Unity of Religions (New York: Quest Books, 1984) 등 참조.

4) 필자는 이 말을 대학 시절 읽은 김하태 박사의 글에서 접하고, 그 이후 신비주의 문제에 관심을 가지게 되었다. 신비주의와 신비체험의 특징에 대해서는 이 방면의 고전이라 할 수 있는 William James, The Varieties of Religious Experiece (New York: Collier Books, 1961), Aldous Huxley, The Perennial Philosophy (New York: Harper & Row, 1944) 외에 최근의 책 John Macquarrie, Two Worlds Are Ours: An Introduction to Christian Mysticism (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004), pp. 1-34 등을 참조할 수 있음.

5) 김진 엮음, <너 자신을 혁명하라: 함석헌 명상집>(오늘의 책, 2003), p. 160에서 인용.

6) <함석헌 전집 9>, p. 200.

7) 문자주의의 문제성과 해독에 대해서는 졸저 <예수는 없다>(현암사, 2001) pp. 63-115 참조. Timothy Freke & Peter Gandy, The Laughing Jesus (New York: Harmony Books, 2005)는 기독교와 이슬람의 문자주의의 해독을 구체적으로 예시하고 있다.

8) 다른 세 가지 특성은 ‘얼른 지나감(transiency)’ ‘직관적(noetic quality), ‘피동성(passivity)’이라고 했다. 그의 앞의 책 참조할 것.

9) ‘Gnosticism’을 보통 ‘영지주의(靈知主義)’라고 번역하는데 필자는 이를 “깨달음주심주의”라 번역하고 싶다. 그러나 편의를 위해서 여기서는 그대로 ‘영지주의’라는 말을 사용하기로 한다. 영지주의에 대한 최근의 책으로 하버드 대학교 교수 Karen L. King이 쓴 What Is Gnosticism? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 그리고 일반 독자를 위해 읽기 쉽게 쓴 Richard Smoley, Forbidden Faith: The Gnostic Legacy (San Francisco: HarperSanFranscico, 2006)을 참조할 수 있다.

10) Timothy Freke & Peter Gandy, The Jesus Mysteries (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999), pp. 127-129 참조.

11) 김진, 앞의 책, p. 74-5에서 인용. 인간의 의식 발달을 물질, 마음, 영의 세 단계, 이른바 pre-subject/object consciousness, subject/object consciousness, trans-subject/object consciousness로 분류한 예는 Ken Wilber, Up From Eden (Boston: Shambala, 1983) 등을 참조할 수 있다.

12) 각각 김진, p. 129, 172, 95에서 인용.

13) Aldous Huxley, 앞의 책, pp. 1-21 참조.

14) 이 용어는 옥스퍼드 대학교 신학자인 John Macquarrie가 채택한 용어다. 범재신론을 다루는 책으로 최고로 좋은 그의 책 In Search of Deity: An Essay in Dialectical Theism (New York: Crossroad, 1985) 참조.

15) 함 선생님도 이와 비슷한 말을 하셨다. “그러면 ‘나[自我]가 곧 나라’요, ‘나[自我]를 본 자가 아버지[民族, 世界, 하늘]을 본 것이다.’ 그 나는 새삼스러이 있을 것도 아니요 없을 것도 아니요, 보라, 여기 있다 저기 있다 할 것도 아니요, ‘아브라함이 있기 전부터 있는 나’, 참 나, ‘천상천하유아독존(天上天下唯我獨尊)’인 나다.” 김진, 앞의 책 241에서 인용.

16) Huxley, 앞의 책 p. 11에서 재인용.

17) 중세 그리스도교 신비주의자들은 자기의 작은 자아가 없어지고 신이 그 자리를 차지한다는 뜻에서 인간의 ‘신성화(deification)’를 자주 이야기하고 있다.

18) ‘씨알’의 다중적 의미와 씨알 사상의 ‘바탕생각’에 대해서는 김경재, “21세기 씨알사상과 그 운동”(http://soombat.org) 참조. 함 선생님은 ‘씨알’이란 말이 류영모 선생님이 <大學> 첫머리에 나오는 “大學之道在明明德 在親[新]民 在止於至善”을 우리말로 옮기면서 “한 배움의 길은 속알 밝힘에 있으며, 씨알 어뵘에 있으며, 된데 머무름에 있나니라.”고 한 데서 나왔다고 했다. 김용준, <내가 본 함석헌> (아카넷, 206), pp. 193-194, 이정배, “함석헌의 ‘뜻으로 본 한국역사’ 속에 나타난 ‘민족’ 개념의 신학적 성찰” ) 씨알사상연구회 2006년 5월 월례발표회 논문, p. 11.

19) 김진, p. 115.

20) <함석헌 전집 3> “씨알의 설움”

21) 김진, p. 135.

22) Huxley, 앞의 책, p. 57에서 인용.

23) 김진, p. 84.

24) Huxley, 앞의 책 p. 5.

25) 김진, pp. 74-75.

26) 같은 책, p. 202.

27) 김성수, 179-180 재인용.

28) 필자가 함 선생님과 개인적으로 대화하면서 제일 먼저 느낀 것이 “글쎄요”라는 말을 아주 많이 하신다는 사실이었다. 이 사실을 <도덕경> 45장 “완전한 웅변은 눌변으로 보입니다(大辯若訥)”라는 구절을 해석하면서 언급한 적이 있다. 도에 입각한 말은 판에 박힌 이분법적 달변이 아니라 여러 관점을 동시에 보기 때문에 ‘글쎄요’가 나오지 않을 수 없다고 풀이한 것이다. 졸저 <도덕경>(현암사, 1995), p. 197.

29) 종교간의 관계에 대한 상이한 태도를 논의하는 책으로 Paul F. Knitter, Introducing Theologies of Religions (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2002) 참조. 여기에서 Knitter는 네 가지 기본태도를 논하는 데 그것들은 다음과 같다. 1) 남의 종교를 내 종교로 대체해야 한다는 대체론(Replacement model), 2) 남의 종교의 모자람을 채워주어야 한다는 충족론(Fulfillment model), 3) 서로의 공통점을 찾자고 하는 상호론(Mutuality model), 4) 서로의 다름을 그대로 인정하고 그 다름에서 배우자고 하는 수용론(Acceptance mode).

30) 신비주의와 종교다원주의와의 관계, 특히 그리스도교와 불교가 신비주의에서 어떻게 만날 수 있는가 하는 문제는 졸저, <불교, 이웃종교로 읽다>(현암사, 2006), pp. 340-355 참조. 함 선생님의 다원주의적 태도를 좀 더 상세하게 다룬 것으로 김성수, 앞의 책, pp. 179-185를 참조할 수 있다.

31) <함석헌 전집 8> pp. 377-378. 김성수, 앞의 책, pp. 130-131에서 재인용.

32) 종교를 분류할 때 힌두교, 불교, 그리스도교, 유대교, 이슬람 등 각각의 전통에 따라 분류하는 것이 보통이지만, 이런 종교 전통 중에서 그 심천을 기준으로 하여 표의적 종교와 밀의적 종교로 나눈 슈온의 분류법은 시사하는 바가 크다고 본다. Schuon, 앞의 책 참조할 것.

33) The Silent Cry: Mysticism and Resistance (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001), p. 11.

====

함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의-오강남
작성자 바보새 

15-09-20

====

Society of Jesus - Wikipedia

Society of Jesus - Wikipedia



Society of Jesus
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This article is about the Society of Jesus, also known as Jesuit Order. For philosophy concerning the teachings of Jesus, see Jesuism.
"Jesuit" redirects here. For the band, see Jesuit (band).
Society of Jesus
Official Christogram
Abbreviation SJ, Jesuits
Formation 27 September 1540; 478 years ago
Founders Ignatius of Loyola
Francis Xavier
Peter Faber
Alfonso Salmeron
Diego Laínez
Nicholas Bobadilla
Simão Rodrigues
Founded at Paris, France
officialized in Rome
Type Order of clerics regular of pontifical right (for Men)
Headquarters Borgo S. Spirito 4, C.P. 6139, 00195 Roma-Prati, Italy


Members 16,378[1]

Superior General Rev. Fr. Arturo Sosa, SJ
Website www.sjweb.info
Remarks Church of the Gesù is the Mother Church of the Jesuits, next to which Ignatius had his office

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The Church of the Gesù, located in Rome, is the mother church of the Jesuits.

The Society of Jesus (SJ; Latin: Societas Iesu) is a religious order of the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome. It was founded by Ignatius of Loyola with the approval of Pope Paul III in 1540. The members are called Jesuits (Latin: Iesuitæ).[2] The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations. Jesuits work in education, research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social ministries, and promote ecumenical dialogue.

Saint Ignatius of Loyola, a Basque nobleman from the Pyrenees area of northern Spain, founded the society after discerning his spiritual vocation while recovering from a wound sustained in the Battle of Pamplona. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. In 1534, Ignatius and six other young men, including Francis Xavier and Peter Faber, gathered and professed vows of poverty, chastity, and later obedience, including a special vow of obedience to the Pope in matters of mission direction and assignment. Ignatius's plan of the order's organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the "Formula of the Institute".

Ignatius was a nobleman who had a military background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world, where they might be required to live in extreme conditions. Accordingly, the opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God[a] to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine."[4] Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's soldiers",[5]"God's marines",[6] or "the Company", which evolved from references to Ignatius' history as a soldier and the society's commitment to accepting orders anywhere and to endure any conditions.[7] The society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council.

The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General.[8][9] The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome.[10] The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesùattached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit mother church.

In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit to be elected Pope, taking the name Pope Francis.


Contents
1Statistics
2Formula of the Institute
3History
3.1Foundation
3.2Early works
3.3Expansion
3.3.1China
3.3.2Canada
3.3.3United States
3.3.4Mexico
3.3.5Northern Spanish America
3.3.6Paraguay
3.3.7Colonial Brazil
3.4Suppression and restoration
3.5Early 20th century
3.6Post–Vatican II
4Ignatian spirituality
5Formation
6Government of the society
7Habit and dress
8Controversies
8.1Power-seeking
8.2Political intrigue
8.3Casuistic justification
8.4Anti-Semitism
8.5Theological debates
8.6Child sexual abuse
9Nazi persecution
9.1Rescue efforts during the Holocaust
10In science
11Notable members
12Institutions
12.1Educational institutions
12.2Social and development institutions
13Publications
14In popular culture
15See also
16Notes
17References
17.1Citations
17.2Sources
18Further reading
18.1Surveys
18.2Specialized studies
18.3United States
18.4Primary sources
18.5In German
19External links
19.1Catholic Church documents
19.2Jesuit documents
19.3Other links
Statistics[edit]
Jesuits in the world — January 2013[11]RegionJesuitsPercentageAfrica 1,509 9%
South Latin America 1,221 7%
North Latin America 1,226 7%
South Asia 4,016 23%
Asia-Pacific 1,639 9%
Central and East Europe 1,641 10%
South Europe 2,027 12%
West Europe 1,541 9%
North America 2,467 14%


As of 2012, the Jesuits formed the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church[12](although they are surpassed by the Franciscan family of orders of Friars Minor, Capuchins, and Conventuals). The Jesuits have experienced a decline in numbers in recent decades. As of 2018 the society had 15,842 members, 11,389 priests and 4,453 Jesuits in formation, which includes brothers and scholastics. This represents a 43.4 percent decline since 1977, when the society had a total membership of 28,038, of which 20,205 were priests.[13] This decline is most pronounced in Europe and the Americas, with relatively modest membership gains occurring in Asia and Africa.[14][15] There seems to be no "Pope Francis effect" in counteracting the fall of vocations among the Jesuits.[16]

The society is divided into 83 provinces along with six independent regions and ten dependent regions.[11] On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and the US. Their average age was 57.3 years: 63.4 years for priests, 29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers.[17]

The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa. The society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in various countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines and India. In the United States the Jesuits have historical ties to 28 colleges and universities and 61 high schools. The degree to which the Jesuits are involved in the administration of each institution varies. As of September 2018, 15 of the 28 Jesuit universities in the US had non-Jesuit lay presidents.[18] According to a 2014 article in The Atlantic, "the number of Jesuit priests who are active in everyday operations at the schools isn’t nearly as high as it once was".[19] Worldwide it runs 322 secondary schools and 172 colleges and universities. A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning, lifelong spiritual and intellectual growth,[20] and training men and women for others.[21]
Formula of the Institute[edit]

Ignatius of Loyola

Ignatius receiving papal bull

Ignatius laid out his original vision for the new order in the "Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus",[22] which is "the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent official documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform."[23] He ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550.[22] The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life, and apostolate of the new religious order. Its famous opening statement echoed Ignatius' military background:


Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the Cross in our Society, which we desire to be designated by the Name of Jesus, and to serve the Lord alone and the Church, his spouse, under the Roman Pontiff, the Vicar of Christ on earth, should, after a solemn vow of perpetual chastity, poverty and obedience, keep what follows in mind. He is a member of a Society founded chiefly for this purpose: to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine, by means of public preaching, lectures and any other ministration whatsoever of the Word of God, and further by means of retreats, the education of children and unlettered persons in Christianity, and the spiritual consolation of Christ's faithful through hearing confessions and administering the other sacraments. Moreover, he should show himself ready to reconcile the estranged, compassionately assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals, and indeed, to perform any other works of charity, according to what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the common good.[17]

A fresco depicting Ignatius of Loyola receiving the papal bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiaefrom Pope Paul III was created after 1743 by Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in Olomouc.
History[edit]
Foundation[edit]

Church of Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris

Francis Xavier

On 15 August 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard from the Basque city of Loyola, and six others mostly of Castilian origin, all students at the University of Paris,[24] met in Montmartre outside Paris, in a crypt beneath the church of Saint Denis, now Saint Pierre de Montmartre, to pronounce the religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.[25] Ignatius' six companions were: Francisco Xavier from Navarre(modern Spain), Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laínez, Nicolás Bobadilla from Castile (modern Spain), Peter Faber from Savoy, and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal.[26] The meeting has been commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre. They called themselves the Compañía de Jesús, and also Amigos en El Señor or "Friends in the Lord", because they felt "they were placed together by Christ." The name "company" had echoes of the military (reflecting perhaps Ignatius' background as Captain in the Spanish army) as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The Spanish "company" would be translated into Latin as societas like in socius, a partner or comrade. From this came "Society of Jesus" (SJ) by which they would be known more widely.[27]

Religious orders established in the medieval era were named after particular men: Francis of Assisi(Franciscans), Domingo de Guzmán, later canonized as St Dominic (Dominicans); and Augustine of Hippo(Augustinians). Ignatius of Loyola and his followers appropriated the name of Jesus for their new order, provoking resentment by other orders who considered it presumptuous. The resentment was recorded by Jesuit José de Acosta of a conversation with the Archbishop of Santo Domingo.[28] In the words of one historian: "The use of the name Jesus gave great offense. Both on the Continent and in England, it was denounced as blasphemous; petitions were sent to kings and to civil and ecclesiastical tribunals to have it changed; and even Pope Sixtus V had signed a Brief to do away with it." But nothing came of all the opposition; there were already congregations named after the Trinity and as "God's daughters".[29]

In 1537, the seven travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order. Pope Paul IIIgave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests. These initial steps led to the official founding in 1540.

They were ordained in Venice by the bishop of Arbe (24 June). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy. The Italian War of 1535-1538 renewed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Venice, the Pope, and the Ottoman Empire, had rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible.

Again in 1540, they presented the project to Paul III. After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favourably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae ("To the Government of the Church Militant"), on 27 September 1540. This is the founding document of the Society of Jesus as an official Catholic religious order. Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General. Paul III's bull had limited the number of its members to sixty. This limitation was removed through the bull Exposcit debitum of Julius III in 1550.[30]

Jesuits at Akbar's court in India, c. 1605

In fulfilling the mission of the "Formula of the Institute of the Society", the first Jesuits concentrated on a few key activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were trained in both classical studies and theology, and their schools reflected this. Second, they sent out missionaries across the globe to evangelize those peoples who had not yet heard the Gospel, founding missions in widely diverse regions such as modern-day Paraguay, Japan, Ontario, and Ethiopia. One of the original seven arrived in India already in 1541.[31]Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to preserve communion with Rome and the successor of Saint Peter. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the movement toward Protestantism in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and southern Germany.

Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions, adopted in 1553, which created a centralised organization and stressed acceptance of any mission to which the Pope might call them.[32][33][34] His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things normally considered of little importance.[30]

The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying on alms, or donations, for support.

The term Jesuit (of 15th-century origin, meaning one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus) was first applied to the society in reproach (1544–1552).[35] The term was never used by Ignatius of Loyola, but over time, members and friends of the society adopted the name with a positive meaning.[29]
Early works[edit]

Ratio Studiorum, 1598

The Jesuits were founded just before the Council of Trent(1545–1563) and ensuing Counter-Reformation that would introduce reforms within the Catholic Church, and so counter the Protestant Reformation throughout Catholic Europe.

Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical church was in dire need of reform. Some of their greatest struggles were against corruption, venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Catholic Church. Ignatius insisted on a high level of academic preparation for the clergy in contrast to the relatively poor education of much of the clergy of his time. And the Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" can be seen as an effort to counteract another problem evidenced in the preceding century.

Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the church had to begin with the conversion of an individual's heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion is the Ignatian retreat, called the Spiritual Exercises. During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditationson the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ. They meet regularly with a spiritual director who guides their choice of exercises and helps them to develop a more discerning love for Christ.

The retreat follows a "Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive" pattern in the tradition of the spirituality of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers. Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life. Further, he used it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as "retreats".

The Jesuits' contributions to the late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought.

In addition to the teachings of faith, the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum (1599) would standardize the study of Latin, Greek, classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences, and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials.

The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably Polandand Lithuania. Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music. The theater was a form of expression especially prominent in Jesuit schools.[36]

Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to kings during the early modern period. They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living and celebration of the Liturgy of Hours in common) allowed them to be flexible and meet diverse needs arising at the time.[37]
Expansion[edit]
See also: Jesuit Reductions

Jesuit missionary, painting from 1779

Bell made in Portugal for Nanbanji Church run by Jesuits in Japan, 1576–1587

The Spanish missionary José de Anchieta was, together with Manuel da Nóbrega, the first Jesuit that Ignacio de Loyola sends to America.

After much training and experience in theology, Jesuits went across the globe in search of converts to Christianity. Despite their dedication, they had little success in Asia except for the Philippines. For instance, early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. However, this was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence.[38] Jesuits did, however, have much success in Latin America. Their ascendancy in societies in the Americas accelerated during the seventeenth century, wherein Jesuits created new missions in Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia; as early as 1603, there were 345 Jesuit priests in Mexico alone.[39]

Francis Xavier, one of the original companions of Loyola, arrived in Goa, in Portuguese India, in 1541 to consider evangelical service in the Indies. In a 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, he requested an Inquisition to be installed in Goa (see Goa Inquisition). He died in China after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. The Portuguese Jesuit, António de Andradefounded a mission in Western Tibet in 1624. Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville, reached Lhasa in Tibet in 1661. The Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideriestablished a new Jesuit mission in Lhasa and Central Tibet (1716–21) and gained an exceptional mastery of Tibetan language and culture, writing a long and very detailed account of the country and its religion as well as treatises in Tibetan that attempted to refute key Buddhist ideas and establish the truth of Roman Catholic Christianity.

Jesuit missions in America became controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Native Americans and slavery. Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay, they formed Christian Native American city-states, called "reductions". These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model. The efforts of Jesuits like Antonio Ruiz de Montoya to protect the natives from enslavement by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers would contribute to the call for the society's suppression. Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion, and education of Indian nations. They also built schools, organized people into villages, and created a writing system for the local languages of Brazil.[39] José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega were the first Jesuits that Ignacio de Loyola sent to America.[40]

Jesuit scholars working in foreign missions were very important in studying their languages and strove to produce Latinized grammars and dictionaries. This included: Japanese (see Nippo jisho also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam, Vocabulary of the Japanese Language, a Japanese–Portuguese dictionary written 1603); Vietnamese(Portuguese missionaries created the Vietnamese alphabet,[41][42] which was later formalized by Avignon missionary Alexandre de Rhodes with his 1651 trilingual dictionary); Tupi (the main language of Brazil); and the pioneering study of Sanskrit in the West by Jean François Pons in the 1740s.

Under Portuguese royal patronage, Jesuits thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded their activities to education and healthcare. In 1594 they founded the first Roman-style academic institution in the East, St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau, China. Founded by Alessandro Valignano, it had a great influence on the learning of Eastern languages (Chinese and Japanese) and culture by missionary Jesuits, becoming home to the first western sinologists such as Matteo Ricci. Jesuit efforts in Goa were interrupted by the expulsion of the Jesuits from Portuguese territories in 1759 by the powerful Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State in Portugal.[43]

Jesuit missionaries were active among indigenous peoples in New France in North America, many of them compiling dictionaries or glossaries of the First Nations and Native American languages they had learned. For instance, before his death in 1708, Jacques Gravier, vicar general of the Illinois Mission in the Mississippi River valley, compiled a Kaskaskia Illinois–French dictionary, considered the most extensive among works of the missionaries.[44] Extensive documentation was left in the form of The Jesuit Relations, published annually from 1632 until 1673.
China[edit]
Main article: Jesuit China missions

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqiin the 1607 Chinese publication of Euclid's Elements

Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, or, Chinese Knowledge Explained in Latin, published by Philippe Couplet, Prospero Intorcetta, Christian Herdtrich, and François de Rougemont at Paris in 1687

A map of the 200-odd Jesuit churches and missions established across China c. 1687.

The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguesesettlement on Macau, where they settled on Green Islandand founded St. Paul's College.

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. The scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when scientific innovation had declined in China:


[The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.[45]

For over a century, Jesuits like Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci,[46] Philippe Couplet, Michal Boym, and François Noël refined translations and disseminated Chinese knowledge, culture, history, and philosophy to Europe. Their Latin works popularized the name "Confucius" and had considerable influence on the Deists and other Enlightenmentthinkers, some of whom were intrigued by the Jesuits' attempts to reconcile Confucian morality with Catholicism.[47]

Upon the arrival of the Franciscans and other monastic orders, Jesuit accommodation of Chinese culture and rituals led to the long-running Chinese Rites controversy. Despite the personal testimony of the Kangxi Emperor and many Jesuit converts that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius was a nonreligious token of respect, Pope Clement XI's papal decree Cum Deus Optimus... ruled that such behavior constituted impermissible forms of idolatry and superstition in 1704;[48] his legate Tournonand the Bishop of Fujian, tasked with presenting this finding to the Kangxi Emperor, displayed such extreme ignorance that the emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism.[49][50][51][52]Tournon's summary and automatic excommunication for any violators of Clement's decree[53]—upheld by the 1715 bull Ex Illa Die...—led to the swift collapse of all the missions in China;[50] the last Jesuits were finally expelled after 1721.[54]
Canada[edit]
See also: Jesuit missions in North America

Bressani map of 1657 depicts the martyrdom of Jean de Brébeuf

During the French colonisation of New France in the 17th century, Jesuits played an active role in North America. When Samuel de Champlain established the foundations of the French colony at Québec, he was aware of native tribes who possessed their own languages, customs, and traditions. These natives that inhabited modern day Ontario, Québec, and the areas around Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay were the Montagnais, the Algonquins, and the Huron.[55]Champlain believed that these had souls to be saved, so in 1614 he initially obtained the Recollects, a reform branch of the Franciscans in France, to convert the native inhabitants.[56] In 1624 the French Recollects realized the magnitude of their task[57] and sent a delegate to France to invite the Society of Jesus to help with this mission. The invitation was accepted, and Jesuits Jean de Brébeuf, Ennemond Masse, and Charles Lalemant arrived in Quebec in 1625.[58] Lalemant is considered to have been the first author of one of the Jesuit Relations of New France, which chronicled their evangelization during the seventeenth century.

The Jesuits became involved in the Huron mission in 1626 and lived among the Huron peoples. Brébeuf learned the native language and created the first Huron language dictionary. Outside conflict forced the Jesuits to leave New France in 1629 when Quebec was captured by the Kirke brothers under the English flag. But in 1632 Quebec was returned to the French under the Treaty of Saint Germain-en-Laye and the Jesuits returned to Huron territory, modern Huronia.[59]

In 1639, Jesuit Jerome Lalemant decided that the missionaries among the Hurons needed a local residence and established Sainte-Marie, which expanded into a living replica of European society.[60] It became the Jesuit headquarters and an important part of Canadian history. Throughout most of the 1640s the Jesuits had great success, establishing five chapels in Huronia and baptising over one thousand Huron natives.[61] However, as the Jesuits began to expand westward they encountered more Iroquois natives, rivals of the Hurons. The Iroquois grew jealous of the Hurons' wealth and fur trade system, began to attack Huron villages in 1648. They killed missionaries and burned villages, and the Hurons scattered. Both Jean de Brébeuf and Gabriel Lalemant were tortured and killed in the Iroquois raids; they have been canonized as martyrs in the Catholic Church.[62] With the knowledge of the invading Iroquois, the Jesuit Paul Ragueneau burned down Sainte-Marie instead of allowing the Iroquois the satisfaction of destroying it. By late June 1649, the French and some Christian Hurons built Sainte-Marie II on Christian Island (Isle de Saint-Joseph). However, facing starvation, lack of supplies, and constant threats of Iroquois attack, the small Sainte-Marie II was abandoned in June 1650; the remaining Hurons and Jesuits departed for Quebec and Ottawa.[62] After a series of epidemics, beginning in 1634, some Huron began to mistrust the Jesuits and accused them of being sorcerers casting spells from their books.[63] As a result of the Iroquois raids and outbreak of disease, many missionaries, traders, and soldiers died.[64] Today, the Huron tribe, also known as the Wyandot, have a First Nations reserve in Quebec, Canada, and three major settlements in the United States.[65]

After the collapse of the Huron nation, the Jesuits were to undertake the task of converting the Iroquois, something they had attempted in 1642 with little success. In 1653 the Iroquois nation had a fallout with the Dutch. They then signed a peace treaty with the French and a mission was established. The Iroquois took the treaty lightly and soon turned on the French again. In 1658, the Jesuits were having very little success and were under constant threat of being tortured or killed,[64] but continued their effort until 1687 when they abandoned their permanent posts in the Iroquois homeland.[66]

By 1700, Jesuits turned to maintaining Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa without establishing new posts.[67] During the Seven Years' War, Quebec fell to the English in 1759 and New France was under British control. The English barred the immigration of more Jesuits to New France. By 1763, there were only twenty-one Jesuits stationed in New France. By 1773 only eleven Jesuits remained. During the same year the English crown laid claim to New France and declared that the Society of Jesus in New France was dissolved.[68]

The dissolution of the Order left in place substantial estates and investments, amounting to an income of approximately £5,000 a year, and the Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec, later succeeded by the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, assumed the task of allocating the funds to suitable recipients, chiefly schools.[69]

The Jesuit mission in Quebec was re-established in 1842. There were a number of Jesuit colleges founded in the decades following; one of these colleges evolved into present-day Laval University.[70]
United States[edit]
Main article: Jesuits in the United States
Mexico[edit]

Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchoó in the 18th century, the first permanent Jesuit mission in Baja California, established by Juan María de Salvatierra in 1697

Main altar of the Jesuit colegio in Tepozotlan, now the Museo Nacional del Virreinato

Mexican-born Jesuit Francisco Clavijero (1731–1787) wrote an important history of Mexico.

The Jesuits in New Spain distinguished themselves in several ways. They had high standards for acceptance to the order and many years of training. They attracted the patronage of elite families whose sons they educated in rigorous newly founded Jesuit colegios("colleges"), including Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo, Colegio de San Ildefonso, and the Colegio de San Francisco Javier, Tepozotlan. Those same elite families hoped that a son with a vocation to the priesthood would be accepted as a Jesuit. Jesuits were also zealous in evangelization of the indigenous, particularly on the northern frontiers.

To support their colegios and members of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits acquired landed estates that were run with the best-practices for generating income in that era. A number of these haciendas were donated by wealthy elites. The donation of a hacienda to the Jesuits was the spark igniting a conflict between seventeenth-century bishop of Puebla Don Juan de Palafox and the Jesuit colegio in that city. Since the Jesuits resisted paying the tithe on their estates, this donation effectively took revenue out of the church hierarchy's pockets by removing it from the tithe rolls.[71]

Many of Jesuit haciendas were huge, with Palafox asserting that just two colleges owned 300,000 head of sheep, whose wool was transformed locally in Puebla to cloth; six sugar plantations worth a million pesos and generating an income of 100,000 pesos.[71] The immense Jesuit hacienda of Santa Lucía produced pulque, the fermented juice of the agave cactus whose main consumers were the lower classes and Indians in Spanish cities. Although most haciendas had a free work force of permanent or seasonal labourers, the Jesuit haciendas in Mexico had a significant number of black slaves.[72]

The Jesuits operated their properties as an integrated unit with the larger Jesuit order; thus revenues from haciendas funded their colegios. Jesuits did significantly expand missions to the indigenous in the northern frontier area and a number were martyred, but the crown supported those missions.[71] Mendicant orders that had real estate were less economically integrated, so that some individual houses were wealthy while others struggled economically. The Franciscans, who were founded as an order embracing poverty, did not accumulate real estate, unlike the Augustinians and Dominicans in Mexico.

The Jesuits engaged in conflict with the episcopal hierarchy over the question of payment of tithes, the ten percent tax on agriculture levied on landed estates for support of the church hierarchy from bishops and cathedral chapters to parish priests. Since the Jesuits were the largest religious order holding real estate, surpassing the Dominicans and Augustinians who had accumulated significant property, this was no small matter.[71] They argued that they were exempt, due to special pontifical privileges.[73] In the mid-seventeenth century, bishop of Puebla, Don Juan de Palafox took on the Jesuits over this matter and was so soundly defeated that he was recalled to Spain, where he became the bishop of the minor diocese of Osma.

As elsewhere in the Spanish empire, the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767. Their haciendas were sold off and their colegios and missions in Baja California were taken over by other orders.[74] Exiled Mexican-born Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero wrote an important history of Mexico while in Italy, a basis for creole patriotism. Andrés Cavo also wrote an important text on Mexican history that Carlos María de Bustamante published in the early nineteenth-century.[75] An earlier Jesuit who wrote about the history of Mexico was Diego Luis de Motezuma (1619–99), a descendant of the Aztec monarchs of Tenochtitlan. Motezuma's Corona mexicana, o Historia de los nueve Motezumas was completed in 1696. He "aimed to show that Mexican emperors were a legitimate dynasty in the 17th-century in the European sense."[76][77]

The Jesuits were allowed to return to Mexico in 1840 when General Antonio López de Santa Anna was once more president of Mexico. Their re-introduction to Mexico was "to assist in the education of the poorer classes and much of their property was restored to them."[78]
Northern Spanish America[edit]

Acosta's Historia natural y moral de las Indias (1590) text on the Americas

Peter Claver ministering to African slaves at Cartagena

Jesuit church, Cuzco, Peru

The Jesuits arrived in the Viceroyalty of Peru by 1571; it was a key area of Spanish empire, with not only dense indigenous populations but also huge deposits of silver at Potosí. A major figure in the first wave of Jesuits was José de Acosta(1540–1600), whose book Historia natural y moral de las Indias (1590) introduced Europeans to Spain's American empire via fluid prose and keen observation and explanation, based on fifteen years in Peru and a bit of time in New Spain(Mexico). Viceroy of Peru Don Francisco de Toledo urged the Jesuits to evangelize the indigenous peoples of Peru, wanting to put them in charge of parishes, but Acosta adhered to the Jesuit position that they were not subject to the jurisdiction of bishops and to catechize in Indian parishes would bring them into conflict with the bishops. For that reason, the Jesuits in Peru focused on education of elite men rather than the indigenous populations.[79]

To minister to newly arrived African slaves, Alonso de Sandoval (1576–1651) worked at the port of Cartagena de Indias. Sandoval wrote about this ministry in De instauranda Aethiopum salute (1627),[80] describing how he and his assistant Pedro Claver, later canonized, met slave transport ships in the harbour, went below decks where 300–600 slaves were chained, and gave physical aid with water, while introducing the Africans to Christianity. In his treatise, he did not condemn slavery or the ill-treatment of slaves, but sought to instruct fellow Jesuits to this ministry and describe how he catechized the slaves.[81]

Rafael Ferrer was the first Jesuit of Quito to explore and found missions in the upper Amazon regions of South America from 1602 to 1610, which belonged to the Audiencia(high court) of Quito that was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until it was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. In 1602, Ferrer began to explore the Aguarico, Napo, and Marañon rivers (Sucumbios region, in what is today Ecuador and Peru), and between 1604 and 1605 set up missions among the Cofane natives. He was martyred by an apostate native in 1610.

In 1639, the Audiencia of Quito organized an expedition to renew its exploration of the Amazon river and the Quito Jesuit (Jesuita Quiteño) Cristóbal de Acuña was a part of this expedition. The expedition disembarked from the Napo river 16 February 1639 and arrived in what is today Pará Brazil on the banks of the Amazon river on 12 December 1639. In 1641, Acuña published in Madrid a memoir of his expedition to the Amazon river entitled Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran rio de las Amazonas, which for academics became a fundamental reference on the Amazon region.

Samuel Fritz's 1707 map showing the Amazon and the Orinoco

In 1637, the Jesuits Gaspar Cugia and Lucas de la Cueva from Quito began establishing missions in Maynas territories, on the banks of the Marañón River, around the Pongo de Manseriche region, close to the Spanish settlement of Borja. Between 1637 and 1652 there were 14 missions established along the Marañón River and its southern tributaries, the Huallaga and the Ucayali rivers. Jesuit Lucas de la Cueva and Raimundo de Santacruz opened up two new routes of communication with Quito, through the Pastaza and Napo rivers.

Between 1637 and 1715, Samuel Fritz founded 38 missions along the length of the Amazon river, between the Napo and Negro rivers, that were called the Omagua Missions. These missions were continually attacked by the Brazilian Bandeirantes beginning in the year 1705. In 1768, the only Omagua mission that was left was San Joaquin de Omaguas, since it had been moved to a new location on the Napo river away from the Bandeirantes.

In the immense territory of Maynas, the Jesuits of Quito made contact with a number of indigenous tribes which spoke 40 different languages, and founded a total of 173 Jesuit missions encompassing 150,000 inhabitants. Because of the constant epidemics (smallpox and measles) and warfare with other tribes and the Bandeirantes, the total number of Jesuit Missions were reduced to 40 by 1744. At the time when the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767, the Jesuits of Quito registered 36 missions run by 25 Jesuits of Quito in the Audiencia of Quito – 6 in the Napo and Aguarico Missions and 19 in the Pastaza and Iquitos Missions, with the population at 20,000 inhabitants.
Paraguay[edit]


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Ruins of La Santisima Trinidad de Parana mission in Paraguay, founded by Jesuits in 1706

The first Jesuits arrived in 1588, and in 1610 Philip III proclaimed that only the "sword of the word" should be used to subdue Paraguayan Indians, mostly Guarani. The church granted Jesuits extensive powers to phase out the encomiendasystem of forced labor, angering settlers dependent on a continuing supply of Indian labor and concubines. The first Jesuit mission in the Paraguay area (which encompassed the border regions of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil) was founded in 1609. By 1732, the Jesuits had gathered into 30 missions or reductions a total of 141,382 Guarani. Due to disease, European politics, and internal discord, the population in the missions declined afterwards.[82] At their apogee, the Jesuits dreamed of a Jesuit empire that would stretch from the Paraguay-Paraná confluence to the coast and back to the Paraná headwaters.[83]

In the early years the new Jesuit reductions were threatened by the slave-raiding bandeirantes. The bandeirantes captured Indians and sold them as slaves to planters in Brazil. Having depleted the Indian population near Sâo Paulo, they discovered the richly populated reductions. The Spanish authorities chose not to defend the settlements, and the Jesuits and their thousands of neophytes thus had little means to protect themselves. Thousands of Guarani were captured by the bandeirantes before, organized and armed by the Jesuits, a Guarani army defeated the slave raiders at the battle of Mbororé. Subsequently, the viceroy of Peru conceded the right of bearing arms to the Guarani. Thereafter, well-trained and highly motivated Indian units were able to defend themselves from slavers and other threats.[84] The victory at Mbororé set the stage for the golden ageof the Jesuits in Paraguay. Life in the reductions offered the Guaraní higher living standards, protection from settlers, and physical security. These reductions, which became quite wealthy, exported goods, and supplied Indian armies to the Spanish on many occasion.[83]

The reductions, where the Jesuits created orchestras, musical ensembles, and actors' troupes, and in which virtually all the profits derived from Indian labor were distributed to the labourers, earned praise from some of the leaders of the French enlightenment, who were not predisposed to favour Jesuits. "By means of religion," d'Alembert wrote, "the Jesuits established a monarchical authority in Paraguay, founded solely on their powers of persuasion and on their lenient methods of government. Masters of the country, they rendered happy the people under their sway; they succeeded in subduing them without ever having recourse to force." And Jesuit-educated Voltaire called the Jesuit government "a triumph of humanity."[85]

Because of their success, the Paraguayan Jesuits gained many enemies, and the Reductions fell prey to changing times. During the 1720s and 1730s, Paraguayan settlers rebelled against Jesuit privileges in the Revolt of the Comuneros and against the government that protected them. Although this revolt failed, it was one of the earliest and most serious risings against Spanish authority in the New World and caused the crown to question its continued support for the Jesuits. The Jesuit-inspired War of the Seven Reductions (1750–61) increased sentiment in Madrid for suppressing this "empire within an empire."

The Spanish king Charles III (1759–88) expelled the Jesuits in 1767 from Spain and its territories. Within a few decades of the expulsion, most of what the Jesuits had accomplished was lost. The missions were mismanaged and abandoned by the Guaraní. Today, these ruins of a 160-year experiment have become a tourist attraction.[83][86]
Colonial Brazil[edit]

Manuel da Nóbrega on a commemorative Portuguese stamp of the 400th anniversary of the foundation of São Paulo, Brazil

Jesuit in 18th century, Brazil

Tomé de Sousa, first Governor General of Brazil, brought the first group of Jesuits to the colony. The Jesuits were officially supported by the King, who instructed Tomé de Sousa to give them all the support needed to Christianize the indigenous peoples.

The first Jesuits, guided by Manuel da Nóbrega, Juan de Azpilcueta Navarro, Leonardo Nunes, and later José de Anchieta, established the first Jesuit missions in Salvador and in São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga, the settlement that gave rise to the city of São Paulo. Nóbrega and Anchieta were instrumental in the defeat of the French colonists of France Antarctiqueby managing to pacify the Tamoio natives, who had previously fought the Portuguese. The Jesuits took part in the foundation of the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1565.

The success of the Jesuits in converting the indigenous peoples is linked to their efforts to understand the native cultures, especially their languages. The first grammar of the Tupilanguage was compiled by José de Anchieta and printed in Coimbra in 1595. The Jesuits often gathered the aborigines in communities (the Jesuit Reductions) where the natives worked for the community and were evangelised.

The Jesuits had frequent disputes with other colonists who wanted to enslave the natives. The action of the Jesuits saved many natives from being enslaved by Europeans, but also disturbed their ancestral way of life and inadvertently helped spread infectious diseases against which the aborigines had no natural defenses. Slave labor and trade were essential for the economy of Brazil and other American colonies, and the Jesuits usually did not object to the enslavement of African peoples, but rather critiqued the conditions of slavery.[87]
Suppression and restoration[edit]
Main article: Suppression of the Jesuits

The Suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma, and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was troubling to the society's defender, Pope Clement XIII. On 21 July 1773 Pope Clement XIV issued the papal brief Dominus ac Redemptor,[88] decreeing:


Having further considered that the said Company of Jesus can no longer produce those abundant fruits, ... in the present case, we are determining upon the fate of a society classed among the mendicant orders, both by its institute and by its privileges; after a mature deliberation, we do, out of our certain knowledge, and the fulness of our apostolical power, suppress and abolish the said company: we deprive it of all activity whatever. ...And to this end a member of the regular clergy, recommendable for his prudence and sound morals, shall be chosen to preside over and govern the said houses; so that the name of the Company shall be, and is, for ever extinguished and suppressed.

The suppression was carried out in all countries except Prussia and Russia, where Catherine the Great had forbidden its promulgation. Because millions of Catholics (including many Jesuits) lived in the Polish provinces recently annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, the society was able to maintain its existence and carry on its work all through the period of suppression. Subsequently, Pope Pius VI would grant formal permission for the continuation of the society in Russia and Poland, with Stanislaus Czerniewicz elected superior of the society in 1782. Pope Pius VII had resolved during his captivity in France to restore the Jesuits universally, and after his return to Rome he did so with little delay. On 7 August 1814, by the bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, he reversed the suppression of the society, and therewith another Polish Jesuit, Thaddeus Brzozowski, who had been elected to Superior in Russia in 1805, acquired universal jurisdiction.

The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities established in the 19th century. In the United States, 22 of the society's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits during this time. It has been suggested that the experience of suppression served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits upon restoration. While this claim is debatable, Jesuits were generally supportive of papal authority within the church, and some members were associated with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870.

In Switzerland, following the defeat of the Sonderbund Catholic defense alliance, the constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in 1848. The ban was lifted on 20 May 1973, when 54.9 per cent of voters accepted a referendum modifying the Constitution.[89]
Early 20th century[edit]

In the Constitution of Norway from 1814, a relic from the earlier anti-Catholic laws of Denmark-Norway, Paragraph 2 originally read: "The Evangelical-Lutheran religion remains the public religion of the State. Those inhabitants, who confess thereto, are bound to raise their children to the same. Jesuits and monastic orders are not permitted. Jews are still prohibited from entry to the Realm." Jews were first allowed into the realm in 1851 after the famous Norwegian poet Henrik Wergeland had campaigned for it. Monastic orders were permitted in 1897, but the ban on Jesuits was only lifted in 1956.[90]

Republican Spain in the 1930s passed laws banning the Jesuits on grounds that they were obedient to a power different from the state. Pope Pius XI wrote about this: "It was an expression of a soul deeply hostile to God and the Catholic religion, to have disbanded the Religious Orders that had taken a vow of obedience to an authority different from the legitimate authority of the State. In this way it was sought to do away with the Society of Jesus – which can well glory in being one of the soundest auxiliaries of the Chair of Saint Peter – with the hope, perhaps, of then being able with less difficulty to overthrow in the near future, the Christian faith and morale in the heart of the Spanish nation, which gave to the Church of God the grand and glorious figure of Ignatius Loyola."[91]
Post–Vatican II[edit]

The 20th century witnessed both growth and decline. Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have declined steadily since. Meanwhile, the number of Jesuit institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to a post–Vatican II focus on the establishment of Jesuit secondary schools in inner-city areas and an increase in voluntary lay groups inspired in part by the Spiritual Exercises. Among the notable Jesuits of the 20th century, John Courtney Murray was called one of the "architects of the Second Vatican Council" and drafted what eventually became the council's endorsement of religious freedom, Dignitatis humanae.

In Latin America, the Jesuits had significant influence in the development of liberation theology, a movement that was controversial in the Catholic community after the negative assessment of it by Pope John Paul II in 1984.[92]

Under Superior General Pedro Arrupe, social justice and the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant themes of the work of the Jesuits. When Arrupe was paralyzed by a stroke in 1981, Pope John Paul II, not entirely pleased with the progressive turn of the Jesuits, took the unusual step of appointing the venerable and aged Paolo Dezza for an interim to oversee "the authentic renewal of the Church",[93] instead of the progressive American priest Vincent O'Keefe whom Arrupe had preferred.[94] In 1983 John Paul gave leave for the Jesuits to appoint a successor to Arrupe.

On 16 November 1989, six Jesuit priests (Ignacio Ellacuría, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martín-Baró, Joaquin López y López, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado López), Elba Ramos their housekeeper, and Celia Marisela Ramos her daughter, were murdered by the Salvadoran military on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador, because they had been labeled as subversives by the government.[95] The assassinations galvanized the society's peace and justice movements, including annual protests at the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation at Fort Benning, Georgia, United States, where several of the assassins had been trained under US government sponsorship.[96]

On 21 February 2001, the Jesuit priest Avery Dulles, an internationally known author, lecturer, and theologian, was created a cardinal of the Catholic Church by Pope John Paul II. The son of former Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, Avery Dulles was long known for his carefully reasoned argumentation and fidelity to the teaching office of the church. An author of 22 books and over 700 theological articles, Dulles died on 12 December 2008 at Fordham University, where he had taught for twenty years as the Laurence J. McGinley Professor of Religion and Society. He was, at his passing, one of ten Jesuit cardinals in the Catholic Church.

In 2002, Boston College president and Jesuit priest William P. Leahy initiated the Church in the 21st Century program as a means of moving the church "from crisis to renewal". The initiative has provided the society with a platform for examining issues brought about by the worldwide Catholic sex abuse cases, including the priesthood, celibacy, sexuality, women's roles, and the role of the laity.[97]

Visit of Pope Benedict XVI to the Jesuit-run Pontifical Gregorian University

In April 2005, Thomas J. Reese, editor of the American Jesuit weekly magazine America, resigned at the request of the society. The move was widely published in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such as HIV/AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality, and the right of life for the unborn. Following his resignation, Reese spent a year-long sabbatical at Santa Clara University before being named a fellow at the Woodstock Theological Center in Washington, D.C., and later Senior Analyst for the National Catholic Reporter. President Barack Obama appointed him to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom in 2014 and again in 2016.[98]

On 2 February 2006, Peter Hans Kolvenbach informed members of the Society of Jesus that, with the consent of Pope Benedict XVI, he intended to step down as Superior General in 2008, the year he would turn 80.

On 22 April 2006, Feast of Our Lady, Mother of the Society of Jesus, Pope Benedict XVI greeted thousands of Jesuits on pilgrimage to Rome, and took the opportunity to thank God "for having granted to your Company the gift of men of extraordinary sanctity and of exceptional apostolic zeal such as St Ignatius of Loyola, St Francis Xavier, and Bl Peter Faber." He said "St Ignatius of Loyola was above all a man of God, who gave the first place of his life to God, to his greater glory and his greater service. He was a man of profound prayer, which found its center and its culmination in the daily Eucharistic Celebration."[99]

In May 2006, Benedict XVI also wrote a letter to Superior General Peter Hans Kolvenbach on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Pope Pius XII's encyclical Haurietis aquas, on devotion to the Sacred Heart, because the Jesuits have always been "extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion".[100] In his 3 November 2006 visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, Benedict XVI cited the university as "one of the greatest services that the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church".[101]

The 35th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus convened on 5 January 2008 and elected Adolfo Nicolás as the new Superior General on 19 January 2008. In a letter to the Fathers of the Congregation, Benedict XVI wrote:[102]


As my Predecessors have said to you on various occasions, the Church needs you, relies on you and continues to turn to you with trust, particularly to reach those physical and spiritual places which others do not reach or have difficulty in reaching. Paul VI's words remain engraved on your hearts: "Wherever in the Church, even in the most difficult and extreme fields, at the crossroads of ideologies, in the social trenches, there has been and there is confrontation between the burning exigencies of man and the perennial message of the Gospel, here also there have been, and there are, Jesuits" (Address to the 32nd General Congregation of the Jesuits, 3 December 1974; ORE, 12 December, n. 2, p. 4.)

Pope Francis, the first Jesuit pope

In 2013, Jesuit Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio became Pope Francis. Before he became Pope, he was appointed bishop when he was in "virtual estrangement from the Jesuits" since he was seen as "an enemy of liberation theology" and viewed by others as "still far too orthodox", trying to protect Jesuits but not approving of their participation in violent groups.[103][104][105] Once elected, there was an immediate reconciliation, and Pope Francis has been bringing the Jesuit simplicity, love for the poor, and service of the flock into the papacy.[103]

On 2 October 2016, General Congregation 36 convened in Rome, convoked by Superior General Adolfo Nicolás, who had announced his intention to resign at age 80.[106][107][108]On 14 October, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Arturo Sosa, a Venezuelan, as its thirty-first Superior General.[109]

The General Congregation of Jesuits who elected Arturo Sosa in 2016 asked him to bring to completion the process of discerning Jesuit priorities for the time ahead. Sosa devised a two-year plan that enlisted all Jesuits and their lay collaborators in the process. Then in February 2019 he presented the results of the discernment, a list of four priorities for Jesuit ministries for the next ten years.1. To show the way to God through discernment and the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola;2. To walk with the poor, the outcasts of the world, those whose dignity has been violated, in a mission of reconciliation and justice;3. To accompany young people in the creation of a hope-filled future;4. To collaborate in the care of our Common Home.

Pope Francis gave his approval to these priorities, saying that they are in harmony with the Church's present priorities and with the programmatic letter of his pontificate, Evangelii gaudium.[110]
Ignatian spirituality[edit]
Main article: Ignatian spirituality

The spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian spirituality, ultimately based on the Catholic faith and the gospels, is drawn from the Constitutions, The Letters, and Autobiography, and most specially from Ignatius' Spiritual Exercises, whose purpose is "to conquer oneself and to regulate one's life in such a way that no decision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment." The Exercises culminate in a contemplationwhereby one develops a facility to "find God in all things."
Formation[edit]
Main article: Jesuit formation

The formation (training) of Jesuits seeks to prepare men spiritually, academically, and practically for the ministries they will be called to offer the church and world. Ignatius was strongly influenced by the Renaissance, and he wanted Jesuits to be able to offer whatever ministries were most needed at any given moment and, especially, to be ready to respond to missions (assignments) from the pope. Formation for priesthood normally takes between eight and fourteen years, depending on the man's background and previous education, and final vows are taken several years after that, making Jesuit formation among the longest of any of the religious orders.
Government of the society[edit]

The society is headed by a Superior General with the formal title Praepositus Generalis, Latin for "provost-general", more commonly called Father General or General. He is elected by the General Congregation for life or until he resigns; he is confirmed by the Pope and has absolute authority in running the society. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is the Venezuelan Arturo Sosa who was elected on 14 October 2016.[111]

The Father General is assisted by "assistants", four of whom are "assistants for provident care" and serve as general advisors and a sort of inner council, and several other regional assistants, each of whom heads an "assistancy", which is either a geographic area (for instance the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry (for instance higher education). The assistants normally reside with Father General in Rome and along with others form an advisory council to the General. A vicar general and secretary of the society run day-to-day administration. The General is also required to have an admonitor, a confidential advisor whose task is to warn the General honestly and confidentially when he might be acting imprudently or contrary to the church's magisterium. The central staff of the General is known as the Curia.[111]

The society is divided into geographic provinces, each of which is headed by a Provincial Superior, generally called Father Provincial, chosen by the General. He has authority over all Jesuits and ministries in his area, and is assisted by a socius who acts as a sort of secretary and chief of staff. With the approval of the General, the provincial appoints a novice master and a master of tertians to oversee formation, and rectors of local communities of Jesuits.[112] For better cooperation and apostolic efficacy in each continent, the Jesuit provinces are grouped into six Jesuit Conferences worldwide.

Each Jesuit community within a province is normally headed by a rector who is assisted by a "minister", from the Latin for "servant", a priest who helps oversee the community's day-to-day needs.

The General Congregation is a meeting of all of the assistants, provincials, and additional representatives who are elected by the professed Jesuits of each province. It meets irregularly and rarely, normally to elect a new superior general and/or to take up some major policy issues for the Order. The General meets more regularly with smaller councils composed of just the provincials.
Habit and dress[edit]

Jesuits do not have an official habit. The society's Constitutions gives the following instructions: "The clothing too should have three characteristics: first, it should be proper; second, conformed to the usage of the country of residence; and third, not contradictory to the poverty we profess." (Const. 577)

Historically, a "Jesuit-style cassock" became "standard issue": it was wrapped around the body and was tied with a cincture, rather than the customary buttoned front. A tuftless biretta (only diocesan clergy wore tufts) and a ferraiolo (cape) completed the look.

Today, most Jesuits in the United States wear the clerical collar and black clothing of ordinary priests, although some still wear the black cassock.[113] Jesuits in tropical countries may use a white cassock when ministering outdoors.
Controversies[edit]
Power-seeking[edit]

The Monita Secreta (Secret Instructions of the Jesuits), published in 1612 and in 1614 in Kraków, is alleged to have been written by Claudio Acquaviva, the fifth general of the society, but was probably written by former Jesuit Jerome Zahorowski. It purports to describe the methods to be adopted by Jesuits for the acquisition of greater power and influence for the society and for the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Encyclopediastates the book is a forgery, fabricated to ascribe a sinister reputation to the Society of Jesus.[114]
Separation of church and state in the history of the Catholic Church

Overview[show]

Sovereignty and loyalty[show]

Documents[show]

Historical controversies[hide]

Constantinian shift
Society of Jesus § Political intrigue
Americanism
(heresy) § The American response

20th century topics[show]

Current topics[show]


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Political intrigue[edit]

The Jesuits were temporarily banished from France in 1594 after a man named Jean Châtel tried to assassinate the king of France, Henri IV. Under questioning, Châtel revealed that he had been educated by the Jesuits of the Collège de Clermont. The Jesuits were accused of inspiring Châtel's attack. Two of his former teachers were exiled and a third was hanged.[115] The Collège de Clermont was closed, and the building was confiscated. The Jesuits were banned from France, although this ban was quickly lifted.

In England, Henry Garnet, one of the leading English Jesuits, was hanged for misprision of treason because of his knowledge of the Gunpowder Plot (1605). The Plot was the attempted assassination of King James I of England and VI of Scotland, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in a single attack, by exploding the Houses of Parliament. Another Jesuit, Oswald Tesimond, managed to escape arrest for his involvement in this plot.[116]
Casuistic justification[edit]

Jesuits have been accused of using casuistry to obtain justifications for unjustifiable actions (cf. formulary controversy and Lettres Provinciales, by Blaise Pascal).[117] Hence, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of the English language lists "equivocating" as a secondary denotation of the word "Jesuit". Modern critics of the Society of Jesus include Avro Manhattan, Alberto Rivera, and Malachi Martin, the latter being the author of The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church (1987).[118]
Anti-Semitism[edit]

Although in the first 30 years of the existence of the Society of Jesus there were many Jesuits who were conversos (Catholic-convert Jews), an anti-converso faction led to the Decree de genere (1593) which proclaimed that either Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, was an insurmountable impediment for admission to the Society of Jesus.[119] This new rule was contrary to the original wishes of Ignatius who "said that he would take it as a special grace from our Lord to come from Jewish lineage."[120] The 16th-century Decree de genere remained in force until it was repealed in 1946.[b]
Theological debates[edit]

Within the Roman Catholic Church, there has existed a sometimes tense relationship between Jesuits and the Holy See due to questioning of official church teaching and papal directives, such as those on abortion,[123][124] birth control,[125][126][127][128] women deacons,[129] homosexuality, and liberation theology.[130][131] Usually, this theological free thinking is academically oriented, being prevalent at the university level. From this standpoint, the function of this debate is less to challenge the magisterium than to publicize the results of historical research or to illustrate the church's ability to compromise in a pluralist society based on shared values that do not always align with religious teachings.[132] However, others have questioned whether this 'free-thinking' is simply a revival of the opinion condemned by Pope St Pius X, according to which the Church does not have the right to pass judgement on the assertions of human sciences.[133] However, this has not prevented Popes from appointing Jesuits to powerful positions in the church. John Paul II and Benedict XVI together appointed ten Jesuit cardinals to notable jobs. Under Benedict, Archbishop Luis Ladaria Ferrer was Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and Federico Lombardi was Vatican Press Secretary.[134] The current Pope, Francis, is himself a Jesuit.
Child sexual abuse[edit]
Main article: Sexual abuse scandal in the Society of Jesus

Members of the Society of Jesus have been implicated in the Catholic Church sexual abuse cases.
Nazi persecution[edit]
Main article: Jesuits and Nazi Germany

The Catholic Church faced persecution in Nazi Germany. Hitler was anticlerical and had particular disdain for the Jesuits. According to John Pollard, the Jesuits' "ethos represented the most intransigent opposition to the philosophy of Nazism",[135] and so the Nazis considered them as one of their most dangerous enemies. A Jesuit college in the city of Innsbruck served as a center for anti-Nazi resistance and was closed down by the Nazis in 1938.[136] Jesuits were a target for Gestapo persecution, and many Jesuit priests were deported to concentration camps.[137] Jesuits made up the largest contingent of clergy imprisoned in the Priest Barracks of Dachau Concentration Camp.[138] Lapomarda lists some 30 Jesuits as having died at Dachau.[139] Of the total of 152 Jesuits murdered by the Nazis across Europe, 43 died in the concentration camps and an additional 27 died from captivity or its results.[140]

The Superior General of Jesuits at the outbreak of war was Wlodzimierz Ledochowski, a Pole. The Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland was particularly severe. Vincent Lapomarda wrote that Ledochowski helped "stiffen the general attitude of the Jesuits against the Nazis" and that he permitted Vatican Radio to carry on its campaign against the Nazis in Poland. Vatican Radio was run by the Jesuit Filippo Soccorsi and spoke out against Nazi oppression, particularly with regard to Poland and to Vichy-French anti-Semitism.[141]

Jesuit Alfred Delp, member of the Kreisau Circlethat operated within Nazi Germany; he was executed in February 1945.[142][verification needed]

Several Jesuits were prominent in the small German Resistance.[143] Among the central membership of the Kreisau Circle of the Resistance were the Jesuit priests Augustin Rösch, Alfred Delp, and Lothar König.[144] The Bavarian Jesuit Provincial, Augustin Rosch, ended the war on death row for his role in the July Plot to overthrow Hitler. Another non-military German Resistance group, dubbed the "Frau Solf Tea Party" by the Gestapo, included the Jesuit priest Friedrich Erxleben.[145] The German Jesuit Robert Leiber acted as intermediary between Pius XII and the German Resistance.[146][147]

Among the Jesuit victims of the Nazis, Germany's Rupert Mayer has been beatified. Mayer was a Bavarian Jesuit who clashed with the Nazis as early as 1923. Continuing his critique following Hitler's rise to power, Mayer was imprisoned in 1939 and sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp. As his health declined, the Nazis feared the creation of a martyr and sent him to the Abbey of Ettal in 1940. There he continued to give sermons and lectures against the evils of the Nazi régime, until his death in 1945.[148][149]
Rescue efforts during the Holocaust[edit]
Further information: Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust

In his history of the heroes of the Holocaust, the Jewish historian Martin Gilbert notes that in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews, and that the Jesuits were one of the Catholic Orders that hid Jewish children in monasteries and schools to protect them from the Nazis.[150][151] Fourteen Jesuit priests have been formally recognized by Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust of World War II: Roger Braun (1910–1981) of France;[152] Pierre Chaillet (1900–1972) of France;[153] Jean-Baptist De Coster (1896–1968) of Belgium;[154] Jean Fleury (1905–1982) of France;[155] Emile Gessler (1891–1958) of Belgium; Jean-Baptiste Janssens (1889–1964) of Belgium; Alphonse Lambrette (1884–1970) of Belgium; Emile Planckaert (1906–2006) of France; Jacob Raile (1894–1949) of Hungary; Henri Revol (1904–1992) of France; Adam Sztark (1907–1942) of Poland; Henri Van Oostayen (1906–1945) of Belgium; Ioannes Marangas (1901–1989) of Greece; and Raffaele de Chantuz Cubbe (1904–1983) of Italy.[156]

Several other Jesuits are known to have rescued or given refuge to Jews during that period.[157] A plaque commemorating the 152 Jesuit priests who gave their lives during the Holocaust was installed in April 2007 at the Jesuits' Rockhurst University in Kansas City, Missouri, United States.
In science[edit]
Main article: List of Jesuit scientists

Jesuit scholars in China. Top: Matteo Ricci, Adam Schall and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623–88); Bottom: Paul Siu (Xu Guangqi), Colao or Prime Minister of State, and his granddaughter Candide Hiu.

Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, the teaching of science in Jesuit schools, as laid down in the Ratio atque Institutio Studiorum Societatis Iesu ("The Official Plan of studies for the Society of Jesus") of 1599, was almost entirely based on the works of Aristotle.

The Jesuits, nevertheless, have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. For example, the Jesuits have dedicated significant study to earthquakes, and seismologyhas been described as "the Jesuit science".[158]The Jesuits have been described as "the single most important contributor to experimental physics in the seventeenth century."[159]According to Jonathan Wright in his book God's Soldiers, by the eighteenth century the Jesuits had "contributed to the development of pendulum clocks, pantographs, barometers, reflecting telescopes and microscopes – to scientific fields as various as magnetism, optics, and electricity. They observed, in some cases before anyone else, the colored bands on Jupiter's surface, the Andromeda nebula, and Saturn's rings. They theorized about the circulation of the blood (independently of Harvey), the theoretical possibility of flight, the way the moon affected the tides, and the wave-like nature of light."[160]

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy. One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography."[161] The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible."[162] Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China.
Notable members[edit]
Main article: List of Jesuits
See also: List of Jesuit theologians, Category:Jesuit philosophers, and List of Jesuit scientists

North American Martyrs

Notable Jesuits include missionaries, educators, scientists, artists, philosophers, and Pope Francis. Among many distinguished early Jesuits was Francis Xavier, a missionary to Asia who converted more people to Catholicism than anyone before, and Robert Bellarmine, a doctor of the Church. José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, founders of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, were Jesuit priests. Another famous Jesuit was Jean de Brébeuf, a French missionary who was martyred during the 17th century in what was once New France (now Ontario) in Canada.

In Spanish America, José de Acosta wrote a major work on early Peru and New Spain with important material on indigenous peoples. In South America, Peter Claver was notable for his mission to African slaves, building on the work of Alonso de Sandoval. Francisco Javier Clavijero was expelled from New Spainduring the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767 and wrote an important history of Mexico during his exile in Italy. Eusebio Kino is renowned in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico (an area then called the Pimeria Alta). He founded numerous missions and served as the peace-bringer between the tribes and the government of New Spain. Antonio Ruiz de Montoya was an important missionary in the Jesuit reductions of Paraguay.

Baltasar Gracián was a 17th-century Spanish Jesuit and baroque prose writer and philosopher. He was born in Belmonte, near Calatayud (Aragon). His writings, particularly El Criticón (1651–7) and Oráculo Manual y Arte de Prudencia ("The Art of Prudence", 1647) were lauded by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche.

In Scotland, John Ogilvie, a Jesuit, is the nation's only post-Reformation saint.

Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio of Argentina was elected Pope Francis on 13 March 2013 and is the first Jesuit to be elected pope.[163]

Gerard Manley Hopkins was one of the first English poets to use sprung verse. Anthony de Mello was a Jesuit priest and psychotherapist who became widely known for his books which introduced Westerners to the East Indian traditions of spirituality.

The Feast of All Jesuit Saints and Blesseds is celebrated on 5 November.[164]
Institutions[edit]
Educational institutions[edit]
See also: List of Jesuit educational institutions

Although the work of the Jesuits today embraces a wide variety of apostolates, ministries, and civil occupations, they are probably most well known for their educational work. Since the inception of the order, Jesuits have been teachers. Besides serving on the faculty of Catholic and secular schools, the Jesuits are the Catholic religious order with the second highest number of schools which they run: 168 tertiary institutions in 40 countries and 324 secondary schools in 55 countries. (The Brothers of the Christian Schools have over 560 Lasallian educational institutions.) They also run elementary schools at which they are less likely to teach. Many of the schools are named after Francis Xavier and other prominent Jesuits.

Jesuit educational institutions aim to promote the values of Eloquentia Perfecta. This is a Jesuit tradition that focuses on cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good.
Jesuit universities gallery




Fordham University, USA



University of Ingolstadt, Germany



St. Xavier's College, Mumbai, India



St. Xavier's College, Kolkata, India



Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan



University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain



Comillas Pontifical University, Spain



Fairfield University, USA



Georgetown University, USA



Boston College, USA



Loyola College, Chennai



Pontifical Gregorian U., Rome



St. Joseph University, Beirut



University of Pacific, Peru



Sogang University, Seoul



Université de Namur, Belgium



St. Mary's U., Halifax



Regis College, U. of Toronto



Loyola College Montreal



Pontifical Xaverian U., Bogota



Pontifical Catholic U., Ecuador



University of the Sinos Valley, Brazil
Social and development institutions[edit]

Since the Second Vatican Council and their own General Congregations which followed it, Jesuits have become increasingly involved in works directed primarily toward social and economic development for the poor and marginalized.[165] Included in this would be research, training, advocacy, and action for human development, as well as direct services. Most Jesuit schools have an office that fosters social awareness and social service in the classroom and through extracurricular programs, usually detailed on their websites. The Jesuits also run over 500 notable or stand-alone social or economic development centres in 56 countries around the world.

Since the Second Vatican Council, Jesuits have founded many schools with the special purpose of serving the poor or marginalized, as among the Dalits in India and the Cristo Rey Network in the United States.
Publications[edit]

The Sanctuary of Loyola in Azpeitia, Basque Country, Spain, the main Jesuit shrine in the birthplace of Ignatius of Loyola

Jesuits are also known for their involvement in publications. La Civiltà Cattolica, a periodical produced in Rome by the Jesuits, has often been used as a semi-official platform for popes and Vatican officials to float ideas for discussion or hint at future statements or positions. In the United States, America magazine has long had a prominent place in Catholic intellectual circles. Most Jesuit colleges and universities have their own presses which produce a variety of books, book series, textbooks, and academic publications. Ignatius Press, founded by a Jesuit, is an independent publisher of Catholic books, most of which are of the popular academic or lay-intellectual variety.

In Australia, the Jesuits produce a number of magazines, including Eureka Street, Madonna, Australian Catholics, and Province Express.

In Germany, the Jesuits publish Geist und Leben.

In Sweden the Catholic cultural magazine Signum, edited by the Newman Institute, covers a broad spectrum of issues concerning faith, culture, research, and society. The printed version of Signum is published eight times per year. In addition, there is an up-to-date website (www.signum.se) containing an article archive dating from 1975 to the present.
In popular culture[edit]
The character Father Mulcahy is a Jesuit priest in the novel, film, and TV show M*A*S*H franchise.
The character Damien Karras is a Jesuit priest from the book and film The Exorcist.
The Jesuits are the antagonists in the novel and TV miniseries Shōgun
The 1986 British drama film The Mission revolves around the experiences of a Jesuit missionary in 18th-century South America.
Antonio Banderas plays a Jesuit priest in the 2001 film The Body.
Édgar Ramírez plays a Jesuit priest in 2014 film Deliver Us from Evil.
The 2016 Martin Scorsese film Silence is based on two Jesuit priests who travel to Japan to spread Christianity.
The main protagonist in James Blish's 1958 novel A Case of Conscience is a Jesuit priest.
Aramis is made Superior General of the Jesuits in Alexandre Dumas' The Man in the Iron Mask (1850).
Mary Doria Russell's 1996 novel The Sparrow follows a Jesuit space mission to make contact with a newfound planet; the majority of the characters are Jesuits.
Angelo Cardinal Mennoni is the head of the Society of Jesus in A. J. Quinnell's 1987 novel The Name of the Father.
In James Joyce's semi-autobiographical 1916 novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, the novel's protagonist, Stephen Dedalus, is educated in Jesuit schools.
See also[edit]

Catholicism portal

Ad maiorem Dei gloriam
Apostleship of Prayer
Bollandist
Canadian Indian residential school system
Jesuit conspiracy theories
Jesuit Ivy
Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos
Jesuits and Nazi Germany
List of Jesuit buildings
List of saints of the Society of Jesus
Misiones Province
Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu
Pontifical university
Roman Catholicism in China
Roman Catholicism in Japan
Sexual abuse scandal in the Society of Jesus
Notes[edit]

^ Spanish: "todo el que quiera militar para Dios".[3]
^ Jesuit scholar John Padberg states that the restriction on Jewish/Muslim converts was limited only to the degree of parentage. Fourteen years later this was extended back to the fifth degree. Over time the restriction relating to Muslim ancestry was dropped.[121] In 1923, the 27th Jesuit General Congregation specified that "The impediment of origin extends to all who are descended from the Jewish race, unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church." In 1946, the 29th General Congregation dropped the requirement but still called for "cautions to be exercised before admitting a candidate about whom there is some doubt as to the character of his hereditary background." Robert Aleksander Maryks interprets the 1593 "Decree de genere" as preventing, despite Ignatius' desires, any Jewish or Muslim conversos and, by extension, any person with Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, from admission to the Society of Jesus.[122]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]

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^ (in Spanish) See Fórmula del Instituto on Google Books.
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^ "The American Catholic quarterly review". archive.org. Philadelphia : Hardy and Mahony. p. 244. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
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^ Parker 1978, p. 26.
^ Hobson 2004, pp. 194–195; Parker 1978, p. 26.
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^ Ott, Michael (1913), "Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon", Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XV, New York: Encyclopedia Press.
^ Mungello 1994.
^ Devine 1925, p. 1.
^ Devine 1925, p. 3.
^ Paquin 1932, p. 29.
^ Devine 1925, p. 5.
^ Delaney & Nicholls 1989, p. 1.
^ Delaney & Nicholls 1989, p. 2.
^ Kennedy 1950, p. 42.
^ Jump up to:a b Delaney & Nicholls 1989, p. 3.
^ Carpenter 2004, p. 61.
^ Jump up to:a b Kennedy 1950, p. 43.
^ "First Nations Culture Areas Index". the Canadian Museum of Civilization.
^ Kennedy 1950, p. 46.
^ Kennedy 1950, p. 49.
^ Kennedy 1950, p. 53.
^ The Provincial Statutes of Canada: anno undecimo et duodecimo Victoriae Reginae(Montreal: Stewart Derbishire and George Desbarats, 1848), pp. 1483, 1484
^ Jesuits at thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
^ Jump up to:a b c d Brading 1991, p. 242.
^ Konrad 1980.
^ Cline 1997, p. 250.
^ Van Handel 1991.
^ Carlos María de Bustamante, Los tres siglos de México durante el gobierno español, hasta la entrada del ejército trigarante. Obra escrita en Roma por el P. Andrés Cavo, de la Compañía de Jesús; publicada con notas y suplemento. 4 vols. Mexico 1836–38.
^ Warren 1973, p. 84.
^ Diego Luis de Motezuma, Corona mexicana, o historia de los Motezumas, por el Padre Diego Luis de Motezuma de la Compañía de Jesús. Madrid 1914.
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^ Brading 1991, pp. 167–169.
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^ Müller et al. 2000.
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^ Benedict XVI (3 November 2006). "Address of his Holiness Benedict XVI—Visit of the Holy Father to the Pontifical Gregorian University". Retrieved 23 October 2007.
^ "To the Fathers of the General Congregation of the Society of Jesus (February 21, 2008) | BENEDICT XVI". w2.vatican.va. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
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^ Gerard 1911.
^ Voltaire (1769), "XXXI", Histoire du Parlement de Paris, Châtel fut écartelé, le jésuite Guignard fut pendu; et ce qui est bien étrange, Jouvency, dans son Histoire des Jésuites, le regarde comme un martyr et le compare à Jésus-Christ. Le régent de Châtel, nommé Guéret, et un autre jésuite, nommé Hay, ne furent condamnés qu’à un bannissement perpétuel.
^ Fraser 2005, p. 448.
^ Nelson 1981, p. 190.
^ see Malachi Martin (1987) The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church, Simon & Schuster, Linden Press, New York, 1987, ISBN 0-671-54505-1
^ Rosa, De La; Coello, Alexandre (1932). "El Estatuto de Limpieza de Sangre de la Compañía de Jesús (1593) y su influencia en el Perú Colonial". Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu. Institutum Societatis Iesu: 45–93. ISSN 0037-8887. Archived from the original on 26 October 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2012.
^ Reites 1981, p. 17.
^ Padberg 1994, p. 204.
^ Maryks 2010, p. xxviii.
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^ "Lamentabili sane, 5".
^ Thavis, John (8 September 2006). "'Sala Stampa' style change: From toreador to low-key mathematician". Catholic News Service. Archived from the original on 5 October 2009. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
^ Pollard 2006, p. 357.
^ Pollard 2006, p. 356.
^ Pollard 2006, p. 356–357.
^ Lapomarda 2005, pp. 140–141.
^ Lapomarda 2005, appx. A.
^ Lapomarda 2005, p. 33, appx. A.
^ Lapomarda 2005, pp. 266–267.
^ Anton Gill; An Honourable Defeat; A History of the German Resistance to Hitler; Heinemann; London; 1994; p. 264.
^ Lapomarda 2005, p. 33.
^ Peter Hoffmann; The History of the German Resistance 1933–1945; 3rd Edn (First English Edn); McDonald & Jane's; London; 1977; p. 33.
^ Shirer 1960, pp. 1025–1026.
^ Peter Hoffmann; The History of the German Resistance 1933–1945; 3rd Edn (First English Edn); McDonald & Jane's; London; 1977; p. 160
^ Shirer 1960, pp. 648–649.
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^ Braun Roger (1910–1981); Yad Vashem
^ Chaillet Pierre (1900–1972); Yad Vashem
^ De Coster, Father Jean-Baptiste; Yad Vashem
^ Fleury Jean (1905–1982); Yad Vashem
^ Vincent A. Lapomarda, The Jesuits and the Third Reich (Edward Mellen Press, 1989).
^ "Hiatt Holocaust Collection". Holycross.edu. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
^ Hough 2007, p. 68.
^ Ashworth 1986, p. 154.
^ Wright 2004, p. 200.
^ Ebrey 2010, p. 212.
^ Woods 2005, p. 101.
^ Ivereigh 2014, pp. 1–2.
^ "November 5: Feast of all Jesuit Saints and Blessed | European Tertianship". tertianship.eu. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
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Further reading[edit]

• Surveys[edit]
• Bangert, William V. A History of the Society of Jesus (2nd ed. 1958) 552 pp.
• Barthel, Manfred. Jesuits: History & Legend of the Society of Jesus (1984) 347 pp. online free
• Chapple, Christopher. Jesuit Tradition in Education & Missions: A 450-Year Perspective (1993), 290 pp.
• Mitchell, David. Jesuits: A History (1981) 320 pp.
• Molina, J. Michelle. To Overcome Oneself: The Jesuit Ethic and Spirit of Global Expansion, 1520–1767 (2013) online
• O'Malley, John W. The Jesuits: A History from Ignatius to the Present (2014), 138 pp
• Worcester, Thomas. ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits (2008), to 1773
• Wright, Jonathan. God's Soldiers: Adventure, Politics, Intrigue & Power: A History of the Jesuits (2004) 368 pp online free
• Specialized studies[edit]
• Alden, Dauril. Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, Its Empire & Beyond, 1540–1750 (1996) 707pp
• Brockey, Liam Matthew. Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724(2007) 496 pp.
• Brodrick James (1940). The Origin of the Jesuits. Originally Published Longmans Green. ISBN 9780829409307., Special Edition Published 1997 by Loyola University Press, US - ISBN 0829409300
• Brodrick, James. Saint Francis Xavier (1506–1552) (1952).
• Brodrick, James. Saint Ignatius Loyola: The Pilgrim Years 1491–1538 (1998)
• Burson, Jeffrey D. and Jonathan Wright, eds. The Jesuit Suppression in Global Context: Causes, Events, and Consequences (Cambridge UP, 2015) 297.pp
• Bygott, Ursula M. L. With Pen & Tongue: The Jesuits in Australia, 1865–1939 (1980) 423 pp.
• Dalmases, Cándido de. Ignatius of Loyola, Founder of the Jesuits: His Life & Work(1985) 362 pp.
• Caraman, Philip. Ignatius Loyola: A Biography of the Founder of the Jesuits (1990), 222 pp.
• Edwards, Francis. Jesuits in England from 1580 to the Present Day (1985) 333 pp.
• Edwards, Francis. Robert Persons: The Biography of an Elizabethan Jesuit, 1546–1610 (1995) 411 pp.
• Healy, Róisin. Jesuit Specter in Imperial Germany (2003) 263 pp.
• Höpfl, Harro. Jesuit Political Thought: The Society of Jesus & the State, c. 1540–1640(2004) 406 pp.
• Hsia, Ronnie Po-chia. "Jesuit Foreign Missions. A Historiographical Essay." Journal of Jesuit Studies(2014) 1#1 pp: 47–65.
• Kaiser, Robert Blair. Inside the Jesuits: How Pope Francis is Changing the Church and the World (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014)
• Klaiber, Jeffrey. The Jesuits in Latin America: 1549–2000:: 450 Years of Inculturation, Defense of Human Rights, and Prophetic Witness. St Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources 2009.
• Lapomarda, Vincent A., The Catholic Bishops of Europe and the Nazi Persecutions of Catholics and Jews, The Edwin Mellen Press (2012)
• McCoog, Thomas M., ed. Mercurian Project: Forming Jesuit Culture: 1573–1580(2004) 992 pp.; 30 advanced essays by scholars
• Martin, A. Lynn. Jesuit Mind. The Mentality of an Elite in Early Modern France (1988) 256 pp.
• O'Malley, John. "The Society of Jesus." in R. Po-chia Hsia, ed., A Companion to the Reformation World (2004) pp. 223–36.
• O'Malley, John W. ed. Saints or Devils Incarnate? Studies in Jesuit History (2013) 312 pp
• Parkman, Francis (1867). The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century(PDF). p. 637.
• Pomplun, Trent. "Jesuit on the Roof of the World: Ippolito Desideri's Mission to Tibet." Oxford University Press (2010).
• Roberts, Ian D. Harvest of Hope: Jesuit Collegiate Education in England, 1794–1914(1996) 253 pp.
• Ronan, Charles E. and Bonnie B. C. Oh, eds. East Meets West: The Jesuits in China, 1582–1773 (1988), 332 pp.
• Ross, Andrew C. Vision Betrayed: The Jesuits in Japan & China, 1542–1742 (1994) 216 pp.
• Santich, Jan Joseph. Missio Moscovitica: The Role of the Jesuits in the Westernization of Russia, 1582–1689 (1995) 255 pp.
• Wright, Jonathan. "From Immolation to Restoration: The Jesuits, 1773–1814." Theological Studies (2014) 75#4 pp. 729–745.
• United States[edit]
• Cushner, Nicholas P. Soldiers of God: The Jesuits in Colonial America, 1565–1767(2002) 402 pp.
• Garraghan, Gilbert J. The Jesuits Of The Middle United States (3 vol 1938) covers Midwest from 1800 to 1919 vol 1 online, ; vol 2; vol 3
• McDonough, Peter. Men astutely trained : a history of the Jesuits in the American century (1994), covers 1900 to 1960s; online free
• Schroth, Raymond A. The American Jesuits: A History (2009)

Primary sources[edit]
Desideri, Ippolito. "Mission to Tibet: The Extraordinary Eighteenth-Century Account of Father Ippolito Desideri." Translated by Michael J. Sweet. Edited by Leonard Zwilling. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2010.
Donnelly, John Patrick, ed. Jesuit Writings of the Early Modern Period: 1540–1640(2006)

In German[edit]
Klaus Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 1: 1814–1872 Münster: Aschendorff Verlag, 2013. XXX, 274 S. ISBN 978-3-402-12964-7. online review
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 2: 1872–1917
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 3: 1917–1945
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 4: 1945–1983
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 5: Quellen, Glossar, Biogramme, Gesamtregister
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Society of Jesus.

Catholic Church documents[edit]
Benedict XVI's Address to the Members of the Society of Jesus, 22 April 2006
Benedict XVI's Visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, 3 November 2006
Jesuit documents[edit]
The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum of 1599
[permanent dead link] The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan, 1591–1610[permanent dead link]
Letter of the Jesuit Social Justice Secretariat to the leaders of the G8, July 2005
The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola
Other links[edit]
The Jesuits, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Nigel Aston, Simon Ditchfield & Olwen Hutton (In Our Time, 18 January 2007)
"The Jesuit Curia in Rome". Retrieved 2 April 2012.
"Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu – Jesuit Archive in Rome". Retrieved 2 July2013.
"Society of Jesus" section of Wikisource's Roman Catholicism portal.
Archives of Jezuïeten - Belgische (1832-1935) En Vlaamse (1935-) Provincie. 16de Eeuw-2012 in ODIS - Online Database for Intermediary Structures